EXERCISE 3

*maam we will send this exercise tomorrow. We had a misunderstanding in the distribution of
works*

EXERCISE 4
1. Explain why the oomycotans are placed in protista or Chromista?
- Oomycotans were once classified as fungi, because of their filamentous growth, and because
they feed on decaying matter like fungi however their cell wall is not composed of chitin, as in
the fungi, but is made up of a mix of cellulosic compounds and glycan. Omycotans then was
placed under protista/chromista for their morphology of being unicellular microorganisms.

2. What advantages and Disadvantages to a fungus is the production of only conidia or

zoosporangia?
- Zoospores are motile and can propagate to new areas, where as for conidiospores are non-
motile can only detach itself after maturing.

3. Sequence Peronosclarospora, pythium, achlya, dictyuchus, aphanomyces,and albugo to

exemplify the trend in oomycotafrom dimosphism-diplnetism, to dimorphism-monoplanetism,
to aplenetism and formation of asexual aplanospores. Aphanomyces, Achlya, & Dictyuchus show
trends of dimorphic-diplanetism while Peronosclarospora exhibits dimorphic and
monoplanetism trend.

5. The combination of cellulose cell wall, biflatellated zoospores, one flagellum of the tinsel type
and the other of the whiplash type, and gametangial copulation are characteristics that are
shared with some members of the algal divisions Phaeophyta and Chrysophyta.

EXERCISE 5
1. Basidiobolus spp are a microscopic spore-producing fungus which inhabits decaying leaf litter
and the feces of frogs and small reptiles. Dogs are thought to become infected from ingesting or
inhaling spores while foraging, through skin wounds or when eating small amphibians and
reptiles. Basidiobolus are an opportunistic pathogen that causes infections characterized by
granulomatous lesions in the subcutaneous tissues as well as in the intestinal wall and respiratory
tract.
2. Some fungi require the presence of thalli of different mating types in order for sexual fusion
to take place. The simplest form of this mechanism occurs in fungi in which there are two mating
types, often designated + and . Gametes produced by one type of thallus are compatible only
with gametes produced by the other type. Such fungi are said to be heterothallic. It promotes
mating of two genetically different organisms and it leads to variations and prepares the fungi to
adapt to unfavorable circumstances. Thus heterothallic species are those which require mycelia
of two different strains to interact to enable the zygospores to be formed.
3. Spore release in Pilobolus is also explosive discharge by a bursting cell. Instead of a single spore
being discharged, a sticky mass containing many spores is discharged as a single unit. The spore
mass shoots away at 35 feet per second (10.8 m per second) to a height of six feet (2 m), and
lands as far away as 8 feet while in B. runarum the discharge mechanisms in this fungi are
powered by the same levels of pressure that are characteristic of the cells that make up the
feeding colonies of fungi. Therefore, the long flights enjoyed by spores result not from unusually
high pressure, but from the way in which explosive pressure loss is linked to the propulsion of
the spores. There appear to be some similarities between the escape of the spores and the
expulsion of ink droplets through nozzles on inkjet printers.
4. A sporangium is a sac or a bag where the spores of an organism are produced or contained. A
sporangium that contains only a single spore or a small amount of spores is called a sporangiolum.
A merosporangium is one of the cylindrical outgrowths developing from the swollen sporangium
tip in various fungi while a conidium is a type of asexual, non-motile, reproductive spore of fungis.
5. What are the agencies for the dispersal of sporangiospores and conidia?
- Asexual spores (conidia) and sexual spores or sporangiospores are dispersed by forcible ejection
from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive
structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Agents such as the winds,
water, and insects also help in dispersal and several different mechanisms have evolved to make
"puffballs" to disperse spores.

EXERCISE 6
1. The last group of fungi we will be discussing is the Deuteromycota. Because members of this
group lack a sexual stage, they are often referred to as imperfect fungi ( or formally the Fungi
Imperfecti). Deuteromycota is referred to as form-phylum because the divisions within the group
are based on morphology and not on common phylogenetic background. It is thus considered an
artificial grouping. There are approximately 17,000 species in this form-phylum but this number
is continuously decreasing as more of the teleomorphic stages are being associated with the
anamorphic stages. In addition, molecular methods are being used to elucidate the relatedness
of the different fungal species in this group. Most Deuteromycota have a well-developed, septate
mycelium with distinct conidiophores but some have a unicellular thallus. With the exception of
one group, all members reproduce by means of special spores known as conidia. A few imperfect
fungi lack conidia and form only sclerotia. There is a tremendous variety of morphologically
different conidia produced in the form- phylum Deuteromycota. Conidia may be spherical, ovoid,
elongated, star-shaped and so on. They may be one-celled to many-celled, with either transverse
septa or both transverse and longitudinal septa. In addition, conidia may be hyaline or colored.
These conidial characteristics are the basis for the artificial classification. Members of this group
are mostly saprobes, but some are parasitic on plants and animals, including man.
2. Given an ostiolate fruiting body, shaped like a flask, how would you know if it is a pycnidium
or a perithecium? A pycnidium is a chamber, lined with conidiophores, within the fruiting body.
The spores escape through a hole, or ostiole, that leads to the outside world, much as in a
perithecium. The are actually very much alike except that one produces condia and the other
produces sexual ascospores.
3. The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a single-celled haploid organism that
reproduces asexually by mitosis and fission. However, exposure to the DNA damaging agent
hydrogen peroxide induces pair-wise mating of haploid cells of opposite mating type to form
transient diploid cells that then undergo meiosis to form asci, each with four ascospores.[1] wheli
in fungi like cooleina The eight spores are produced by meiosis followed by a mitotic division.
Two meiotic divisions turn the original diploid zygote nucleus into four haploid ones. That is, the
single original diploid cell from which the whole process begins contains two complete sets
of chromosomes. In preparation for meiosis, all the DNA of both sets is duplicated, to make a
total of four sets. The nucleus that contains the four sets divides twice, separating into four new
nuclei each of which has one complete set of chromosomes. Following this process, each of the
four new nuclei duplicates its DNA and undergoes a division by mitosis. As a result, the ascus will
contain four pairs of spores.
4. Homokaryotic mycelium is found in hyphal cells of filamentous fungi and is used to refer to
multinucleate cells where all nuclei are genetically identical while heterokaryotic is used to refer
to multinucleate cells where all nuclei are different.

EXERCISE 7
1. Heterokaryosis. The presence in the same cell of two or more genetically different nuclei.
Heterokaryosis occurs naturally in certain fungi, in which it results from the fusion of the
cytoplasm of cells from different strains without the fusion of their nuclei. The cell, and
the hypha or mycelium containing it, is known as a heterokaryon; the most common type
of heterokaryon is a dikaryon

2. The sexual reproduction phase of the club fungi involves three developmental stages of
the mycelium. In the primary stage, a haploid spore germinates and grows a germ tube,
which develops into mycelium. The mycelium initially contains a single haploid nucleus.
Then, its haploid nucleus divides and septa form between the nuclei. Meaning a single
basidiospoere cannot create a basidiocarp because it is only a haploid and needs another
haploid to complete its genetic requirements.
3. Spores can be produced by a range of organisms, including certain bacteria, fungi, algae,
and nonflowering plants. They have in common that they are all asexual reproductive
structures with resistance to environmental conditions, such a drought, temperature
extremes, and/or seasonal lack of nutrients. So "spores" is a morphological/functional
term that's not restricted to mycology.
Conidia (singuar: condidium) are nonmotile spores produced by several fungal phyla:
Ascomycota, Basidiomycota (e.g. smuts), i.e. the "higher fungi", but also other phyla, such
as some Zygomycotina.
Either can be multicellular, although unicellular ones are far more common.
4. Give examples of poisonous mushrooms.
Perhaps the deadliest of all mushrooms, the death cap is found throughout Europe
and closely resembles edible straw mushrooms and caesars mushrooms. Its heat-
stable amatoxins withstand cooking temperatures and quickly damage cells
throughout the body. Within 6 to 12 hours after consumption, violent abdominal
pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea appear, causing rapid loss of fluid from the
tissues and intense thirst. Signs of severe involvement of the liver, kidneys, and
central nervous system soon follow, including a decrease in urinary output and a
lowering of blood sugar. This condition leads to coma and death in more than 50
percent of the incidents.
onocybe filaris is an innocent-looking lawn mushroom that is especially common
in the Pacific Northwest. Featuring the same mycotoxins as the death cap
mushroom, C. filaris is potentially fatal if eaten. The onset of gastrointestinal
symptoms often occurs 6-24 hours after the mushrooms were consumed,
frequently leading to an initial misdiagnosis of food poisoning or the stomach flu.
The patient may appear to recover, only to suffer from a life-threatening
reappearance of the gastrointestinal distress, coupled with liver and kidney
failure.
The two species of webcap, the deadly webcap (Cortinarius rubellus) and the fools
webcap (Cortinarius orellanus), are very similar in appearance to both each other
and to a number of edible varieties. These mushrooms feature a poison known as
orellanin, which initially causes symptoms similar to the common flu. Orellanin has
an insidiously long latency period and may take 2 days to 3 weeks to cause
symptoms, often leading to a misdiagnosis. The toxin ultimately causes kidney
failure and death if left untreated.
Common throughout the Northern Hemisphere and parts of Australia, Galerina
marginata is a gilled, wood-rotting mushroom with the same amatoxins as the
death cap mushroom. Ingestion causes diarrhea, vomiting, hypothermia, and liver
damage, and can result in death if left untreated. While it is not especially similar
to edible species, several deaths and poisonings have been attributed to collectors
mistaking the autumn skullcap for hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms.
 5. The sporocarp of a basidiomycete is known as a basidiocarp, while the fruiting body of an
ascomycete is known as an ascocarp. Mushroom is the common name given to the
fruiting bodies of many fungal species. Although these typically above-ground structures
are the most conspicuous to humans, they make up only a small portion of the entire
fungal body.

EXERCISE 8
1. A lichen is not a single organism, but the result of a partnership or a mutualistic symbiosis
between a fungus and an alga. They are classified as members of the Fungus Kingdom by
systematists because the fungus partner is always the major partner. After a lichen symbiosis is
established, the fungus has the greatest influence on the final form of the lichen bodys shape.
The algal cells are either scattered among the fungal hyphae, or arranged in a layer just below
the upper surface of the lichen.
2. The initial conversion of rock into soil is carried on by lichens and their successors. They enrich
the soil by trapping water, dust and silt. When lichens die they contribute organic matter to the
soil, improving the soil so that other plants can grow there.
3. It is because lichens are very sensitive to sulphur dioxide pollution in the air. Lichens are widely
used as environmental indicators. If air is very badly polluted with sulphur dioxide there may be
no lichens present.