VOLUMEN ESPECIAL 1 - 2014

ISSN 1850 373X

Contents

Volumen especial 1 - 2014

Qu tipo de ciencia contribuimos a construir? Estrategia editorial de Intersecciones en Antropologa 05

What kind of science are we contributing to produce? Editorial strategy of Intersecciones en Antropologa 09

Articles
Multi-service taphonomy. Shells, garbage, and floating palimpsests - L. A. Borrero 13

Taphonomic analysis of archaeomalacological assemblages: shell middens on the northern coast of Santa Cruz (Patagonia,
Argentina) - H. Hammond 21

Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the South-Central
Andes - M. P. Babot, J. Lund and A. V. Olmos 35

Post-depositional processes studies of wooden artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site (Patagonia, Argentina)
M. Grosso 55

Taphonomy of a village: the early 20th century site of Mariano Mir (Chapaleuf department, La Pampa, Argentina)
C. Landa, V. Pineau, E. Montanari and J. Doval 71

Trampling, taphonomy, and experiments with lithic artifacts in the southeastern Baguales Range (Santa Cruz, Argentina)
C. Balirn 85

Trampling fragmentation potential of lithic artifacts: an experimental approach - C. Weitzel, K. Borrazzo, A. Ceraso and
C. Balirn 97

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record

Guest editors
Karen Borrazzo and Celeste Weitzel
 | 1

Editorial Board
Intersecciones en Antropologa Special Issue 1 Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record

Editors in Chief
Mara A. Gutirrez, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia
de Buenos Aires (UNCPBA) Investigaciones Arqueolgicas y Paleontolgicas del Cuaternario
Pampeano (INCUAPA) Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas (CONICET)
Ramiro Barberena, CONICET, Laboratorio de Paleoecologa Humana,
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo.

Guest Editors
Karen Borrazzo, CONICET Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas (IMHICIHU),
Buenos Aires, Argentina. Facultad de Filosofa y Letras,
Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina (UBA).
Celeste Weitzel, CONICET rea Arqueologa y Antropologa, Museo Ciencias Naturales,
Municipalidad de Necochea, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Associate Editors
Mara Clara lvarez, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, INCUAPA, CONICET, UNCPBA.
Karen Borrazzo, IMHICIHU, CONICET, UBA.
Adolfo F. Gil, Museo de Historia Natural de San Rafael, CONICET.
Mariela Gonzlez, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, INCUAPA, CONICET, UNCPBA.
Agustina Massigoge, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, INCUAPA, CONICET, UNCPBA.
A. Francisco Zangrando, Centro Austral de Investigaciones Cientficas (CADIC), CONICET, UBA.

Editorial Advisory Comitee

Lszl Bartosiewic, School of History, Classics and Archaeology, The University
of Edinburgh. Edimburgo, Scotland. Etvs Lornd University, Hungary.
Robert L. Bettinger, Department of Anthropology, University of California. Davis, California, USA.
Guillaume Boccara, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique,
Lcole des Hautes tudes en Sciences Sociales (CNRSEHESS). Paris, France.
Luis. A. Borrero, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas - CONICET. Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Claudia Briones, Universidad Nacional de Ro Negro (UNRN) - CONICET. Bariloche, Ro Negro, Argentina.
Felipe Criado-Boado, Laboratorio de Patrimonio (LaPa), CSIC. Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
Magarita Daz-Andreu, ICREA - Universitat de Barcelona, Spain.
Tom D. Dillehay, Anthropology Department, Vanderbilt University. Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
Alejandro Grimson, Instituto de Altos Estudios Sociales, Universidad Nacional
de San Martn CONICET. San Martn, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Alejandro Isla, Programa Antropologa Social y Poltica de FLACSO CONICET.
Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Robert L. Kelly, Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming. Laramie, Wyoming, USA.
Alberto Mendona, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas,
Fsico-Qumicas y Naturales, UNRC - CONICET. Ro Cuarto, Crdoba, Argentina.
Walter Neves, Laboratorio de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, Departamento
de Gentica e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biocincias, Universidade de So Paulo. So Paulo, Brasil.
Gustavo Politis, INCUAPA-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, UNCPBA y
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, UNLP. Olavarra, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Calgero M. Santoro, Instituto de Alta Investigacin, Universidad de Tarapac. Arica, Chile.
Robin Torrence, The Australian Museum. Sydney, Australia.
Robert H. Tykot, Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida. Tampa, Florida, USA.
 2 |

English Revision
Raven Garvey, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, USA.

Reviewers of this special issue

Huw Barton, School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, United Kingdom.
Silvana Buscaglia, CONICET-Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas (IMHICIHU), Buenos Aires,
Argentina. Universidad de la Patagonia Austral Unidad Acadmica San Julin (UNPA-USAJ), Santa Cruz, Argentina.
Diego Carabias, Director of ARKA - Arqueologa Martima, Valparaso, Chile.
Marcelo Cardillo, CONICET-Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas (IMHICIHU), Buenos Aires,
Argentina. Facultad de Filosofa y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Gabriel Cocco, rea arqueologa, Departamento de Estudios Etnogrficos y Coloniales, Ministerio de Innovacin y Cultura
de la Provincia de Santa Fe, Argentina.
Kelly Dixon, Department of Anthropology, University of Montana, USA.
Catherine Dupont, CNRS Researcher, UMR 6566, CReAAH, Centre de Recherche en Archologie Archosciences Histoire,
Rennes, France.
Nora Flegenheimer, CONICET-rea Arqueologa y Antropologa, Museo Ciencias Naturales, Municipalidad de Necochea,
Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Irene Garibotti, CONICET- Instituto Argentino de Nivologa, Glaciologia y Ciencias Ambientales, Mendoza, Argentina.
Mara Gutierrez, INCUAPA-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de
Buenos Aires, Olavarra (Buenos Aires, Argentina)
Thomas Jennings, University of West Georgia, USA.
Carina Llano, CONICET-Laboratorio de Geoarqueologa - Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina.
Martijn Rene Manders, University of Leiden & Head of the Maritime Programme Cultural Heritage Agency of the
Netherlands (RCE).
Laura Miotti, CONICET- Departamento de Arqueologa, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de
La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Gaurav K. Mishra, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lichenology Lab, Lucknow, India.
Justin Pargeter, Interdepartmental Program in Anthropological Sciences, Stony Brook University, New York, USA. Honorary
Research Fellow, Center for Anthropological Research at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Maria Raviele, Institute of Museum and Library Services, Washington DC, USA.
Mark Staniforth, School of Geography and Environmental Science, Monash University. Australia.
Marcelo Weissel, Departamento Humanidades y Artes, Universidad Nacional de Lans. Fundacin de Historia Natural Flix
de Azara, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
A. Francisco Zangrando, CONICET-Centro Austral de Investigaciones Cientficas (CADIC), Tierra del Fuego, Argentina.
Facultad de Filosofa y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
And anonymous reviewers.

Article editor
Mara Milena Sesar

Design
Mario Pesci

Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires

Rector: Cr. Roberto Tassara
Vicerrector: Ing. Agr. Omar Losardo

Indizaciones
Anthropological Literature (HOLLIS 009867824); Directorio y Catlogo LATINDEX (Folio No. 15044); Ncleo Bsico de
Revistas Cientficas Argentinas (Resolucin 1071/07, CAICYT-CONICET); Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ); Social
Science Citation Index; Arts & Humanities Citation Index; SCOPUS; Zoological Record
Portal SciELO Argentina

Intersecciones en Antropologa es propiedad de la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad Nacional

del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Prohibida la reproduccin de artculos sin su expreso permiso.
Domicilio postal: Avda. del Valle 5737 - B7400JWI Olavarra, Argentina.
ISSN 1850 373X (versin on line)

Inscripta en el Registro de Propiedad Intelectual Expte. 869051.

La versin on line de Intersecciones en Antropologa est disponible en el Portal SciELO Argentina (www.scielo.org.ar)
 | 3

Contents

Qu tipo de ciencia contribuimos a construir? Estrategia editorial de Intersecciones en Antropologa.....................05

What kind of science are we contributing to produce? Editorial strategy of Intersecciones en Antropologa............09

Articles:

Multi-service taphonomy. Shells, garbage, and floating palimpsests - L. A. Borrero..................................................13

Taphonomic analysis of archaeomalacological assemblages: shell middens on the northern coast of Santa Cruz
(Patagonia, Argentina) - H. Hammond.....................................................................................................................21

Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the
South-Central Andes - M. P. Babot, J. Lund and A. V. Olmos....................................................................................35

Post-depositional processes studies of wooden artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site (Patagonia,
Argentina) - M. Grosso.............................................................................................................................................55

Taphonomy of a village: the early 20th century site of Mariano Mir (Chapaleuf department, La Pampa,
Argentina) - C. Landa, V. Pineau, E. Montanari and J. Doval.....................................................................................71

Trampling, taphonomy, and experiments with lithic artifacts in the southeastern Baguales Range (Santa Cruz,
Argentina) - C. Balirn..............................................................................................................................................85

Trampling fragmentation potential of lithic artifacts: an experimental approach - C. Weitzel, K. Borrazzo,

A. Ceraso and C. Balirn..........................................................................................................................................97

Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 03-03. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
4 |
 | 5

Qu tipo de ciencia contribuimos a construir?

Estrategia editorial de Intersecciones en Antropologa
Comit Editor

Esta breve introduccin cumple dos funciones. desde esta perspectiva, a la que Borrero ha comenzado
En primer lugar, presentar con gran orgullo y alegra a llamar Tafonoma sin lmites, irrestricta o total.
el primer Volumen Especial de Intersecciones en Celebramos que las editoras hayan elegido nuestra
Antropologa (IeA), titulado Taphonomic Approaches revista para esta propuesta innovadora y provocadora.
to the Archaeological Record, para cuya edicin
En segundo lugar, utilizamos este contexto de
fueron invitadas Karen Borrazzo y Celeste Weitzel.
presentacin del primer volumen especial para
Este volumen es una contribucin pionera de una
reflexionar sobre algunos aspectos del quehacer
destacable diversidad en su contenido y robusta en
editorial en el mbito de nuestra disciplina. Esta
trminos de la inversin de trabajo que representa,
reflexin nos conducir a plantear algunos aspectos
desde el desarrollo de las investigaciones originales
de la historia de IeA, que nos permitirn, al mismo
hasta el exhaustivo trabajo editorial que han realizado
tiempo, contextualizar y comprender los desafos a
las editoras a cargo, que refleja la evolucin de las
los que nos enfrentamos en la actualidad. Justamente,
aplicaciones tafonmicas en la Argentina desde los
el proceso que lleva a la creacin de este volumen
primeras investigaciones realizadas en la dcada de
especial es una parte central de esa realidad. Sobre
1980. Esta evolucin es visible en diversos niveles, que
esta base, describimos algunos aspectos de nuestra
van desde los tipos de evidencia y contextos estudiados
estrategia editorial. Qu hay detrs de ella? Un
desde esta perspectiva, las herramientas metodolgicas
determinado concepto de investigacin al que
empleadas y, por sobre todo, la madurez que se observa
aspiramos a contribuir. O una suma de pequeas
en una integracin cada vez ms fuerte de la tafonoma
decisiones en funcin de un objetivo de largo plazo.
como va de respuesta a interrogantes arqueolgicos
generales. La Argentina constituye un pas pionero
de Amrica Latina en la propuesta y conduccin de
estudios tafonmicos. El amplio y variado desarrollo Breve historia y objetivos de
temprano de la zooarqueologa en nuestro territorio Intersecciones en Antropologa
ha permitido la rpida integracin y expansin de
En la Figura 1 presentamos el nmero de trabajos
esta disciplina. El reconocimiento temprano de sus
publicados desde el volumen 1 del ao 2000 hasta
contribuciones a las interpretaciones arqueolgicas ha
el volumen 15 del ao 2014 (no se incluyen las
permitido la consolidacin de lneas de investigacin
reseas de libro, que tienen un proceso de evaluacin
cuyos ejes temticos giran casi exclusivamente en
diferente, as como tampoco los obituarios). Un rpido
tratar de resolver problemas arqueolgicos desde
anlisis visual de esta informacin marca la evolucin
una perspectiva tafonmica, y
esta maduracin, a la vez, ha
estimulado la incorporacin
de los aspectos tericos y
metodolgicos de la tafonoma a
otros registros arqueolgicos. Este
volumen entonces, de la mano de
dos jvenes investigadoras, refleja
esa madurez que ha alcanzado
la disciplina en nuestro pas, con
una propuesta cuya aplicacin
trasciende a los restos seos
exclusivamente. Los artculos
de este volumen muestran la
diversidad de evidencias (madera,
conchas, lticos, almidones, etc.) Figura 1. Nmero de contribuciones publicadas en Intersecciones en Antropologa
a los que es posible abordar (aos 2000-2014).

Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 05-07. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 6 Comit Editor - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 05-07
explosiva que experiment la revista, particularmente
a partir del volumen publicado en el ao 2006,
en el que se duplic el nmero de contribuciones.
Este crecimiento contina hasta la actualidad. Estos
nmeros muestran slo la punta del iceberg en
trminos de la tarea editorial, ya que no se incluyen
las contribuciones que no fueron aceptadas para
publicacin cada ao.
Por otra parte, el crecimiento que experimenta
la comunidad cientfica vinculada a instituciones
acadmicas o de investigacin tales como el CONICET
o las Universidades Nacionales se refleja claramente
en estos nmeros. La comunidad acadmica que enva
contribuciones a esta revista ha cambiado y crecido
en forma ostensible desde el inicio de este perodo
hasta la actualidad. Los nuevos requisitos de estas
instituciones para acceder, permanecer o promocionar
a la carrera del investigador, categorizacin docente o
para financiar proyectos de investigacin, han puesto
en marcha una serie de desafos para los autores,
evaluadores y editores. Esto requiri, y an requiere,
cambios en la estructura y estrategia editorial de la
revista.
Cada publicacin cientfica tiene un perfil
acadmico determinado, que se construye sobre la
base de los objetivos de largo plazo establecidos por
el Comit Editorial. Estos objetivos se materializan a
travs de innumerables decisiones pequeas tomadas
en forma permanente. La situacin se puede resumir
en dos grandes dimensiones, que, sumadas, construyen
nuestra estrategia editorial: qu mensaje buscamos
transmitir y cules son los receptores que aspiramos
alcanzar.
Estrategia editorial de IeA
Todo sistema de evaluacin sano y eficiente se
basa en criterios objetivos y precisos. Es lgico realizar
crticas muchas veces acertadas a determinados
criterios de evaluacin de la calidad de un trabajo
o de una revista cientfica. Dicho esto, creemos que
estos criterios son necesarios en un sistema cientfico
que aspire a superarse a s mismo en el tiempo.
Las revistas cientficas nacionales no son ajenas a
las exigencias y evaluaciones de calidad de carcter
nacional e internacional. En nuestras instituciones (i.e.,
Universidad, CONICET, FONDECyT, entre otras), las
reas vinculadas a las Ciencias Sociales y Humanas se
han hecho eco, si bien con particularidades y tiempos
propios de la disciplina, de las exigencias pautadas
para otras reas del conocimiento. Es as como ha
crecido la demanda de publicar en revistas indexadas.
Las revistas son medidas a travs del sistema de
indexacin, que funciona como una base de datos
especializada. Las variables fundamentales a la hora
de clasificar una revista son la calidad cientfica y
editorial, la visibilidad y la accesibilidad.
Estamos de acuerdo en que, a los fines prcticos de
un sistema de evaluacin, deben existir formas de medir
calidad y otorgar puntajes a nuestras publicaciones.
Buscando canalizar esta necesidad, se trabaj desde
un comienzo para que IeA fuera indexada en las bases
de datos nacionales e internacionales ms prestigiosas
a escala mundial (Social Science Citation Index, Arts &
Humanities Citation Index, SCOPUS, Anthropological
Literature, Directorio y Catlogo LATINDEX, Ncleo
Bsico de Revistas Cientficas Argentinas, Directory of
Open Access Journals, Zoological Record, Redalyc,
entre otras). Sin embargo, sabemos tambin que las
indexaciones han adquirido un rol en dicho sistema
que soslaya los objetivos comerciales que algunas de
estas conllevan, al ser parte de las propias empresas
editoriales. Es necesario mejorar el conocimiento
sobre cmo se construyen los ndices y cul es su
funcin real, para otorgarles el lugar adecuado como
medida de calidad de las publicaciones en nuestra
disciplina. En este sentido, creemos que urge un
debate y dilogo entre autores, editores y evaluadores
a fin de reflexionar sobre estos aspectos particulares de
las Ciencias Sociales y Humanas, y disear caminos
conjuntos que unan intereses diversos.
Qu se publica en IeA?
El perfil acadmico que adopta una revista en
el largo plazo no se desarrolla en aislamiento de
las condiciones econmicas y sociolgicas de la
comunidad donde se inserta. Hay dos tendencias que
inciden en mltiples publicaciones cientficas en forma
global. En primer lugar, se puede verificar un notorio
aumento en la magnitud de trabajos publicados en
publicaciones consideradas de alta calidad en sus
respectivos mbitos. Un rpido anlisis en Science
Direct del nmero de trabajos publicados por el
Journal of Archaeological Science (Elsevier) desde
la dcada de 1980 hasta la actualidad muestra un
ejemplo evidente (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/journal/03054403). Esto ha llevado en forma
reciente al lanzamiento de un nuevo formato de
publicacin denominado Journal of Archaeological
Science. Reports (http://www.journals.elsevier.
com/journal-of-archaeological-science-reports/), el
cual buscar absorber una parte de la produccin
usualmente enviada a la publicacin tradicional. La
irrupcin en gran escala de las diversas ramas de la
Public Library of Science (PLOS) es otro ejemplo.
En segundo lugar, cabe afirmar que los recursos
econmicos disponibles en las instituciones pblicas
que financian muchas de estas revistas no han podido
crecer en forma equivalente a la magnitud de la
 Qu tipo de ciencia contribuimos a construir? Estrategia editorial de Intersecciones en Antropologa
produccin cientfica que canalizan en la actualidad.
Esto genera una asimetra creciente entre los
requerimientos que marca una comunidad acadmica
determinada y los recursos econmicos y humanos
disponibles para satisfacerla. Este es el caso de IeA.
Y es tambin el caso de numerosas publicaciones
de Arqueologa en el mundo, que han pasado de
mbitos de sustentacin exclusivamente universitarios
a otros que implican diversas formas de asociacin a
empresas editoriales que cubren los costos y ofrecen
canales ms amplios de difusin. Un ejemplo reciente
es el paso de Archaeology in Oceania, fundada por
Alfred R. Radcliffe-Brown en 1930, de la University
of Sydney a Wiley en 2013 (http://sydney.edu.au/arts/
publications/oceania/about.shtml). Anthropological
Forum, creada en 1963 en el mbito de la University
of Western Australia, provee un caso particularmente
interesante, ya que ha sido adquirida por Taylor &
Francis pero permanece bajo la rbita acadmica de
dicha universidad (http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/
canf20/current#.U8vsS4B5M0c).
Actualmente, en IeA se reciben y evalan ms de
60 manuscritos por ao. Esto ha generado la necesidad
de ampliar el Comit Editorial, aunque esto provee tan
slo una solucin parcial. Desde sus inicios, IeA cubri
todas las ramas de las Ciencias Antropolgicas. Con el
crecimiento de la comunidad cientfica en la Argentina,
el surgimiento de nuevos campos disciplinares cada
vez ms especficos, y una afluencia creciente de
contribuciones de Chile, Uruguay, Espaa, Mxico y
EEUU, entre otros pases, reconocemos que esta tarea
resulta cada vez ms herclea. En los siguientes aos,
la revista se enfrentar a la necesidad de redefinirse
en ciertos aspectos. Esto resulta imprescindible para
garantizar su viabilidad en un mediano y largo plazo.
IeA pone especial nfasis en el proceso de
evaluacin, al que consideramos una de las etapas
clave del proceso editorial. Nuestro banco de
evaluadores es amplio, diverso y multinacional, y se
actualiza constantemente. En la actualidad, IeA trabaja
con un mnimo de tres revisiones y toda decisin
sobre un manuscrito se basa en un balance de las
opiniones recibidas. Dependiendo de la decisin de
los revisores convocados, se llega a contar con cinco
o ms evaluaciones para un trabajo. De este modo se
minimiza el peso de evaluaciones arbitrarias o poco
sustentadas, aunque lgicamente no se elimina el
carcter subjetivo del proceso de revisin por pares.
Creemos que una exigencia elevada slo puede
beneficiar a la disciplina en su conjunto. Desde el
punto de vista de la salud de un sistema acadmico en
el largo plazo, nuestra postura es simple: slo debemos
preocuparnos al enfrentar sistemas poco exigentes de
seleccin editorial (an cuando, circunstancialmente,
esto nos lleve a enfrentar el rechazo de manuscritos).
7
En este marco, creemos que, si son adecuadamente
diseados y evaluados, los volmenes especiales
en publicaciones peridicas proveen una poderosa
herramienta de transmisin de informacin sobre
campos temticos especficos. Existen excelentes
ejemplos en la arqueologa mundial (Current
Anthropology, Journal of Archaeological Science,
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, entre
muchos otros). Este es el caso de Taphonomic
Approaches to the Archaeological Record. Creemos
que este volumen marcar un hito en la historia de
la disciplina, as como un camino de ida en nuestra
tarea editorial a travs de la incorporacin de estos
volmenes especiales como herramientas de difusin
del conocimiento arqueolgico.
A quines se dirige IeA?
Podemos analizar esta pregunta a partir de otra.
Existen fronteras en la produccin y difusin del
conocimiento? Nuestra respuesta es un NO rotundo.
Intersecciones en Antropologa es una publicacin
sustentada desde un punto de vista institucional y
econmico por la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de
la Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia
de Buenos Aires de la Repblica Argentina. En este
sentido, es lgico que el principal receptor sea la
comunidad cientfica de la Argentina, y as lo es
actualmente. Sin embargo, desde un comienzo, IeA ha
luchado por trascender esta escala local de difusin del
pensamiento; alcanz oportunamente la escala del sur
de Sudamrica y aspira a trascenderla. La publicacin
de ciertas contribuciones en ingls es, en este sentido,
una herramienta clave. Es el medio a travs del cual
podemos dar mayor alcance a nuestro pensamiento
local, as como dar lugar a la publicacin de trabajos
procedentes de otros mbitos acadmicos del mundo.
Creemos que es una virtud exponer nuestras ideas a
una multiplicidad de mbitos acadmicos diferentes.
En sntesis, hemos utilizado el espacio que brinda
este primer volumen especial para comentar ciertos
aspectos que hacen a la estrategia editorial de
Intersecciones en Antropologa. Creemos firmemente
en un sistema acadmico perfectible mediante la
aplicacin de criterios explcitos y universales de
exigencia. Y aspiramos a exponer la investigacin del
sur de Sudamrica en un contexto global. Esto implica
trascender la imposicin de fronteras artificiales en la
difusin del conocimiento.
La gnesis del conocimiento es local.
Su difusin y evaluacin deben ser globales.
8 Comit Editor - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 05-07
 | 9

What kind of science are we contributing to produce?

Editorial strategy of Intersecciones en Antropologa
Editorial board

This brief introduction plays two roles. In the discipline. Throughout this reflection we will bring
first place, we proudly present the first special up some aspects of the history of IeA that allow us to
volume of Intersecciones en Antropologa (IeA): contextualize and understand the editorial challenges
Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological that we face in the present. Precisely, the process
Record, with Karen Borrazzo and Celeste Weitzel as that led to the creation of this special volume is a
guest editors. This volume is a pioneer contribution central aspect of this reality. On this basis, we present
with a remarkable diversity of contents and solid some tenets of our editorial strategy. What underlies
in terms of the efforts invested, both in the original an editorial strategy? We suggest that a particular
research and the thorough editorial work carried conception of science to which we aspire to contribute
out by the editors. This first volume reflects the to. Or the sum of innumerable small decisions aimed
development of taphonomic approaches in Argentina at a long-term goal.
since the early research in the 1980s. This evolution
is evident in the remarkable range of contexts and
materials studied from this perspective, the diversity BRIEF HISTORY AND GOALS OF
of methodological tools applied, and specially, in the INTERSECCIONES EN ANTROPOLOGA
maturity shown by the increasing incorporation of
taphonomy to answer broad archaeological questions. Figure 1 shows the number of papers that were
Argentina is a pioneer country in the application of published in the journal since volume 1 in 2000 until
taphonomic studies in Latin America. The early and volume 15 in 2014 (book reviews with a different
varied development of zooarchaeology in Argentina reviewing process- and obituaries are not included).
enabled a prompt incorporation and expansion of A glimpse of this information reveals the bursting
the discipline. The recognition of the substantial evolution of the journal, particularly since 2006,
contributions of taphonomy to archaeological when the number of published papers doubled in
interpretation led to the consolidation of lines of comparison to previous issues. This growth continues
research focused in solving archaeological problems in the present. These numbers are just the tip of
from a taphonomic perspective. This development the iceberg regarding the editorial work, as rejected
stimulated the incorporation of the methods and theory papers are not included here.
of taphonomy to varied archaeological records. This
The growth experienced by the scientific community
volume, edited by two young researchers, reflects the
linked with academic or research institutions, like
maturity of the discipline in Argentina, with a proposal
CONICET or the State Universities, is clearly reflected
that goes beyond the application
of taphonomy exclusively to
faunal remains. The papers in this
volume show the various materials
(wood, shells, lithic, starch, etc.)
that can be approached from
a taphonomic perspective as
part of what Borrero defines as
unbounded Taphonomy. We
celebrate that the guest editors
have chosen our journal for this
innovative proposal.
In the second place, we take
this opportunity to make some
considerations on several points
of the editorial work in our Figure 1. Number of papers published by Intersecciones en Antropologa (years
2000-2014).

Intersecciones en Antropologa - special Issue 1: 09-11. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 10 Editorial board - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 09-11

in these numbers. The academic community that indexations their appropriate place as a measure of
submits papers to IeA has grown ostensibly from the the scientific quality of our publications. We believe
beginning of this period to the present. The latest that a dialog and debate among authors, editors and
requirements of national research institutions for reviewers are needed to design paths that combine the
admission and promotion as a researcher, research diverse interests and aspects of Social Sciences and
fellow or to obtain funding have set several challenges Humanities with the global indexation requirements.
for authors, reviewers and editors. This required, and
still requires, changes in the journals structure and
editorial strategy. About IeA
Every scientific publication has a specific academic
The academic profile of a journal in the long-
profile, built according to long-term goals set by the
term is not isolated from the economic and social
editorial board. These goals are achieved through
conditions of its community. Two trends influence
countless small decisions. The situation could be
scientific publications in a global manner. In the first
summarized in two major dimensions: which message
place, there is a notorious increment in the number
do we want to communicate and who are the receivers
of articles published in journals considered of high
we are aiming for. The sum of these two factors builds
quality within each field. A quick analysis in Science
an editorial strategy.
Direct of the number of papers published in the Journal
of Archaeological Science (Elsevier) since the 1980s to
the present depicts this trend (http://www.sciencedirect.
EDITORIAL STRATEGY OF IeA com/science/journal/03054403). Recently, this led to
the creation of a new publication format: Journal of
Every healthy and efficient editorial system is based
Archaeological Science. Reports (http://www.journals.
on unbiased and precise criteria. It is valuable -and
elsevier.com/journal-of-archaeological-science-reports/)
usually correct- to discuss and criticize particular
that incorporates part of the manuscripts usually sent
criteria about the revision of the quality of a paper
to the original journal.The massive irruption of the
or of a scientific journal. Having said this, we believe
Public Library of Science (PLOS) is another example.
that these criteria are a key part of a scientific system
that seeks to improve itself over time. Secondly, the economic resources of the public
institutions funding many of these journals have not
National scientific journals are not divorced
experienced a similar growth to that of the current
from the national and international requirements of
scientific community and its published production.
quality control. In our own institutions (Universities,
This creates an increasing asymmetry between the
CONICET, FONDECyT, among others), Social
requirements of the scientific community and the
Sciences and Humanities areas have followed
available economic and human resources. This
the global requirements ruled by other fields of
is the case of IeA. And it is also the case of many
knowledge, although considering the special features
Archaeology journals in the world that had to recur
of each discipline. In this way, a growing demand for
to publishers with the capacity to cover the costs and
publishing in indexed journals has developed. Journals
offer broader worldwide diffusion. A recent example
are ranked through an indexation system in the form of
is the merge of Archaeology in Oceania, founded by
a specialized journals data-base. The essential variables
Alfred R. Radcliffe-Brown in 1930 in the University
for ranking a journal are scientific and editorial quality,
of Sydney, with Wiley in 2013 (http://sydney.edu.au/
visibility and access.
arts/publications/oceania/about.html). Anthropological
We agree with quality control and ranking measures Forum, created in 1963 in the University of Western
for our publications as a part of an evaluation system. Australia, represents a particular case since it was
Since the beginnings we worked to get IeA indexed taken over by Taylor & Francis but it remains in hands
in the most prestigious national and international of that University (http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/
data-bases (Social Science Citation Index; Arts & canf20/current#.U8vsS4B5M0c).
Humanities Citation Index; SCOPUS; Anthropological
Currently IeA receives and reviews more than 60
Literature; Directorio y Catlogo LATINDEX; Ncleo
papers over a year. As a first measure, the editorial
Bsico de Revistas Cientficas Argentinas; Directory of
board had to enlarge its team, but this is only a
Open Access Journals; Zoological Record; Redalyc,
partial solution. Since its beginning the scope of IeA
among others). Nevertheless, we are also aware that
included all the disciplines within Anthropological
indexations have taken a role that contributes to the
Science. However, with the growth of the Argentine
commercial goals that some of them entail, since they
scientific community, the advent of numerous new and
are part of the publishing companies themselves. We
specific fields, as well as the increasing number of
need to improve our knowledge on how the indexes
contributions received from Chile, Uruguay, Espaa,
are built and which is their actual role in order to give
 Editorial strategy of Intersecciones en Antropologa
Mxico and the USA, among other countries, our
editorial work is becoming an increasingly demanding
task. In the following years the journal will have to
face a redefinition of some aspects. This is imperative
to guarantee its viability in the mid- and long-term. production and diffusion? Our reply is: absolutely not.
IeA pays special attention to the review process,
a stage that we consider key in the editorial process.
Our reviewer board is wide, diverse and multinational,
and is updated on a permanent basis. Currently, IeA
considers three revisions per manuscript as a minimum
number and the final editorial decision on each paper
is based on a balance of all reviewers comments.
According to reviewers opinions, the final decision on
a manuscript can be based on five or more reviews.
This process minimizes the relative incidence of
biased or poorly sustained reviews, although it does
not remove the subjective character of the peer-review
process. We believe that a rigorous review process
benefits the discipline globally. From the point of view
of the long-term health of any academic system, our
position is quite simple: we only need to be concerned
when dealing with undemanding editorial systems of
scientific selection (even though when, eventually, this
leads to the refusal of manuscripts).
Within this framework, we believe that if special
issues of periodic journals are appropriately reviewed
they provide a powerful tool of information transmission
on specific fields. There are very good examples of
this in world archaeology (Current Anthropology,
Journal of Archaeological Science, International
Journal of Osteoarchaeology, among many others).
This is also the case of Taphonomic Approaches to
the Archaeological Record. We are confident that this
special issue will become a milestone in the discipline,
also representing a one-way path in our editorial work
through the incorporation of special issues as a tool in
broadcasting archaeological knowledge.
11
Who is IeA addressed to?
We can analyze this topic by answering the
following question: Are there boundaries in knowledge
IeA is funded by the Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de
la Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de
Buenos Aires de la Repblica Argentina. Therefore, it
is natural that the Argentine scientific community is
its main receiver, and it actually is indeed. However,
since the beginning, IeA has struggled to go beyond the
local scale of knowledge diffusion, reaching the scale
of southern South America opportunely, and currently
attempting to transcend it. Publishing papers written
in English language is a key factor in this endeavor.
This is the means to widen the scope of our local
production, as well as to incorporate works produced
by researchers from other scientific communities
worldwide. We consider a virtue to bring local ideas
to multiple and different academic spheres.
In sum, we have taken the opportunity provided by
this first special issue to comment on several central
aspects of the editorial strategy of Intersecciones
en Antropologa. We firmly believe in a perfectible
academic system by means of explicit and universal
quality criteria. And we look forward to show southern
South American research in a global scale. This
implies to transcend imposed artificial boundaries for
knowledge diffusion.
The production of knowledge is local.
Its diffusion and evaluation have to be global.
12 Editorial board - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 09-11
 | 13

Multi-service taphonomy. Shells, garbage,

and floating palimpsests
Luis Alberto Borrero
Received 20 August 2013. Accepted 14 February 2014

ABSTRACT

We discuss the importance of widening the scope of taphonomy, arguing that it is critical to study of different
classes of materials within this framework. We introduce several examples related to the deposition of marine
shells and garbage. In particular, we focus on debris generated by tsunamis
Keywords: Taphonomy; Garbage; Tsunami; Palimpsest.

RESUMEN

TAFONOMA MULTISERVICIO. VALVAS, BASURA Y PALIMPSESTOS FLOTANTES. Se presenta una discusin

acerca de la importancia de ampliar el campo de la tafonoma, considerando distintas clases de materiales.
Se presentan varios ejemplos, relacionados con la depositacin de valvas marinas y el estudio de la basura en
diferentes contextos. Se desarrolla en particular el caso de los desechos derivados de la accin de tsunamis.
Palabras clave: Tafonoma; Basura; Tsunami; Palimpsesto.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of site formation processes is necessary
to build a sound foundation for archaeological
inference (Schiffer 1987: 8). According to Schiffer,
taphonomy is one of several research strategies along
with ethnoarchaeology or experimental archaeology
that inform our understanding of the principles of site
formation (Schiffer 1987: 8-9). Schiffer also suggested
that what we see today is a distorted image of what was
deposited in the past and that these distortions can be
rectified (Schiffer 1976). His view is flawed in at least
two ways, however. First, such distortions rarely can be
rectified. Instead, they can be understood and used to
select the most appropriate scale of analysis. Second,
taphonomy goes well beyond supplying principles of
site formation, generating independent paleobiological,
paleoclimatological and palaeoecological data (Gifford
1981). The goals of taphonomy are the subject of
intense discussion (Lyman 2010; Thibaut et al.
2010; Dominguez-Rodrigo et al. 2011). As I have
said elsewhere, taphonomy studies the constant
tension between preservational and destructive
media (Borrero 2011: 270). The focus is not on
bones specifically, but on these tensions as recorded
in different materials. This is coincident with the efforts
of Peter Hiscock (1985) and others (Bordes 2003;
Borrazzo 2006) who are developing systematic studies
of taphonomic effects on lithic tools, for example.
Moreover, Dominguez-Rodrigo et al. (2011) recently
noted that taphonomy has broadened its referential
scope to incorporate humans as taphonomic agents,
and that the non-organic materials of archaeological
(and palaeontological) sites might also be studied
taphonomically (Dominguez-Rodrigo et al. 2011: 4).
Broadening the scope of taphonomy is desirable since
it will facilitate comparative research (Coumont et al.
2010). This objective is more or less convergent with
the goals of classic formation studies (Schiffer 1987),
adding an interest in preservation that goes beyond
establishing links between behavior and discard. It
is becoming clear that this extension of taphonomic
studies is operative at several levels (Borrazzo 2011a;
Eren et al. 2011; Ratto and Carniglia 2013).

Luis Alberto Borrero. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas (CONICET). Instituto Multidisciplina-
rio de Historia y Ciencias Humanas (IMHICIHU). Saavedra 15, 5to. piso (1083ACA), Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail:
laborrero2003@yahoo.com
Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 13-20. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X
Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 14 L. A. Borrero - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 13-20
Taphonomy should integrate studies of different
material types. For example, what we learn through
the taphonomic study of bones can guide our
expectations for other materials (Borrero 2011: 269-
270; VanDerwarker and Peres 2013), and this concept
of multi-service taphonomy has applications even
beyond the realm of archaeology. Indeed a number
of taphonomic studies of non-bone organic materials
already exist, including pollen (Campbell 1999), rock
art (Brady and Gunn 2012), and even oil (Lipps 2008).
But there is also a taphonomy of non-organic materials
such as photographs including the study of formation
processes and posterior alterations (Fiore and Varela
2009: 21) and of lithics, as I have mentioned.
The subject of all these discussions is the same:
the tensions between preservational and destructive
media, and the information that can be gleaned from
those tensions. Naturally, all of these studies are
focused on differential preservation, but only some
of them are simultaneously interested in decoding
the environmental signal associated with taphonomic
marks. Of course, a comparison between corroded and
well-preserved plumbing also provides information
about the environment in which each is found.
Studies restricted to the description of preservational
differences are incomplete since it is an understanding
of the processes that led to the differences that is really
important (Behrensmeyer and Kidwell 1985).
All these approaches to taphonomy can be improved
and expanded by experimentation. Good examples of
such research are the studies by Fernndez Jalvo et al.
(2010) on pollen found on coprolites, Borrazzo (2011b)
on the morphological changes to artifacts deposited
on the surface, Blanco and Lynch (2011) on the ways
of producing rock art, and Pickering and Egeland
(2006) on percussion marks on bones. This broad
approach to taphonomy may be useful in a number
of ways. Importantly, neither new disciplines nor new
terminology is required to do the job. What is required
is a theoretical and methodological program to make
taphonomy fully operative. The importance of creating
relevant frames of reference cannot be exaggerated
(Dominguez-Rodrigo 2012). I will introduce some
examples that not only work at different scales, but
also serve more than one discipline (Hayashida 2005).
HIGH AND LOWENERGY TAPHONOMY
It is useful to refer to the Taphonomically Active
Zone (TAZ), where destructive potential is high. This
is a common concept in discussing preservation of
shell beds (Ritter et al. 2013), but it is applicable to
a variety of other situations as well (i.e., places with
high incidence of carnivore activity, etc.). Identifying
TAZs is a way to separate areas where preservation
is unlikely from those areas within a region where
preservation is likely to be good. For example, it could
be useful to classify archaeological shell-middens in
terms of their topographic location or distance from the
upper intertidal zone; in other words, to differentiate
shell-middens within and distant from the locally
defined TAZ. Experiments can then be designed
to reproduce the conditions in the TAZ and derive
expectations for preservation.
TAZs are appropriate places to learn about the
formation and preservation of the archaeological
record. For example, I generated a model of
contamination of archaeological sites by modern
vertebrate bones. A number of factors can contribute
to such contamination including, trampling, generally
associated with the regular use of paths by guanaco
(Lama guanicoe) and some degree of overlap
between paths, the places were animals died, and the
distributions of prehistoric settlements (Borrero 1990).
Of course, I was able to recognize this process in a
place where all or most of these factors coincide,
a true TAZ. The high ratio of archaeological sites
contaminated with recently incorporated guanaco
bones indicated the importance of the observation.
However, the conditions of my model are not always
met and its applicability is limited to locations where
those conditions exist. Still, even slight variations in
those conditions help us develop new criteria that can
be useful for identifying intrusive bones (Borrero 2001).
So, in a sense, the utility of any such modeling exercise
is the ability to go from obvious cases represented by
TAZs to the more common archaeological situations
away from such places.
It is important to bear in mind that taphonomic
processes occur in both high and low energy
environments (Petraglia and Nash 1987). We know
something about areas where disturbance is high,
but we also need to know which places are only
mildly affected or relatively unaffected by the main
taphonomic processes. We must also be ready to
extract the environmental information implied by those
very markers of little disturbance, be it a paucity of
weathering, corrosion, or any other process.
Combining disciplines like taphonomy and
ethnoarchaeology can provide a clearer picture
of formation processes. For example, it is a useful
exercise to examine the ethnoarchaeological record
associated with the discard of mollusks by the Ambarra
on the Australian coasts with TAZ criteria in mind
(Meehan 1982). This should help us understand the
likelihood of preservation of mollusks discarded by
the Ambarra and, in turn, inform comparisons with
other regions. At least two important depositional
principles are derived from the Ambarra study: (1) in
some cases associated with the exploitation of Batissa
violacea and Crassostrea amara usually only flesh, but
 Multi-service taphonomy. Shells, garbage, and floating palimpsests
sometimes a few shells as well, is carried back to home
base (Meehan 1982: 117). Similar observations are
available from ancient sources (Cook 1946: 51). This
indicates the existence of more than one depositional
setting for mollusk shells, only one of which would be
archaeologically visible. As asserted by Bailey (2007:
205),If the individual episodes of shellgathering that
make up a large mound, or the individual assemblages
of stone tools that make up a layer in a stratified
cave, had been dispersed across the landscape, many
would now be lost to view, and will be affected by
destructive processes. In Baileys words, this constitutes
a particular archaeological phenomenon: a spatial
palimpsest. (2) It was observed that shells were
relocated several times during a single occupation,
becoming intermixed with shells from previous
occupations or dead shells that formed a normal part of
beach debris, or else they were washed away by high
tides (Meehan 1982: 117). Beyond the implication
that our expectations for finding ordered occupational
sequences should be low, the information provided by
this study is basically taphonomic. It clearly states that
palimpsests of cultural and natural processes are to be
expected. Also, it says something about the location of
the deposits, the expectations for associated artifacts
and the energy of the processes involved.
GARBOLOGY
Garbage studies1, a classic actualistic approach
to site formation, clearly demonstrate that formation
processes and taphonomy are closely aligned For
example, Weberman, the infamous garbologist,
describes his rapid discovery of the benefits of
scavenging garbage from Bob Dylans garbage can: I
lifted the lid I reached in and the first thing that I
pulled out of Dylans garbage was a half-finished letter
written by Bob Dylan to Johnny Cash (Weberman
1980: 1). It goes without saying that the utility of
this approach requires a taphonomic approach;
Webermans great discovery the Dylan letter was
preserved because it was not in contact with humid
rejects like diapers, which were also present or other
destructive materials.
Since Webermans discovery, a less owner-
focused, more systematic approach to garbage was
developed (Rathje and Murphy 1992). The distinction
between items that preserve in the long-term and those
that preserve in the short-term was crucial for the
success of the approach. Needless to say, garbage is not
restricted to bones. Undoubtedly, garbage studies are a
basic element for the construction of discard theories.
They offer evidence of factors like messiness of the
items discarded (Murray 1980), otherwise difficult to
obtain but nonetheless important for understanding
the archaeological record. Returning to Weberman,
15
at some point he asked himself if he was trespassing
the rights of other people (or specifically those of Bob
Dylan), but concluded that in the post-Watergate times
that action was acceptable. Unfortunately, when he
applied the same tactics in 1980 to the garbage of ex-
president Richard Nixon, Secret Service agents arrested
him (Rathje and Murphy 1992). Leaving legal problems
aside it is important to learn about garbage. I intend
to demonstrate this by examining a particular class of
garbage: floating garbage.
FLOATING PALIMPSESTS
Some of the most impressive sources of highly
mobile debris are tsunamis. It was recently stated
that to accurately predict future coastal hazards, one
must identify the records that are generated by the
processes associated with these hazards and recognize
what will be preserved (Arcos et al. 2013: 9). In other
words, taphonomy is required to understand important
ecological issues like the oceanic distribution of the
five million tons of waste generated by the March 11,
2011 tsunami in Japan. The NOAA agency modeled
the potential distribution of that waste, indicating
that debris could pass near or wash ashore in the
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in spring 2012,
approach the West Coast of the United States in 2013,
and circle back to Hawaii in 2014 to 2016 (NOAA
2011: 1).
Not all five million tons of waste was strictly
floating. The debris is classifiable into items that have
sunk and flotsam floating garbage which, 15 months
after the tsunami, had already reached the coasts of
North America, between California and Alaska. This
material after a long stay in the ocean environment
was mostly restricted to plastic, but even a Harley-
Davidson in a container was found. Obviously, there
are taphonomic processes acting on these materials.
For example, perforating organisms accelerate the
sinking of different materials, particularly wood.
Generally speaking, many remains decayed swiftly, up
to the point when they were reduced to floating glass
and especially polyethylene and polypropylene that
cover thousands of square kilometers (United Nations
2012: 41). This material will slowly disintegrate, to
become what we generically call microplastic (Erikson
2012). In contrast, we must remember that ultraviolet
rays will swiftly break up plastic in desert environments
(Weisman 2007). From a taphonomic point of view
the floating materials can be separated in high
and low-windage, depending on how much of
it is exposed to the wind (Erikson 2012: 20). The
Ministry of Environment of British Columbia, Canada,
like other institutions along the Pacific coast, issued
bulletins with instructions on how to deal with debris
from the tsunami, explaining which were dangerous.
 16 L. A. Borrero - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 13-20
No doubt on the basis of taphonomic and forensic
considerations, it was reported that It is extremely
unlikely any human remains from the tsunami will
reach Canada (Ministry of Environment 2012: 1).
So far I have presented a detailed example focused
on the last high impact tsunami on the coasts of
Japan, but this is only one of many examples. For
example, in Chile there are records of tsunamis at
least since the 1550s (Urrutia de Habun and Lanza
Lezcano 1993). More impressive, there are records of
22 tsunamis for the Galpagos Islands between 1960
and 2011 (Arcos et al. 2013), at least 245 tsunamis
for the Pacific between 1900 and 1983, and 229 for
the Mediterranean in historic times (Auger 1993: 119).
On the other hand, a depositional record testifying
to the existence of tsunamis and related phenomena
was found at the Peruvian coast (Spiske et al. 2013).
This is not always the case, but clearly indicates
the tsunamis can sometimes be easily recognized,
while other times they are nearly impossible to
detect. Perhaps some indications can be found
at archaeological sites disturbed or destroyed by
tsunamis (Clague and Bobrowsky 1994; Cole et al.
1996; Hutchinson and MacMillan 1997), a subject
that has received general treatment (Renfrew 1979;
Estevez 2005). For example, Colin Renfrew writes
that when excavating an archaeological site affected
by a tsunami, large chunks of debris immediately
recognizable as intrusive should be found (Renfrew
1979: 578). Needless to say, the importance of
taphonomy for this evaluation cannot be understated.
It was generally accepted that tsunamis debris can be
easily identified and isolated from other deposits like
those resulting from storms. However, difficulty arises
from what Arcos and collaborators call amalgamated
deposits (palimpsests; Arcos et al. 2013). An endless
variety of artifacts result from the action of tsunamis.
However, when discussing the effects of specific
events, like that of Japan, it is possible to identify
items of Japanese origin (United Nations 2012), but
usually their link with specific phenomena can only
be achieved through contemporaneous testimonies,
as demonstrated by the study of Galpagos (Arcos et
al. 2013: 16). Unfortunately, there is almost no way
of telling the age of floating microplastic (Humes
2013: 133 ss.). In cases like that of the 1975 Makran
Trench tsunami in the northern Arabian sea it was
a combination of concentrations of angular shell
fragments, articulated bivalves (out of life position),
particle size and a predominance of foraminiferous
marine taxa that was used to identify the relevant
sediments (Pilarczyk and Reinhardt 2012: 129). A
recent Pepsi label from plastic bottle and other
debris helped to identify the reworking of the upper
sediments (Pilarczyk and Reinhardt 2012: 130). In the
case of the 1755 tsunami on the Gibraltar coast there
were evidences of palimpsests in the form of Pliocene
foraminifera within a Late Quaternary deposit. Also,
the remains of a hand grenade that was in use during
the 18th Century, that was related to alternative hostile
scenarios between 1727 and 1779-1783 were found
(Rodrguez-Vidal et al. 2011: 187). Any improvement
in the taphonomy of tsunamis should be useful in the
program of understanding and maintenance of the
oceans.
Summing up my impression of the debris resulting
from tsunamis, it must be stated that these floating
palimpsests are going to be the basis of future
taphonomic evaluations. A wide and comparative
concept of taphonomy is necessary for these evaluations.
I cannot see any utility in separating the study of
different raw materials by discipline; information on
the distribution of plastic is useful in the evaluation of
the destiny of other classes of debris, for example. In
this way we can learn about the velocity and direction
of drift in the ocean, materials resistance to and
persistence through different processes, and locations
where flotsam is likely to appear in the future. There
are short and long term ecological implications, and
there are also different lifecycles for different materials,
all of which are the stuff of taphonomy.
I have focused on tsunamis, but they are not the
only forces circulating materials in the ocean. The
observation rate of different debris in the ocean was
high for the last several decades. During the Atlantic
crossings of the papyrus boat Ra in 1969-1970, flotsam
was recorded every day (Heyerdahl 1972). In 2005,
even the supposedly limpid environment of Kingman
reef in the Pacific, to which access is restricted, was
heavily affected by the plastic rain (Weisman 2007).
The preservational-destructive tensions in those diverse
assemblages of artifacts will determine which will
survive and where. There are other classes of materials,
like wastewaters, that are discharged into the oceans
in massive amounts and that have even a greater
ecological impact (George 2009); their relationships
with the survival of different materials still needs to
be elucidated. Inspection of the oceans constantly
reminds us of the recently recognized importance of
humans as coevolutionary agents (Odling-Smee et al.
2003; Rick and Erlandson 2008). However, within this
panorama of garbage and extensive contamination, not
everything is negative; floating garbage wreckage sites
may have constructive uses as well. For example, there
is archaeological evidence for opportunistic scavenging
of wood from European wreckages to construct huts
at Herschel Island, Chile (Solari 1992). Also, there are
probably many Robinson Crusoe-style stories in which
wreckages offer more than construction material.
However, the main point is that the best contribution
that can be made with those materials is to understand
and, if possible, control them.
 Multi-service taphonomy. Shells, garbage, and floating palimpsests
CONCLUSIONS
I have presented some examples trying to convey
the notion that the range of applications of taphonomy
should be unrestricted. I chose to focus on actualistic
cases, somewhat related to ethnoarchaeology,
garbology or ecology, as a way to demonstrate the
wide array of taphonomic studies that currently exists.
Results are not always spectacular, problems are not
always solved and usually we learn that we really
do not know as much as we believed. Generally
speaking, most of our difficulties in accepting this,
or even accepting that taphonomy is a crucial
component of our research agenda, result from viewing
the link between the archaeological record and our
interpretations as a fingerprint, when in fact it is
only a footprint. We should not expect precision and
that is the reason why palimpsests are not our worst
enemies, but the valuable preserved parts of the record
(Borrero 2011). They are so important that instead of
the usual plangent cries that go with the discovery of
palimpsests, we should hear cheering shouts. I would
like to emphasize that my defense of the palimpsest
is not based exclusively on its offer of different levels
of organization not appreciated at the ethnographic
scale (Bailey 1981; Binford 1981, among others), but
it is predicated on the notion that they are the usual
form in which the record is presented to us for study.
In accordance with Lyman, what I am suggesting
here can be read as a misuse of the term taphonomy,
that exacerbate confusion and misunderstanding
(Lyman 2010: 1). However, I feel that real confusion
arises when we try to maintain our trade within the
narrow confines of tradition. In the end, the name of
the discipline is not important. What is important is
that if this claim for a unity of taphonomy is wrong,
no major harm will be done to the disciplines of
archaeology, ecology or paleontology, yet, there
is always danger in ignoring the need to proceed
taphonomically.
Acknowledgements
I want to express my gratitude to Karen Borrazzo
and Celeste Weitzel for their kind invitation to
participate in their Symposium at the XVIII Congreso
Nacional de Arqueologa Argentina, La Rioja. I also
want to thank Ivana Ozn for her help during the
preparation of this chapter. Comments by the reviewers
were very helpful in clarifying aspects of this chapter.
Finally, I want to thank Raven Garvey who helped
improving the translation to English.
17
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NOTES
1.- The archaeological study of modern refuse. Such a study is
archaeological in the sense that past denotes any amount of
elapsed time, from a millisecond to a million years or more
(Schiffer and Miller 1999: 52). Not all archaeologists agree
that the study of ongoing cultural systems is archaeological
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character per se (Gould and Schiffer 1981).
 | 21

Taphonomic analysis of archaeomalacological

assemblages: shell middens on the northern
coast of Santa Cruz (Patagonia, Argentina)
Heidi Hammond
Received 20 August 2013. Accepted 26 March 2014

ABSTRACT

This paper proposes a method of studying archaeomalacological assemblages from shell middens, and describes
an application of this method in the analysis of remains recovered from systematic excavations at sites located
south of the Ra Deseado estuary (northern coast of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina). This methodology aims
to isolate taphonomic variables affecting archaeomalacological records to aid identification of the agents and
processes involved in shell midden formation and to improve interpretations of the human activities performed
at the sites. These analyses are also relevant to paleoenvironmental and paleoecological reconstructions, and to
interpretations of site variability through assessments of assemblage integrity and structure.
Keywords: Archaeolomalacology; Taphonomy; Shell middens; Formation Processes; Northern Coast of Santa
Cruz.

RESUMEN

ANLISIS TAFONMICOS DE CONJUNTOS ARQUEOMALACOLGICOS: CONCHEROS EN LA COSTA

NORTE DE SANTA CRUZ (PATAGONIA, ARGENTINA). En este trabajo se presenta una propuesta metodolgica
para el estudio de conjuntos arqueomalacolgicos de concheros y su aplicacin en el anlisis de restos recuperados
a partir de excavaciones sistemticas en sitios ubicados al sur de la ra Deseado, en la costa norte de Santa Cruz,
Patagonia argentina. Esta metodologa se focaliza en el estudio de diferentes variables tafonmicas que afectan
el registro arqueomalacolgico para avanzar en la interpretacin de los agentes y procesos involucrados en la
formacin de las estructuras de concheros y sobre las actividades humanas desarrolladas en los sitios. Adems
estos anlisis son significativos para realizar interpretaciones paleoambientales, paleoecolgicas, as como para
evaluar la integridad de los conjuntos, interpretar las caractersticas estructurales y la variabilidad de los sitios.
Palabras clave: Arqueomalacologa; Tafonoma; Concheros; Procesos de formacin; Costa norte de Santa Cruz.

INTRODUCTION
Studies on the northern coast of Santa Cruz Province,
Argentina (hereafter NCSC; Figure 1) identified a large
number of shell middens distributed along the coast,
near the present-day shoreline. Shell middens are
located on geomorphological features in areas where
food resources such as molluscs and pinniped colonies
are abundant (Zubimendi et al. 2005). Shell middens
are composed of different archaeological materials in
a sedimentary matrix: animal bones (seals, seabirds,
fish, and terrestrial mammals, among others), lithic
artifacts, charcoal and, primarily, mollusc shells. The
shells calcareous composition affords them high
preservation potential (Waselkov 1987; Orquera
and Piana 1999; Aguirre et al. 2009). The study of
taphonomic modifications to mollusc shells can
provide information about past human activities and
formation processes at archaeological sites, as well as
paleoenvironmental and paleoecological conditions
(Kidwell 1991; Claassen 1998; Aguirre et al. 2011).
As such identification of taphonomic variables can
clarify the natural and anthropic process that affected
archaeological assemblages (Fernndez Lpez 1999;
Gutirrez Zugasti 2008).

Heidi Hammond. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas (CONICET). Divisin Arqueologa, Laboratorio
1, Museo de Ciencias Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Paseo del
Bosque S/N (1900), La Plata. E-mail: heidihammondunlp@gmail.com
Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 21-34. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X
Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 22 H. Hammond - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 21-34

the west and are strongest during

Figure 1. Northern coast of Santa Cruz Province and archaeological locations
mentioned in the text.
The aim of this paper is to present a methodology
for the study of archaeomalacological assemblages.
The focus is on identification of taphonomic processes
that affect archaeological shells and the method is
offered as a preliminary approach to assessing both
the integrity of shell middens and the formation
processes associated with these features within the
study area. Additionally, results of analyses of three
archaeomalacological assemblages provide a test
case for the proposed methodology. The assemblages
were recovered from three archaeological localities on
the NCSC: Puerto Jenkins Puerto
Jenkins 2 site (PJ2), Baha del Oso
Marino Las Hormigas site (LH),
and Isla Lobos 112 site (S112)
(Figure 2).
the summer months. Vegetation is
of the Patagonian Province of the
Andean-Patagonian domain and
characterized by shrub steppes
composed of grasses and coirones
(Stipa humilius and S. speciosa)
and interrupted by patches of mata
negra shrubs (Verbena tridens).
Geomorphologically, the San Jorge
gulf consists of wide sand or boulder
beaches, and rocky tidal flats where
mollusc shoals (restingas) develop.
To the south of the Cabo Blanco
area, the Atlantic coast extends
to the Ra Deseado estuary and
is characterized by beaches and
small intertidal zones with some
mollusc shoals. The area south of
Ra Deseado is geomorphologically
variable with large sand and
boulder beaches interspersed with
porphyritic outcrops of the Baha
Laura Formation. Mollusc shoals
develop in this area and species of edible molluscs
belonging to the Magellanic Biogeographic Province
are available.
Archaeological materials from sites located
south of Ra Deseado are used here as case studies.
Archaeological records in this area indicate intensive
but uneven use by hunter-gatherer populations. Major
concentrations of archaeological materials are found in
areas where animal resource availability particularly
marine resources tends to be high (Zubimendi et al.

STUDY AREA

The NCSC study area

comprises approximately 420 km
of coastline, bounded to the north
by the boundary between Chubut
and Santa Cruz Provinces, and
to the south by the Baha Laura
archaeological locality (Castro et
al. 2003). The area is characterized
by an arid to semiarid climate with
average temperatures between 4 C
and 17 C, and average precipitation
of 200 mm, falling largely as winter
rain. Predominant winds are from
Figure 2. Archaeological sites mentioned in the text.
 Taphonomic analysis of archaeomalacological
assemblages: shell middens on the northern coast of Santa Cruz (Patagonia, Argentina)
2005), as in the Isla Lobos, Baha del Oso Marino, and
Punta Medanosa areas (Figure 2).
SHELL MIDDENS
Table 1 provides a contextual description of the
shell middens analyzed in this paper. PJ2 is located
in the Puerto Jenkins archaeological locality (Figure 2)
where numerous shell middens are concentrated near
identified mollusc shoals. Middens are found up to
400 m from the modern shoreline (Zubimendi et al.
2004). PJ2, dated to 690 60 years BP, is located 100
m from the Ra Deseado shoreline. LH is located in the
Baha del Oso Marino locality, where shell middens
are heterogeneously distributed (Zilio and Hammond
2013). The site is radiocarbon dated to 370 40
years BP and located at 16 masl and 80 m from the
present coastline. S112 is located in the Isla Lobos
archaeological locality (Castro et al. 2003), where shell
middens cluster near the coastline. S112 is located
100 m away from the current shoreline and 11 masl.
Fragments of charcoal associated with archaeological
materials date to 2870 60 years BP (Table 1).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Excavation
On the NCSC, shell middens are composed of very
thick lenses of archaeological materials, so excavations
proceeded in 5-cm artificial levels. According to
Bejega Garca (2010), stratigraphic differences
between massive levels of mollusc shells may be
based on biological composition where the presence or
absence of particular species defines the stratigraphy.
Therefore, excavating by artificial levels aids detection
of differences in high-density shell lenses that may not
be identified otherwise. Recovery of small items was
performed using a 2 mm mesh sieve (Claassen 1998),
and the bottom sieve the smallest items remaining
after sieving was collected for classification and
further analysis in the laboratory (Bowdler 2009).
The following section details the methodology
for identification, classification, and quantification of
mollusc shells. It also describes different taphonomic
agents (Lyman
1994) and lists Archaeological Archaeological
selected taphonomic locality site
variables that should Puerto
Puerto
Jenkins 2
be considered in Jenkins
PJ2
any taphonomic
Baha del Oso Las Hormigas
approach to
Marino LH
archaeomalacological Site 112
Isla Lobos
assemblages. S112
Table
1. Description of archaeological sites presented in this paper.
23
Mollusc shell analyses: identification,
classification and quantification
1. Anatomical and taxonomic identification
and quantification of archaeological shellfish
assemblages
In archaeological shellfish assemblages,
anatomical and taxonomic identification is based
firstly on distinctive features of the shells, such as
morphology, color, sculpture and decoration; and
secondly on biogeographical distributions. Once a
shell has been identified anatomically, taxonomic
identification proceeds using diagnostic features
that permit assignment, ideally to the species level
(Gutirrez Zugasti 2008). Taxonomic features used in
the identification of the molluscs are: (for gastropods)
shape of the shell, characteristics of the umbilicus
and aperture, and characteristics of ornamentation;
(for bivalves) shape of the shell, hinge features,
number and arrangement of muscular impressions,
and ornamentation (Moreno Nuo 1994: 16);
and (for polyplacophorans) shape of the shell and
ornamentation (Gordillo 2007). Shells are grouped into
categories according to their preservation:
Complete shells (VCOM) are those exhibiting more than
90% of the original shell and an individual diagnostic
element, known as a Non-Repetitive Element (NRE; Mason
et al. 1998). An NRE is a part of a shell that is diagnostic
for each species or genus, which can be counted a
number of times to infer the presence of an individual.
In gastropods, NRE include the apex, columella, and
foramen. In bivalves, it is the hinge or the umbo, to be
differentiated right from left. Polyplacophorans (chitons)
are composed of eight plates, one cephalic, one caudal,
and six intermediate; individuals can be counted taking
the highest value of cephalic or caudal plates. On
complete shells, biometric measurements are made,
including length, width, and height of the shell.
Diagnostic shell fragments (VFRA) are shells less than
90% complete but that still contain an NRE. Gastropod
fragments were assigned to one of two categories.1) IFRA
are fragments with intact columella ends but that lack the
buccal area. Among Nacella magellanica, IFRA contain
the apex and part of the shell. 2) FAPI are fragments that
include apex or portions of it. On bivalves the identifiable
fragments were subdivided into: VFRA (fragmented shell)
and FCHC (fragment of umbo or hinge complete) (lvarez
Fernndez 2007).
Age 14C Excavated Stratigraphic
Location
(years BP) rea (m2) thickness (cm)
cord of coastal
690 60 boulders with
0.5 43
(LP-2603) sandy cover
burdensome
370 40 aeolian mantle on
1 55
(LP-2504) Holocene terrace
2870 60
Aeolian mantle 0.25 17
(LP-2141)
 24 H. Hammond - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 21-34
Fragments (FRAG) are pieces of shell that lack diagnostic
elements. Fragments can contribute to measures of
abundance including NISP, the number of identifiable
specimens (complete shells plus fragments), and MNI,
the minimum number of individuals for each genus or
species. For gastropods, MNI is calculated according
to the formula: VCOM + FAPI + IFRA. For bivalves,
MNI is calculated as VCOM + FCHC + VFRA (taking
the highest value between left and right VFRA; lvarez
Fernndez 2007). Fragments are also used to calculate
taxonomic richness, defined as the total number of taxa
in a collection. Assemblage diversity is the number of
individuals (NISP or NMI) distributed across all the
identified species or taxa (Claassen 1998; Dupont 2003).
In the NCSC contexts analyzed to date, we have
identified three groups of molluscs gastropods,
bivalves, and polyplacophorans using specific
literature (Castellanos 1970; Aguirre 2003; Aguirre et
al. 2009 and Gordillo 2007 for polyplacophora, among
others), and a comparative collection consisting of both
modern and archaeological specimens (Bejega Garca
2010), and following the nomenclature of the World
Register Marine Species (WoRMS 2012) database.
2. Biometric analysis
Following taxonomic identification of
archaeomalacological assemblages, biometric
analysis (length, width, and height) of complete
shells is required. Shell size is related to the age
of the individual, the microenvironment in which
it developed, and ontogenetic growth rate, which
decreases as age increases (Claassen 1998). At NCSC
shell middens, the most abundant conchological
species are Nacella magellanica (limpet), Aulacomya
atra (ribbed mussel), Mytilus edulis (blue mussel),
and Perumytilus purpuratus (Zubimendi et al. 2005;
Zubimendi 2012; Hammond and Zubimendi 2013).
To gauge shell size, the maximum diameter of the
base of the shell is measured in Nacella magellanica;
in bivalves, maximum diameter is measured from
the umbo to the distal end of the shell. Usually,
biometric analyses are used to interpret the processes
of overexploitation, in studies of growth environments,
for estimating season of harvest (Claassen 1998),
and to determine whether there may have been size
selection during harvesting (lvarez Fernndez 2009).
Occasionally these analyses have also been used to
explore the mode of harvest, estimate the size of the
sampled population, and identify rare or uncommon
species at archaeological sites (Claassen 1998).
3. Weight of the remains
The weight of archaeomalacological assemblages
is a variable that has been widely discussed by many
authors (Claassen 1998, 2000; Mason et al. 1998,
2000; Glassow 2000). Claassen (1998: 107) points
out that criticisms of shell weight quantification center
primarily on the loss of weight with diagenesis, which
affects different species at different rates. The author
notes that the older the site or the more acidic the
soil, the greater the loss of calcium carbonate and
conchiolin and the greater the differential loss of
calcium carbonate between species. lvarez Fernndez
(2007) indicates that we must consider that different
taphonomic agents and processes that could affect
archaeomalacological remains and the weight of
shells, such as descaling or precipitation of calcium
carbonate and matrix acidity. Moreover, Bejega Garca
(2008) notes that despite the limitations of weight for
estimating abundance, weight values are still important
as they may reflect changes in the shell composition of
archaeological levels within a site. In the same way,
if a sample is highly fragmented, weight is sometimes
the only available criterion of analysis.
Taphonomic agents and taphonomic processes
1. Taphonomic agents
A taphonomic agent is a source of force applied
to materials, and the physical cause of modification
(Morlan 1984; Lyman 1994). Archaeological materials
have their own taphonomic histories, and it is necessary
to identify the agents and processes responsible for any
signs of modification. Agents that modify materials in
the archaeological record have predictable physical
effects (Schiffer 1983) that can be inferred (Nash and
Petraglia 1987). In this way, taphonomic studies in
archaeology contribute to our understanding of the
formation of archaeological sites (Borrero 1988).
A variety of taphonomic agents alter the remains
that compose shell middens:
Biological: Fauna (both vertebrates and invertebrates) and
flora are considered among biological agents. At NCSC,
fossorial rodents (Ctenomys sp.), Magellanic penguins
(Spheniscus magellanicus), and armadillos (Zaedyus pichiy
and Chaetophractus villosus) are among the animals
that modify remains and their spatial arrangements in
shell middens by moving and scattering archaeological
material. These animals can also introduce foreign
remains through the caves they excavate (Hammond et
al. 2013). The modern introduction of livestock (sheep)
is another factor that disturbs shell middens; trampling
causes the removal, displacement, and fragmentation
of archaeological remains. Vegetation may also cause
movement and mixing of archaeological remains, and
root growth in fissures or cracks may fracture shells, all
of which can mechanically change the original structure
of deposits. Roots between the shells can also trigger
chemical dissolution (Gutirrez Zugasti 2008).
Anthropic: Human populations can modifiy the
archaeological record in several ways, whether
deliberately or accidentally. Such modifications can
 Taphonomic analysis of archaeomalacological
assemblages: shell middens on the northern coast of Santa Cruz (Patagonia, Argentina) 25

be divided into ones produced during occupation of they have undergone throughout the formation of the
the site and those that occur after abandonment. For archaeological deposit.
example, trampling of archaeomalacological remains
post-deposition can cause considerable fragmentation
and horizontal displacement. Subsequent reoccupation Taphonomic variables
of archaeological sites can further modify preexisting
Preservation of periostracum: The periostracum is an outer
structures.
membrane composed of protein that covers the shells of
Excavation by non-specialists, construction of roads, ur-
some gastropods and bivalve molluscs (Figure 3A). This
ban growth, and the use of vehicles in coastal areas are
membrane is especially visible in the shells of species
also agents of archaeological site destruction (Ceci 1984;
within the family Mitilidae, particularly Aulacomya atra
Zubimendi et al. 2012).
and Mytilus edulis. This organic layer is secreted by a
Physical-geological: The primary physical agents
mantle portion of molluscs, and its main function is to
affecting shell middens are water and wind. In open-air
protect the limestone part of the shell against various
shell middens, fluvial processes and wind can transport
hazards including acidic substances (Camacho 2007).
archaeological remains, resulting in the modification of
Preservation of the periostracum on archaeological shells
site morphology and structure. Wind erosion, storms,
is interpreted as a sign of the records integrity and of
and sudden changes in temperature can accelerate the
rapid burial (Zubimendi 2012; Hammond and Zubimendi
degradation, fragmentation, and mobilization of the shells
2013). Preservation of this membrane in stratigraphic
(Claassen 1998). Moisture and sunlight are other agents
contexts is also determined by conditions within the
that may alter the remains.
sedimentary matrix (moisture, organic content, and pH).
Chemicals: Archaeological remains can be chemically
Under unfavorable conditions of burial, periostracum
altered according to chemical conditions within the
loss will progress through time. When exposed to
sedimentary matrix. A variety of variables, including
environmental conditions (wind, sun, rain, and moisture)
pH and the relative proportion of organic matter,
the periostracum dries quickly, fractures and falls off
phosphate, carbonate and salt, can be studied to assess
easily. The preservation of periostracum is recorded as
conservation, pollution, and other chemical processes
present (1) or absent (0).
that affect assemblages. The pH level of the matrix affects
the preservation of certain archaeological remains. Stein
(1987) suggests that soil pH is affected by
the amount of organic waste introduced by
people during site occupation. Generally,
an abundance of calcium carbonate, of
which shells are composed, causes a neutral
or slightly alkaline pH, which tends to
preserve many organic remains (Orquera
and Piana 2000). However, a highly alkaline
environment creates unfavorable conditions
for the preservation of organic remains such as
bone because it induces collagen hydrolysis
(Favier Dubois and Bonomo 2008). High
salinity and high levels of organic matter
within the midden matrix cause a higher
incidence of corrosion.

2. Taphonomic processes on shells

People and animals are geomorphological

agents that produce archaeological
sediments, the physical, biogenic, and
cultural components of which require
identification and interpretation (Butzer
1982: 66). Thus, shell accumulations are
considered archaeosediments (Butzer 1982;
Stein 1987). The identification of natural and
anthropic components is therefore critical
to the interpretation of formation processes
at archaeological sites. For this reason,
analysis of taphonomic processes that have
affected archaeological remains is a means of Figure 3. A. Aulacomya atra shells with preserved periostraca; B. Shells
with evidence of surface corrosion; C. Shells with evidence of surface
understanding their origins and the changes
abrasion.
26 H. Hammond - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 21-34
Corrosion: Corrosion occurs when calcium carbonate
in the form of calcite or aragonite (Camacho 2007)
or other mineral components of the shell dissolve due
to chemical conditions in the environment (Gutirrez
Zugasti 2008; Figure 3B). Chemical erosion first attacks
thinner surface areas, which leads to characteristic shapes
on particular taxa. Some effects of chemical dissolution
of shells are a corroded appearance of surfaces, loss of
ornamentation, and thinning and development of holes
and cracks (Fernndez Lpez 1999: 81). Identification
of such alterations can indicate the environmental
conditions in the organisms habitat or deposition matrix.
Moreover, corrosion can be inferred from analyses of the
substrate where the remains were deposited. Corrosion
and dissolution of shells mineral components are
greater in areas where salinity is high, temperatures are
low, and bioturbation is common (Claassen 1998: 59).
Chemical dissolution is also related to sediment moisture
conditions, climatic fluctuations, and the abundance of
vegetation in the substrate (Aguirre et al. 2011). Corrosion
is recorded as present (1) or absent (0).
Abrasion: Abrasion refers to the removal of calcium
carbonate, of which shells are composed, by physical
processes or bioerosion (Claassen 1998). This process
leads to weathering of shells most prominent exterior
ornamentation, modifying their original texture and
creating porous surfaces (Figure 3C). Corrasion is abrasion
caused by wind (Breed et al. 1997) and its effects vary
according to wind speed, hardness of the abraded surface,
concentration of abrasive particles (such as sand), and the
density and distribution of vegetation and topographic
features (Waters 1992).Time of exposure on the land
surface is also a factor. Abrasion analysis can provide
information regarding sedimentation at the archaeological
site, displacement of archaeological remains, and post-
depositional processes. It is important to assess abrasion
to identify which remains were incorporated in to the site
by people, and which by natural processes. For example,
small gastropods that form natural coastal cords where
archaeological sites are sometimes located generally have
evidence of marine abrasion and can be integrated as
part of the sedimentary matrix of sites. Shell abrasion is
recorded as present (1) or absent (0).
Deformation: Deformation refers to changes in the
size, shape, structure, and/or texture of shells due to
mechanical stress. This process may cause folds, fissures,
cracks, or fractures. Sediment pressure may cause
deformation of overall shape (lvarez Fernndez 2009).
This process is enhanced if the sediment column has high
levels of moisture or organic material, which affect the
microstructure of the shell and its resistance (Zuschin
et al. 2003). At NCSC, deformation has been observed
mainly on limpet shells.
Fragmentation: Fragmentation is one of the most common
processes observed in archaeomalacological assemblages
and involves breakage of shells and separation of the
fragments. This process can affect anatomic and taxonomic
identification of the remains (Gutirrez Zugasti 2008).
Shells, particularly those of bivalves, tend to fragment
along existing features, such as growth and ornamentation
lines (Farinati and Zavala 1995). Fragmentation will vary
according to the morphology, microstructure, thickness,
ornamentation, size and strength of the shell, as well
as biostratinomic processes (Claassen 1998; Aguirre et
al. 2011). Other factors that may affect the structure
of shells and increase fragmentation of an assemblage
are exposure to heat (Claassen 1998), decalcification
and biodegradation (Gutirrez Zugasti 2008), and the
amount of organic matter and moisture in the sedimentary
matrix (Zuschin et al. 2003). Sedimentary processes such
as compression (Claassen 1998), and biological (e.g.,
bioturbation and root action) and natural processes (e.g.,
effects of water, wind and temperature fluctuations) may
also influence increase fragmentation rates. Fragmentation
increases the susceptibility of the particles to size sorting
and transport by different agents (Claassen 1998: 55).
Different anthropic processes can produce fragmentation
such as trampling, site cleaning (removal of remains),
production of artifacts or instruments, or the mode of
shellfish gathering.
Thermal alteration: Heat alters the crystallographic
structure of shells. The higher the temperatures they are
exposed to, the faster they will deteriorate and, ultimately,
break. Shells affected by thermal exposure experience
changes in the original color of the surface and weight
loss relative to unburned shells (Claassen 1998). For
example, limpets that have not been affected by heat
are brown whereas those exposed to high temperatures
for longer periods are dark gray, often carbonized, and
their structure is very weak, which causes them to be
easily fragmented (Claassen 1998; Villamarzo 2009),
thereby affecting conservation of the entire assemblage.
Carbonification is related to the exposure of shells
directly to flames, and involves carbon enrichment.
Typically, molluscs are covered by a layer of very fine
gray sediments (Gutirrez Zugasti 2008).
Thermal alteration of shells is determined by macroscopic
appearance and color and recorded as not burned (0,
original color); burned (1, light brown-gray); carbonized
(2, dark brown to black color); or calcined (3, white
color) (Villamarzo 2009; Villagran et al. 2010).
Breakage and/or deliberated impact of shells: It has been
suggested that breakage and/or impact on shells may
be related to the way some species of molluscs were
harvested (Pailler et al. 2007). In particular shell middens
at NCSC, many limpet shells are cracked or broken
(Figure 4A). These breaks may be due to the use of an
instrument to release the molluscs from the rocks where
they grow. When a hard blow is delivered to detach
a shell, breaks along the margin or side may occur.
Classification and recording of impacts and breakage
follows Pailler and colleagues (2007). These authors
divide shells of the gastropod Nacella magellanica into
eight zones and in three areas in relation to the height
of the shell (Figure 4B). By this method, the location
of impacts / breakage can be recorded in a way that
permits comparison.
Bioerosion: The analysis of bioerosion can provide
paleoecological information. Many marine organisms are
capable of eroding and modifying shells, for predatory
reasons or otherwise (Figure 5). Algae, fungi, foraminifera,
bryozoans, bivalves, gastropods, sponges, and barnacles
can cause such modifications before and/or after death of
the shellfish (Claassen 1998). Some gastropods, particularly
 Taphonomic analysis of archaeomalacological
assemblages: shell middens on the northern coast of Santa Cruz (Patagonia, Argentina) 27

embedded on shells collected by human

groups. In the archaeomalacological
assemblages of the NCSC, Balanus sp. is the
predominant encrusting species (Hammond
and Zubimendi 2013). Sometimes the
encrustations occur on the inner surface of
the shells, which indicates that they were
incorporated into the archaeological record
after the death of the organism. The presence
of encrustations or epibiont organisms can
prevent the effects of bioeroders on shell
surfaces (Claassen 1998: 40).
Color preservation: This variable is
recorded as an indicator of preservation
of the remains. The preservation
of color depends primarily on the
chemical composition and stability of
the pigment that colors the surface, and
the mineralogical composition of shell
(Claassen 1998). Color loss is determined
by different agents. It is important to
distinguish the processes involved and
their effects because different processes
can have similar effects (Lyman 1994: 38).
Abrasion, corrosion, and thermal alteration
are the main taphonomic processes related
to the loss of original shell color, and can
significantly affect the surface coloration
and ornamentation. Color loss due to
sunlight exposure causes shells to acquire
Figure 4. A. Shells with evidence of impacts and breaks; B. Segmentation of a white color superficially. Preservation of
shells to record the position of impacts and breaks. original shell color was recorded using the
naticid and muricid, drill shells with their radula leaving following scale: conservation of the original color (0);
circular holes with slightly tapered or straight sides (lvarez partial conservation of the original color (1); total loss
Fernndez 2009). The holes produced by mollusc drilling of original color (2); total color loss by sun exposure
can result in either complete perforation or incomplete, (3) (Figure 6).
unsuccessful perforation. Perforations are made in
exposed or weak areas of shells; among bivalves, this
is usually near the umbo, and among gastropods, near
the apex. Drilling facilitates future
fracture of shells (Claassen 1998;
Zuschin et al. 2003). Completely
perforated shells likely entered the
deposits dead because of the action
of bioeroding organisms to obtain soft
tissue or calcium.
Sometimes mollusc shells have
other epibiont organisms attached
to them. Such organisms erode
and remove the periostracum, and
produce erosion and surface marks.
Heavy encrustation occurs on dead
organisms shells exposed at the
watersediment interface in low
energy habitats (Claassen 1998). It is
important to identify these types of
marks to avoid confusion with marks
produced by humans. Bioerosion
studies allow understanding the
presence of certain species in the
malacological assemblage, which
could be incorporated to the site
Figure 5. Shells with surface bioerosion.
 28 H. Hammond - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 21-34

shells were recorded in LH and S112, and

imbricated limpet shells were recorded in situ
at PJ2. These features indicate rapid burial
without mobilization of the archaeological
remains.

Malacological composition of shell

middens

Table 3 presents mollusc species NISPs

and MNIs for each excavation. Twenty-three
species were identified, and some specimens
remain unidentified. Most of the species are
gastropods and Nacella magellanica is the
predominant species in all assemblages.
The remaining gastropod species occur in
smaller amounts. Of the bivalves, Mytilus
edulis, Aulacomya atra and Perumytilus
purpuratus predominate; the rest of the
species are represented by a few specimens
Figure 6. Degrees of color preservation of shells.
each. Regarding species richness, LH has the
highest conchological diversity, while S112 exhibits
RESULTS
Variables analyzed Puerto Jenkins 2 Las Hormigas Site 112
Table 2 presents a characterization Thickness 15 cm 8 cm 6 cm
Concentrations of shells

sandy cover
of shells identified in each of the Location
burdensome
aeolian mantle aeolian mantle
middens analyzed in terms of the Geometry Tabular Lenticular Lenticular
variables proposed by Favier Dubois Estratigraphy 1 lens of shells 1 lens of shells 1 lens of shells
and Borella (2007), Zubimendi (2012), No preferential No preferential No preferential
Orientation
orientation orientation orientation
and Hammond and Zubimendi Tilt Subhorizontal Subhorizontal Subhorizontal
(2013). Excavations profiles are Shells articulated
Yes Yes Yes
in situ
presented in Figure 7. Shell middens
are located on different geomorphic Table 2. Features of shells concentrations at the shell middens.
surfaces: lines of coastal boulders
with sandy cover and sandy aeolian
mantles. The shell concentration at
the PJ2 site is described as having
tabular stratigraphic geometry with
a high density of shells in contact
with each other (bioclast-supported
structure). The LH and S112 sites
are described as having lenticular
geometry affected by erosion and
deflation that has exposed the surfaces
of archaeological remains. These
processes generated mound-shaped
accumulations formed by a surface
layer of shells redeposited above
aeolian sediments that compose the
dunes (Hammond et al. 2013). In all
three case studies, individual lenses
with high-density archaeological
remains were identified in the
stratigraphic sequence. The surfaces
on which the sites are located are
horizontal to subhorizontal. During
excavations, articulated mussel
Figure 7. Excavations profiles.
 Taphonomic analysis of archaeomalacological
assemblages: shell middens on the northern coast of Santa Cruz (Patagonia, Argentina) 29

uneven at our study sites

Mollusc Puerto Jenkins 2 Las Hormigas Site 112
(Table 5). The main processes
Cl. Gasteropoda NISP MNI NISP MNI NISP MNI
that have affected the shells
Nacella
magellanica
2440 2440 (69.2%) 509 509 (18.85%) 35 35 (5.8%) in these assemblages are
Crepipatella fragmentation, corrosion, and
94 94 (2.66%) 72 72 (2.7%) 4 4 (0.7%)
dilatata thermal alteration. Regarding
Pareuthria
2 2 (0.05%) 7 7 (0.25%) 2 2 (0.35%) shell color preservation at LH,
plumbea
Trophon a very low percentage of the
2 2 (0.05%) 5 5 (0.2%) - -
geversianus specimens retain their original
Buccinanops
- - 2 2 (0.07%) - - color (2.2%) and more than
globosum
Adelomelon sp. 1 1 (0.02%) - - - - half of the assemblage reflects
Epitonium a partial loss of original shell
- - 1 1 (0.04%) - -
magellanicum color (68.9%). In the PJ2 and
Siphonaria 7 (1.16%) S112 assemblages, almost all of
5 5 (0.14%) 12 12 (0.45%) 7
lessoni
Fissurella sp. 5 5 (0.14%) 11 11 (0.4%) - -
the shells have completely lost
Acantina their original color, possibly
- - 1 1 (0.04%) - -
monodon due to high levels of thermal
Kerguelenella 9 (1.5%) alteration and corrosion. The
31 31 (0.9%) 9 9 (0.35%) 9
lateralis
Iothia total loss of color by sun
- - 1 1 (0.04%) - -
coppingeri exposure is very low at LH, and
Gasteropodoindet. 3 3 (0.08%) 10 10 (0.35%) - - was observed primarily among
Cl. Bivalvia NISP MMI NISP MNI NISP MNI remains exposed on the surface.
Mytilusedulis 1390 726 (20.6%) 1462 761 (28.2%) 941 488 (81%) At LH, a high percentage of
Aulacomyaatra 164 101 (2.9%) 1658 873 (32.5%) 10 6 (1%) shells (primarily Aulacomya
Perumytilus
207 114 (3.2%) 709 389 (14.4%) 82 50 (8.3%) atra) retain their periostraca,
purpuratus
which may indicate rapid burial
Ensis macha - - 17 11 (0.4%) 1 1 (0.16%)
and a high-integrity record
Hiatella solida 1 1 (0.02%) 3 2 (0.07%) - -
(Zubimendi and Hammond
Hiatellaartica - - 1 1 (0.04%) - -
2009; Zubimendi 2012;
Taweraelliptica 1 1 (0.02%) 18 11 (0.4%) - -
Hammond and Zubimendi
Petricolaria -
patagonica
- - 1 1 (0.04%) - 2013).
Darina
solenoides
- - 2 2 (0.07%) - The PJ2 assemblage has a
-

SF. Veneridae 1 1 (0.02%) 3 3 (0.11%) - high incidence of corrosion

-
Cl. Polyplacophora NISP MNI NISP MNI NISP MNI (99.5%), while the proportion
Neoloricata - - 15 4 (0.14%) - - of abraded shells is low in all
Richness 13 13 18 18 9 9 of the analyzed assemblages.
Total 4347 3527 4529 2698 1091 602 Abrasion is evident on shells
that were exposed on the
Table 3. Species of molluscs at the shell middens (NISP and MNI).
surface and in contact with
particles that abraded and polished surfaces.
the minimum value, the latter being both the earliest
site and the one with the smallest excavated area. Thermal alteration among shells from LH, indicate
Table 4 presents the weight of the shell remains at that part of the assemblage was exposed to heat.
each site, sorted by mollusc class and quantification However, well-preserved shell structures suggest the
category. heat exposure may have been of short duration or the
temperature relatively low. At S112, the malacological
remains have been severely affected by thermal
Taphonomic alterations of the
Archaeological Weight of the remains of shells (grams)
shells Mollusc
sites VCOM VFRA FRAG TOTAL
Cl. Gasteropoda 13,514 2,862
The taphonomic analysis of Puerto Cl. Bivalvia 667 3,583 12,689 33,315
Jenkins 2
mollusc shells presented here is Cl. Polyplacophora 0 0
preliminary and, accordingly, we focus Las
Cl. Gasteropoda 1,945 191
Cl. Bivalvia 4,084 5089 9,615 20,927
our analysis of taphonomic processes Hormigas
Cl. Polyplacophora 2 1
on complete mollusc shells (VCOM). Cl. Gasteropoda 237 44
Site 112 Cl. Bivalvia 558 2,488 2,513 5,840
Preservation of the Cl. Polyplacophora 0 0
archaeomalacological remains is Table 4. Weight of the remains of shells.
 30 H. Hammond - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 21-34

Variables analyzed Puerto Jenkins 2 Las Hormigas Site 112 and 73.2% of P. purpuratus shells are
Original color 0 (0 %) 39 (2.22%) 0 (0%) complete, respectively. Signs of in situ
Color preservation

Partial
fragmentation of Mytilus edulis and
conservation of 70 (3.6%) 1207 (68.9%) 3 (2%)
color Aulacomya atra shells were observed
Total color loss 1877 (96.4%) 489 (27.9%) 175 (98%) at LH and S112, which may be the
Total color loss by
1 (0.1%) 17 (1%) 0 (0%) result of trampling and/or sediment
sun exposure
compression.
Periostracum
1 (0.1%) 1006 (57.4%) 0 (0%)
conservation Unidentifiable fragments
Evidence of corrosion 1939 (99.5%) 649 (37.05%) 118 (66%)
Evidence of abrasion
(FRAG) represent large volumes of
6 (0.3%) 8 (0.45%) 0 (0%)
Taphonomic variables

Presenceofencrustations malacological material in the study

5 (0.3%) 18 (1.03%) 0 (0%)
Evidence of bioerosion area. To date, we have used weight to
11 (0.6%) 4 (0.25%) 0 (0%)
not burned 0 (0%) 406 (23%) 0 (0%)
estimate the relative abundance of this
Thermal
alteratio

burned 840 (43%) 1349 (77%) 0 (0%)

type of debris (Table 4). Some authors
n

carbonized 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)

calcined
Breakage and/or
deliberate impact on
460 (23.6%) 139 (7.95%)
shells of Nacella
magellanica
Total of mollusc shells (VCOM)
on which color and taphonomic 1948 1752
variables were calculated
Table 5. Color preservation and taphonomic processes that have affected the fragmentation and depositional history
malacological remains.
alteration. The shell lens was located above a burned
layer of sediment, ash and charcoal; the shells surfaces
are light gray to white (calcined), they have lost the
original color, and their crystallographic structure has
been altered and deteriorated. During excavation, shells
were easily fractured when removed from the sediment.
The PJ2 malacological assemblage was also thermally
altered, which accounts for the high percentage of
shells exhibiting total loss of original color, that are
brown (43% burned) or are light gray to white (57%
calcined). Also, there is a high percentage of Nacella
magellanica shells with impacts or breaks, interpreted
as anthropic alteration due to the irregularity of the
fractures, similarity to other excavated sites, and based
on experimental replication. The proportion of shell
alterations by other marine organisms (encrustation and
perforation) is insignificant, and the primary encrusting
species recorded at the sites is Balanus sp.
1108 (57%) 0 (0%) 178 (100%)
identify the remains at the level of the
species and perform quantification
3 (2%)
thereof (Moreno Nuo 1994; lvarez
Fernndez 2007; Bejega Garca 2009).
178 Another approach is assessing the size
of fragments to evaluate factors of
(Stein 1987; Ford 1992). Such analyses
of unidentifiable fragments (FRAG) should be part of
future studies designed to more thoroughly investigate
the multiplicity of agents and factors that determine
the preservation of shells (Muckle 1985; Ford 1992;
Claassen 1998).
DISCUSSION
The archaeomalacological assemblages presented
in this paper correspond to single discard events. The
shells were in contact with one another (bioclast-
supported fabric) at all sites, creating discrete lenses
of archaeological remains with good integrity. At LH
and S112, deflation and erosion have exposed the
archaeological materials, which begin to deteriorate

Fragmentation of archaeomalacological
assemblages

The malacological assemblages analyzed here

all have similar percentages of fragmentation:
approximately 70% of Nacella magellanica shells
are complete (Figure 8), while Mytilus edulis and
Aulacomya atra shells are highly fragmented. Mussel
shells are best preserved at LH (23% of Mytilus edulis
and 30.5% of Aulacomya atra were complete), whereas
only 10% of Mytilus edulis and Aulacomya atra shells
are complete at S112 (Figure 8). Fragmentation may
be influenced by deterioration of the shells due to
thermal alteration. Perumytilus purpuratus shells were
differentially preserved at the sites. At PJ2, 47.3% of
Figure 8. Percentages of complete (VCOM) and fragmented
this species is complete; while at LH and S112 71.8%
(VFRA) shells of the main species represented at the sites.
 Taphonomic analysis of archaeomalacological
assemblages: shell middens on the northern coast of Santa Cruz (Patagonia, Argentina)
rapidly when subjected to environmental conditions.
At PJ2, the archaeological remains are completely
buried, and the site surface was covered by vegetation
that fixed the surface sedimentary layer and prevented
exposure of the archaeological remains. The integrity
of the assemblages is good; burial was likely rapid
and archaeological materials appear not to have been
scattered. This resulted in the formation of massive
archaeological deposits, resistant to disaggregation.
At all sites the level of abrasion is low, and evidence
of abrasion was observed only on shells found in
superficial layers, indicating that they were not exposed
to environmental conditions (wind, water effect) for long
time.
The taphonomic processes most evident among
the assemblages are fragmentation, corrosion, and
thermal alteration, although the malacological
remains are generally well preserved. At LH, rapid
burial preserved periostraca and original color in high
proportions (though it should be noted that this is also
the youngest site). Articulated mussel shells were found
in situ at the three sites, and imbricated limpet shells
were found at PJ2. High percentage of corrosion and
thermal alteration were also recorded at PJ2, which
led to a high percentage of shells exhibiting loss of
original color. At S112, shells were severely altered
by heat, which made them very weak; bivalve shells
in particular have not preserved periostracum neither
the original shell color.
Similar trends in fragmentation are observed in all
assemblages. Mytilus edulis and Aulacomya atra shells
have the highest percentages of fragmentation, while
Perumytilus purpuratus and Nacella magellanica have
higher percentages of complete shells. This could be
due to structural and morphological characteristics of
the shells themselves, although it must be recognized
that different processes (e.g., corrosion, thermal
alteration, sediment pressure) can significantly affect
their structure and lead to fragmentation. Study of the
NCSC shell middens indicates that mussels usually have
higher levels of fragmentation than gastropods such as
Nacella magellanica (Zubimendi 2012; Hammond and
Zubimendi 2013). Future studies should incorporate
analyses of diagnostic or identifiable (VFRA) mollusc
shell fragments to obtain more comprehensive
information regarding the processes that have affected
the archaeological remains.
Archaeological remains at all three sites are
associated with fragments of charcoal and thermally
altered sediments, which suggests that the molluscs may
have been exposed to heat for cooking and opening the
shells of bivalves. At the three shell middens, we also
recovered lithic artifacts and faunal remains (generally
highly fragmented) in association with the shell lenses
and charcoal (Hammond y Zubimendi 2013).
31
We observed that the predominant taxa in the
malacological assemblages are those identified as
important foods (Nacella magellanica, Mytilus edulis
and Aulacomya atra), which develop on hard substrates
in the intertidal zone (Zubimendi et al. 2005). We have
also observed low frequencies of various taxa that,
because of their small size, cannot be considered as
food (for example Crepipatella dilatata, Siphonaria
lessoni, Kerguelenella lateralis, Iothia coppinheri or
Balanus sp.). These species are important because they
provide information about environmental conditions
and site formation processes. These small molluscs may
have been deposited in the site as an unintentional
by product of particular harvesting techniques, such
as collecting in bunches (Orquera and Piana 1999).
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we presented a proposal for the study
of shell midden archaeomalacological assemblages,
and emphasized the importance of taphonomic studies
in the identification of agents that modify shells and
processes that affect shell midden formation in the
study area. Based on the results of our analyses of
malacological assemblages at NCSC, we argue that it
is possible to infer the agents (natural and anthropic)
and processes (pre- and post-depositational) that have
produced physical and/or chemical modifications on
the shells.
The advantage of our methodological approach to
archaeomalacological assemblages is its applicability
to different kinds of archaeological records composed
of molluscs. Due to their composition, shells are more
resistant than other organic remains such as bone
(Linse 1992) or wood. Moreover, insights gleaned
from the study of archaeomalacological assemblages
extends beyond interpreting the records themselves,
contributing to discussions of archaeological site
formation.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank A. Castro and M. Zubimendi
for their comments and suggestions. I also want to
thank L. Zilio who made the figures, and the reviewers
and editors whose comments on an earlier draft of this
paper helped to improve it.
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 | 35

Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary practices and

processing residues of native tuberous plants of the
south-central Andes
Mara del Pilar Babot, Julia Lund and Adriana Valeria Olmos
Received 20 August 2013. Accepted 14 February 2014

ABSTRACT

We present comparative material for the identification of culinary residues of cooked tubers of Solanum sp.,
Oxalis tuberosa and Ullucus tuberosus. We use a broad concept of taphonomy that includes the study of plant
modifications resulting from the preparation of food, in this case the boiling and cooking al rescoldo of fresh
tubers. We undertake a number of controlled cooking experiments and compare the results with fresh samples. We
discuss morphological and optical modifications of tissue fragments and intracellular particles resulting from our
cooking experiments. Finally, we discuss the possibility of recognizing cooking techniques from microscopic
analysis of tuber remains.
Keywords: Taphonomy; Culinary techniques; Plant processing; Starch; Tubers.

RESUMEN

TAFONOMA EN LA COCINA: PRCTICAS CULINARIAS Y RESIDUOS DEL PROCESAMIENTO DE PLANTAS

TUBEROSAS NATIVAS DE LOS ANDES CENTRO-SUR. Presentamos material comparativo para la identificacin
de residuos culinarios de tubrculos cocidos de Solanum sp., Oxalis tuberosa y Ullucus tuberosus. Partimos de
un concepto amplio de tafonoma que incluye el estudio de las modificaciones de las plantas resultantes de la
preparacin de alimentos; en este caso, aquellas que se deben al hervido y coccin al rescoldo de tubrculos
frescos. Realizamos experimentos de coccin controlados y comparamos los resultados con muestras frescas.
Describimos las modificaciones en los atributos morfolgicos y pticos de tejidos y partculas intracelulares
resultantes de nuestros experimentos de coccin. Finalmente, discutimos la posibilidad de reconocer las tcnicas
de coccin a partir del anlisis microscpico de vestigios de tubrculos.
Palabras clave: Tafonoma; Tcnicas culinarias; Procesamiento de plantas; Almidn; Tubrculos.

Mara del Pilar Babot. Instituto de Arqueologa y Museo, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo,
Universidad Nacional de Tucumn (IAM, FCN e IML, UNT). Instituto Superior de Estudios Sociales - Consejo Nacional
de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas-UNT (ISES-CONICET-UNT). San Lorenzo 429 (4000), San Miguel de Tucumn,
Tucumn, Argentina. E-mail: pilarbabot@yahoo.com
Julia Lund. Instituto de Arqueologa y Museo, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo, Universidad Nacional
de Tucumn (IAM, FCN e IML, UNT). San Martn 1545 (4000), San Miguel de Tucumn, Tucumn, Argentina. E-mail:
julialund13@yahoo.es
Adriana Valeria Olmos. Instituto de Arqueologa y Museo, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo,
Universidad Nacional de Tucumn (IAM, FCN e IML, UNT). San Martn 1545 (4000), San Miguel de Tucumn, Tucumn,
Argentina. E-mail: adriana.valeria.olmos@gmail.com

Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 35-53. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 36 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53
A TAPHONOMIC APPROACH OF CULINARY
TRANSFORMATIONS
This work is part of a series of studies initiated
over a decade ago (Babot and Korstanje 2001; Babot
2003), aimed at generating comparative material
for identifying plant processing techniques from
microscopic analysis of preserved residues of plants
native to the south-central Andes. It is worth noting
that the transformations and agents involved in such
preparations (e.g., cooking) go beyond the scope of
food, as medicinal or ritual uses can also be important.
Thus, although the perspective of this work is culinary,
this is only circumstantial; the emphasis is on how
techniques, as modes of transformation, affect matter
(Pazzarelli 2012).
This study deals with the cooking of tuberous plants
of the genus Solanum L. (Solanaceae), potatoes;
Oxalis tuberosa Mol. (Oxalidaceae), oca and Ullucus
tuberosus Caldas (Basellaceae), ulluco or papa
lisa. We began with an ethnobotanical approach that
considers the traditional uses of plants in the south-
central Andean region and the various means by which
tubers become food. We developed experiments to
obtain tubers cooked al rescoldo and boiled tubers,
which may themselves constitute simple foods, based on
a single ingredient, or be part of complex preparations
with other plant, animal and mineral ingredients.
We rely on a broad concept of recipe [...] as
a more or less flexible or open formula to achieve a
preparation (Babot et al. 2012: 242). The components
of a recipe are its ingredients in relative amounts
and combinations, the modes and techniques of
preparation and service, the circumstances of its use,
the implements required throughout the process, and the
spatio-temporal context and the actors involved in the
culinary performance (Babot et al. 2012). Of all these
components, this paper deals with tubers as ingredients
in recipes, and with methods of tuber preparation.
Preparation sequences are not rigid or linear because
a food element can be associated with multiple recipe
pathways of different length and complexity (Babot
2009). So, when we refer to old recipes, we refer to
approximations to the modes of preparing foods, rather
than to strict and closed models of the ingredients,
their preparation and presentation [...] (Babot et al.
2012: 241).
The taphonomic study of food residues gives us a
unique perspective on how plants, animals and minerals
were transformed into food and their subsequent
history to the point of archaeological recovery and
analysis. According to the unrestricted taphonomy
approach (Borrero 2011) we use a broad definition
of the concept as the study of the decomposition or
modification of organisms, their parts or products, and
of the processes leading to their accumulation and
differential preservation in archaeological contexts, so
that they can be genuine sources of archaeological
information (Lewarch and OBrien 1981; Borrazzo
2006). We are particularly interested in assessing how
such a perspective can inform our interpretation of past
human practices. Thus, we consider the modifications
of plants useful parts associated with different methods
of food preparation, which condition the appearance
and integrity of such food remains as recovered from
archaeological contexts. Such modifications can
be explained in terms of different physico-chemical
processes that affect the structure and the properties
of starch and other vegetable intracellular particles,
and histological elements (Babot 2003). Previous
work has demonstrated the utility of taphonomic and
experimental approaches to the macroscopic and
microscopic analyses of the modes and procedures
for preparing animal or vegetable foods (e.g., Gonzlez
and Frre 2004; Gong et al. 2011; Lpez et al. 2011;
Lovis et al. 2011; Raviele 2011; Babot et al. 2012 and
references therein; Lantos et al. 2012). In particular,
our approach focuses on the micro-morphological
characterization of such modifications.
In this study, we characterized the anthropic/
culinary modifications of micro-particles and tissue
fragments in different varieties of tubers of three
genera, which allowed us to formulate expectations
for archaeological cases. Thus, the various stages of
investigation aimed to: 1) characterize fresh tissues of
different varieties of potato, oca and ulluco, since these
are ingredients in traditional culinary preparations and
recipes; 2) observe how aspects of the fresh tissue
of potato, oca and ulluco change or disappear as
a consequence of two traditional food preparation
methods (boiling and cooking al rescoldo until
completely cooked), and identify which new elements
appear in processed foods, explaining these on the
basis of the physico-chemical processes involved; and
3) compare the two sets of observations to identify
taphonomic signatures of these culinary practices in
archaeological situations.
THE TAPHONOMY OF MICROFOSSILS
Current Perspectives
The taphonomic study of plant microfossils
and their archaeological associations is a versatile
approach. Some taphonomic researches focus on the
ways various biological (e.g., soil fauna and roots) and
environmental agents (e.g., pH, moisture and temperature
conditions, salt precipitation and transport) alter the
microfossil record and affect its survival and integrity
(Therin 1994; Hart 2003; Humphreys et al. 2003; Haslam
2004; Barton and Matthews 2006; Osterrieth et al.
2013; Musaubach and Babot 2014, among others).

practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the south-central Andes
These studies also consider humans, through the
manipulation of the natural environment, as an agent of
transformation, since they can modify plants and their
microfossil remains through residential use of certain
places, agriculture, or burning (Therin 1994; Parr et al.
2008; Osterrieth et al. 2009, among others). These kind
of taphonomic researches have focused on analysis of
biosiliceous particles, calcium phytoliths and starch
from the perspective of paleoecological, pedological
and archaeological problems. Previous work has also
included study of the effects of different laboratory
manipulations on the integrity and composition of
microfossil assemblages that are ultimately observed
under the microscope. Many of these recent studies
also involved revision of sample extraction and treatment
protocols with particular attention to archaeological
applications (Babot and Korstanje 2001; Coil et al.
2003; Korstanje 2003; Babot 2007; Korstanje and
Babot 2007; Torrence and Barton 2007, etc.).
Other taphonomic studies closely related to the
analysis of use residues on archaeological artifacts
assess the survival rates and prospects of starch -one of
the main microfossils useful for these purposes- under
different conditions of entrapment, depth, sediment
compaction and exposure, and considering the passage of
time according to the nature of the processed substance
(Lu 2003; Babot and Bru de Labanda 2005; Barton
and Matthews 2006; Langejans 2010, among others).
The potential for post-depositional contamination has
also been discussed (Barton et al. 1998). Related to
taphonomic studies but following different approaches
are archaeologically or bromatologically inclined
histological studies designed to understand the
feasibility and reliability of identifying plant tissues
exhibiting different degrees of fragmentation and
preservation (Pochettino and Scattolin 1991; Cortella
and Pochettino 1994).
We are optimistic about the possibility of obtaining
archaeological information from taphonomic and
contextual approaches and we consider residues
(meaning remains in general, rather than a priori use
residues) as dynamic systems that can provide data
about use, the contemporaneous context for such
use, processes subsequent to deposition, and the
manufacture of associated artifacts (the latter when
microfossils are included in the artifact raw materials)
(Babot and Haros 2008; Hart 2011; Babot et al. 2012).
Thus, when considering plant residues located on
an artifact or in an archaeological matrix, it would
hypothetically be possible to identify interfaces. In the
first case, such interfaces would be artifact/residue/
sediment matrix after deposition, where the microfossil
signal attributable to the raw materials would decrease
from the artifact mass to its surface; the signal related
to use would decrease from the surface of the artifact
to the sediment matrix, and the signal of the matrix
Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary
37
would follow an opposite tendency to that of use.
Hence, precautions taken during sample extraction
and the criteria used to interpret manufacture, use and
context are very important (Babot and Haros 2008;
Zucol and Loponte 2008; Hart 2011). The exchanges,
gains, losses and modifications of material that occur at
the interfaces between object, use residue and matrix
must be considered, including other processes that may
occur between the time archaeological remains are
extracted and analytical data are obtained. Sometimes,
burial conditions can promote the preservation of
residues, degradation byproducts and new products
resulting from interactions with the sedimentary
matrix (Jones 2009). This applies to different types of
elements contained in the residues, whether chemical,
histological or intracellular.
In this regard, we consider that interpreting the
nature of a residue requires knowing the particular
history of the object under analysis. In other words, a
residue could indicate 1) the last recorded use of an
artifact (Haslam 2006), or 2) successive use episodes
recorded in the stratification of the remains (Musaubach
and Beron 2012), or 3) random averaging (in a broad
sense rather than referring to statistical significance)
resulting from repeated use, partial cleaning between
successive uses, differential decay of components and
exchanges between the environment, the objects mass
and the residue, plus laboratory treatments (Babot
2007; Babot et al. 2012).
A taphonomic approach to plant microfossils
and anthropogenic manipulations
A small number of studies have discussed the
transformation of tissues and intracellular particles
resulting from anthropogenic manipulation of plants.
Examples include the identification of striae on the
surface of silica phytoliths obtained during threshing of
silica-rich taxa (e.g., European grains); the transformation
of calcium oxalate crystals into calcite pseudomorphs,
which occurs during combustion (Juan-Tresserras
1992); the fracture of biosiliceous particles as a result
of activities such as grinding (Checa et al. 1999); and
the tearing and disarrangement of plant fibers during
mastication (Musaubach and Babot 2014). The formation
of new products during cooking (e.g., micro-charcoals
and particle clumps) has also been documented (Babot
2003; Tassara and Osterrieth 2008, among others).
Starch is one of the most studied intracellular
particles, both in archaeology and other fields.
Analyses of the physico-chemical processes that can
alter starch have a long history, linked initially to
biological and food industry interests (e.g., Radley
1943; Whistler et al. 1984). These studies have
addressed aspects including starch grains loss of
structure and birefringence properties through contact
 38 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53
with caustic chemicals, heat in the presence of water,
the action of enzymes during seed germination, and the
sprouting of underground organs. The first applications
of this knowledge to archaeological situations were
related to questions about food, particularly brewing,
grinding and boiling of starchy plants (e.g., Juan-
Tresserras 1992; Loy 1994; Checa et al. 1999). These
studies, along with the work of Babot (2003), Beck
and Torrence (2006), Fullagar (2006), Samuel (2006),
Henry et al. (2009), Gong et al. (2011) and Crowther
(2012), are directly related to our research, as they
consider the effects past anthropogenic manipulation
of plants had on their starches. Babots (2003) research
aimed to develop modern comparative standards for
application to archaeological cases (Babot 2009; Babot
et al. 2012, etc.), and has focused on the optical and
morphological effects of various processing techniques
on starch (e.g., aeration, sun drying, toasting, ashing,
freezing, desaponification/washing -i.e., removal
of saponins-, and grinding). Babots research also
includes recognition of various cooking practices from
starchy residues. Beck and Torrence (2006) considered
the paths of starch when used for different purposes
in various cultural contexts. Fullagar (2006) evaluated
the role of experiments in the functional assessment of
archaeological artifacts, and Samuel (2006) discussed
various ways in which modified starch has been
preserved, including bread and yeast residues. Henry et
al. (2009) documented the progression of starch damage
due to the baking, boiling, drying, and fermentation
of domesticated legumes and grass seeds, and found
boiling to be the most harmful cooking technique for
starch. Gong et al. (2011) studied food remains from
exceptionally well preserved mortuary offerings, and
developed experiments to aid identification of culinary
preparations. Crowther (2012) discussed the influence
of moisture on starch during cooking.
These studies of cultural manipulations have
shown that, although they are modified, starch and
other intracellular elements can survive multiple food
preparation processes. Drying, heating, the breaking
down of tissues by trampling and friction, and the
formation of ice crystals, all generate physico-chemical
changes in those particles, modify their completeness
and degree of crystallinity, and produce optical and
morphological changes in some grains (Babot 2003).
While the damage caused by different food processing
techniques may look similar, and although sometimes
the same process can alter the starch from different
biological sources in different ways (Babot 2003;
Henry et al. 2009), it has been shown that, in general,
distinct damage patterns seem to result from different
processes (Babot 2003). Also, it has been documented
that the more intense the process, the greater the
severity of the damage. In addition, it is sometimes
possible to infer the consecutive stages of processing,
which are present as damage patterns superimposed
on the same individual starch granule or on different
granules within a sample.
Damaged starch grains are more susceptible to
hydrolytic agents and fungal and bacterial activity than
well-preserved starch. This is attributed to infiltration
of the grains interior via cracks associated with the
damage (Radley 1943; Cortella and Pochettino 1994)
and to structural weaknesses resulting from physico-
chemical changes to the granules. However, research
on ancient starch has shown that it is possible to
recover damaged grains from both modern and
archaeological contexts, as this carbohydrates pseudo-
crystalline structure survives the passage of time even
when damaged.
Ancient starch analyses with a taphonomic
perspective have increasingly focused on damaged
starch grains (alongside those recovered intact),
as well as the natural and cultural causes of the
observed changes. In addition, appropriate and specific
terminologies for the description of alteration processes
and damage have been adopted (Babot 2003; The
International Code for Starch Nomenclature [ICSN
2011]), referring to the so-called modified starch (sensu
Samuel 2006; ICSN 2011). This category and one
referred to as resistant starch1 have been distinguished
from native starch, which refers to unaltered grains.
Such studies have recognized certain traits that have
a taphonomic rather than taxonomic origin, and
have proposed that damaged starch is a source of
information regarding cultural practices and post-
depositional processes. Damage patterns have also
been used to evaluate contamination by assessing
the coherence between the types of damage and the
archaeological context from which the starch was
recovered (Babot 2003).
Previous publications have proposed descriptors for
modified starches, but when studying human practices
we suggest it is possible to rank those descriptors by
grouping them following hierarchical categories: a)
techniques: modes of transformation implemented
by humans; b) agents other than humans -the latter
included in a- ; c) physico-chemical processes
triggered by human activities and their results or the
final state of the mass of material processed, and,
finally, d) morphological and optical damage and
modifications or changes that are verified in starch
grains within the mass (Table 1). Following Lymans
(1994) terminology, applied techniques and resulting
physico-chemical processes constitute taphonomic
processes, where the taphonomic agents are the
physical, chemical and biological factors involved
in the transformation of grains. In this case humans
are the default participants in technical manipulation.
Finally, the taphonomic effects are the results of
these processes and the specific patterns of damage
and changes that may be identified histologically and
 Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary
practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the south-central Andes 39

described in morphological and optical terms (Table PROCEDURES AND MATERIALS

1). Thus, for example, what we observe as a paste
Tuber samples were obtained from traditional vending
or a mixture of cooked food that includes resistant
stalls in Jujuy Province (Argentina) in 2010 and 2012
and modified starch damaged in various ways is
and Villazn (Bolivia) in 2012. We obtained 19 ethno-
a modification due to the retrogradation that occurs
varieties of potato (Solanum L.), 4 of oca (Oxalis tuberosa
when boiled dough is left to rest, or a modification due
Mol.) and 3 of ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus Caldas), all from
to the melting by heating in a medium with low water
rural areas. Here we selected 10 varieties of potato,
content (Radley 1943; Johnson et al. 1990).
2 of oca and 1 of ulluco, which were sampled and
The two main physico-chemical processes we address processed for culinary purposes. The purpose of using
in this paper, gelatinization and melting, are described different ethno-varieties was to assess whether there were
in previous works. The effects of heating in a wet variations if different kinds of potatoes were subjected to
medium have been studied extensively, especially for the different processing techniques, particularly since they
generation of baseline information on the properties of could have been used in different traditional culinary
starch for industrial purposes. It leads to a non-reversible practices (Castro 2008).
process called gelatinization (Radley 1943).
In all ethno-varieties, cortex and periderm were
For dry heating or for heating with low moisture sampled separately from the vascular parenchyma and
content, we consider the dry-cooking series, toasting/ medullary tissue. Cortex and periderm were separated
cooking al rescoldo/cooking on embers/roasting/ under the assumption that they were part of the
charring2, wherein the relative intensity of the heat shell that was eventually removed or peeled prior to
and, therefore, the thermal alteration of the granules, consumption, while the parenchyma and the medullary
increase from toasting to charring (Radley 1943; Babot tissue constitute the soft part intended for consumption.
2003). Direct contact with the heat source differentiates Three types of samplings were used for the fresh
roasting, charring and cooking al rescoldo from tubers to obtain reference material: 1) soft scrapings
toasting and cooking on embers, with heat contact and histological cuts done freehand with a scalpel to
being indirect in the latter. obtain thin sections (Babot 2007), 2) diaphanization
(a technique in which the
Techniques Physico-chemical tissue is treated with an
Morphological and optical modifications
(Modes of Agents Processes and
transformation) Results
Taphonomic effects oxidizing agent to make
Heating in humid Liquid water Gelatinization Loss of defined shape and structure it transparent whilst
medium (chemical) + (Radley 1943). manifested in the swelling, bursting, hilum
temperature Irreversible opening and projection of grains, loss of
retaining fabric), and 3)
e.g.: boiling (heat) Gelatinized material birefringence (Babot 2003), and the presence dry ashing (Piperno 1988).
of exudates (Messner and Schindler 2010),
collapsed (Williams and Bowler 1982) or
Some washing of the ash
emptied grains (ghosts) (Radley 1943) material was incorporated
Rest of the boiled mass Chemical Retrogradation Formation of pastes (Biliaderis 2009), in as well to assess tissue
after cooking forces (Jacobson et al. which damage and modifications related to
(chemical) 1997) Retrograded gelatinization can be observed loss by this procedure.
e.g.: airing or standing material or paste The first two sampling
Heating in medium Temperature Melting (Biliaderis Loss of the structure manifested in the techniques provided
with low moisture (heat) + 2009). Irreversible formation of pastes (Biliaderis 2009),
content (chemical) liquid water Melt or paste projection and/or opening of the hilum in references regarding tissue
e.g.: toasting or (residual grains, loss of birefringence (Babot 2003) appearance and various
roasting moisture)
Hydration, dehydration Liquid water Hydration, Swelling (Williams and Bowler 1982) or
elements of tissues, such
in cold (chemical) (or relative dehydration (Radley shrinkage (Radley 1943) of the grains, as ergastic substances
humidity) + 1943). Reversible increase or decrease of the relief (e.g., flat
temperature Hydrated or relief) and of the birefringence and the
(starch, cellulose and
e.g.: soaking, sun
drying, airing (cold) dehydrated material visibility of lamellae (Babot 2003) crystalline calcium salts),
Abrasion, percussion Breakage Disaggregation Grains in different states of disaggregation or of interest to archeology
(mechanical) mechanical (Babot 2003), disarrangement, with presence of physical
forces mechanical discontinuities such as fracture, truncation,
because they survive
e.g.: milling, mashing breakage. cracking; surface damage such as depressions as microfossils. These
and pounding Irreversible or dents (Babot 2003) and collapse (Williams
Disaggregated and Bowler 1982)
procedures allowed us
material to observe intact tissue
Freezing (mechanical) Solid water Dehydration, Presence of physical discontinuities of the and fragments in different
e.g.: making chuo, a + mechanical grains such as breakage and cracking,
dehydrated form of temperature breakage. fragmentation (Babot 2003), collapse stages of disintegration,
potato obtained by (cold to the Irreversible (Williams and Bowler 1982), emptying as well as free cells and
freeze-drying (Pardo point of Dehydrated material (ghosts) (Radley 1943), decreased relief (e.g.,
and Pizarro 2008) freezing) flat relief) and brightness (Babot 2003) intracellular elements.
Enzymatic attack (bio- Amylolytic Amylolysis. Loss of structure manifested in the presence of Controlled diaphanization
chemical) enzymes Irreversible pitting (French 1984; Juan-Tresserras 1992),
deep grooves and corrosion (Reichert 1913)
at temperatures below
e.g.: malting
10C thinned the material
Table 1. Techniques, agents, physico-chemical processes and results, and morphological
for better observation.
and optical modifications relevant to the study of human manipulation of starchy substances.
 40 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53
Dry ashing allowed for recovery of the silicified tuber
tissues. Due to the low proportion of silica produced
by these plants, after the first trials, we avoided to wash
ash samples because doing so results in a significant
loss of material.
Cooking experiments included: a) boiling until
cooking was complete, transforming the starch-rich
parenchyma and medullary tissue by heating it to boiling
in a humid medium with sufficient water; b) cooking al
rescoldo (in direct contact with embers and ashes) until
cooking was complete, transforming tissues by heating
them at moderate temperature in a dry medium or in the
presence of tuber residual moisture. Cooking enables
consumption, increases energetic value of tubers and
eliminates the causes of indigestion (Wandsnider 1997).
Boiling was performed using a stove; tubers were
placed in a metal container filled with potable water
to avoid contamination. Unpeeled tubers were boiled
separately, reaching an average of 99C during the
time needed to soften the parenchyma and medullary
tissue (between 15-20 minutes). Tubers started to loss
their peel and stain water before completely cooked.
Pink oca stained the water and started to loss their peel
after 15 minutes in the boiling water. Nine minutes
later it was completely cooked. White oca lost their
peel at 17 minutes and started to smell like boiled
sweet potato. Eight minutes later it was completely
cooked. Ulluco took 19 minutes to begin staining the
water, losing a minimal amount of peel. Two minutes
later was completely cooked. Potatoes took 24 minutes
to cook completely.
Cooking al rescoldo was done in a backyard
fire. The fire was started with quebracho blanco
(Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco Schltr.) wood. Red
hot embers were produced and gradually covered
with ash, at which point the charcoal was not as
hot as in its red-hot state. A layer of embers and
ashes was dispersed on the firebrick floor. Whole,
unpeeled tubers were set over the embers and ashes
and exposed to the heat source until the parenchyma
and medullary tissue were softened, simulating the
effect of placing tubers on the periphery of an active
fire. This is a dry-cooking technique different from
others such as toasting, cooking on the flame or on
embers with a grate, or in ovens. Cooking on the flame
involves direct contact of food with the heat source;
placing a grate between the food and flame or red-hot
embers separates food from the heat source. Toasting
requires an intermediate object (e.g., a stone or vessel)
to avoid direct contact with fire and buffer heat
(Pazzarelli 2012). Cooking al rescoldo is a moderate-
temperature procedure traditional in northwestern
Argentina, where food is put into embers and ashes,
coming into direct contact with the heat source. In
our experiment, cooking al rescoldo took between 10-
15 minutes depending on the type and size/form of
the tuber and degree of exposure to the heat source.
Ocas cooked most quickly, followed by ullucos and
longer/thinner potatoes and, finally, thicker potatoes.
During this process the tubers were not covered, so
the periderm was carbonized where directly in contact
with embers. Differences in the humidity of the cooked
mass were observed in areas near carbonized and non-
carbonized periderm. Oxygen and temperature might
have fluctuated between the periphery and the center
of the ember and ash layer within the range of 100-
200C. Quebracho blanco provided a strong, slow,
constant and non-sparking charcoal combustion, with
low ash production.
Boiled tubers and those cooked al rescoldo were
wrapped in aluminum foil and refrigerated until
sampling was complete. Sampling followed the same
procedures used for fresh specimens (see above). Fresh,
dry-ashed and cooked specimens were mounted on
slides for viewing and photographing using a polarizing
microscope (200X to 630X). Assemblage analysis
focused on the various histological elements and
intracellular particles present.
Characteristics recorded for fresh samples include:
cell shape in two- and three-dimensions, arrangement
of tissue cells (tiled, linear, concentric, etc.), color with
and without polarizer, birefringence, cell size, presence
of conduction elements and their characteristics,
presence of cellulose in the cell walls; presence, kind,
shape, color, presentation and location of calcium salt
bodies within the tissues (isolated, grouped); and the
occurrence of starch in the reserve parenchyma and
the medullary tissue, and its disposition (isolated,
in clusters, massively filling the tissue). The same
characteristics were observed in food samples, with
special attention to the features preserved, modified,
and originated from culinary practices. In the case of
native and modified starches, the specific variables
summarized in the ICSN (2011) and previous studies
were recorded (Korstanje and Babot 2007 and
references therein; Henry et al. 2009). As mentioned,
rather than a detailed description of individual starch
grains, the presence of various attributes was confirmed
(Table 1). Observations proceeded from questions
such as: What is the general state of preservation of
the intracellular particles and tissues in our samples?
What is the degree of alteration? How does alteration
vary with cooking techniques and their relative
aggressiveness? Have the integrity, visibility, shape,
size, color, spatial arrangement, optical properties or
textures of tissues, cells and ergastic substances been
altered? If so, how? Have any elements or distinctive
features of fresh tissues disappeared? Have any new
elements arisen as a result of processing? Finally,
we compared the two sets of observations, which
allowed us to generate expectations for documenting
foods made from potatoes, oca and ulluco based on
archaeological residues (Tables 2 and 3).
 Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary
practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the south-central Andes 41

Characteristic microscopic features on periderm and cortex from tubers

Fresh specimens
Turgid tissue, transparent, with
mosaic-like fabric, tight or dense
with straight-sided polyhedral
cells, occasionally rounded
Aspect of tissue
Specimens cooked al rescoldo
General preservation of the original fabric of the
tissue. Deformation and fragmentation by sections,
with presence of net cracks and folds. Thermal
alteration varies between complete carbonization
Boiled specimens
Preservation of original tissue structure by sections.
Tissue fragmentation and intense cracks in the form of
tears and joined cell fragments; presence of folds in
tissue fragments. Distension, loss of turgor of the

Transparent tissue
Non-birefringent and colorless
tissue, or heterogeneously colored,
depending on variety
Thickened cell walls with thick
CE
and mild impact by heat. Dehydration and
shrinkage; loss of relief and aging. Greatly affected
tissues become brittle and in particles
Opaque tissue, slightly translucent or transparent
according to the effect of heat
Staining of the tissue in brown-reddish tones until
reaching black in carbonized sections. Loss of the
original color. In oca, all tissues appear birefringent
under polarized light
The birefringence of cellulose is preserved or
tissue with increased apparent size. Thinning of the
tissue and loss of relief
Transparent and diaphanous tissue
It can vary between color preservation, partial loss of
color in parts of the tissue, or preservation of parts
with watery or diluted coloration (brown-reddish
tones). In oca, all the tissues appear birefringent
The birefringence of cellulose is preserved or

birefringent cellulose enrichments emphasized emphasized

Sections of the tissue with Colorless silicified tissues (silica phytoliths) with Colorless silicified tissues (silica phytoliths) with gray
Silica deposits

intracellular deposits of amorphous gray-black hues detached as a result of the thermal hues detached as a result of the thermal alteration. If
silica (polyhedral or globular cells alteration. If not detached, they stand out from the not detached, they stand out from the surroundings
and vessel elements) stand out due surroundings due to their higher relief due to their higher relief
to their higher profile

Polyhedral, tabular druses, crystal Crystals very clearly observed in situ or detached Crystals very clearly observed in situ or detached
sand and subrounded discoid or from the tissue. They look unaltered; their from the tissue, located close to the cell walls or
Crystals

globular particles. Scattered in the birefringence is retained or accentuated. Eventual completely expelled from the tissue. They may look
tissue or grouped in the partial melting of the crystalline surface unaltered. Evidence of partial melting. New clumps of
intracellular space melted crystals are formed
- Clumps of organic matter isolated or attached to the -
tissue, with a matrix of unctuous appearance colored
New products

in brown-reddish tones, in which crystals and

occluded micro-charcoal stand out (verified in
extensive sections, or in particles)
- Massive carbonization by sections (outer areas of the Micro-charcoals or carbonized tissues were not
tubers) and presence of micro-charcoal abundantly observed
distributed throughout the tissue

Table 2. Characteristic features of the periderm and cortex of fresh and boiled tubers, and tubers cooked al rescoldo. Note:
CE= Cellulose.
Characteristic microscopic features on parenchyma and medullary tissue from tubers
Fresh specimens Specimens cooked al rescoldo Boiled specimens
Turgid tissue, transparent and Tissues remain structured; cells remain close Tissues remain structured; cells remain close but not
dense with polyhedral and but not attached to each other, or completely mutually attached, or are disaggregated and dispersed
globular cells with thin walls detached and with a globular appearance. with a globular appearance. Distension, loss of turgor or
Aspect of tissue

Colorless to slightly brown-
grayish tissue
Cells with thin cellulose walls
CE
Dented and rough surface of cells, contracted,
cracked, with lower relief. Although
dehydrated, some degree of turgor persist;
some cells are partially or fully collapsed
Colorless to slightly brown-grayish tissue is
maintained.
The cellulose thickenings are preserved, and
their birefringence stands out in some cases.
firmness. Cells with cracks and fractures, partially or
totally collapsed, depending on the preservation of their
content
Colorless to slightly brown-grayish tissue is maintained.
Tissues became diaphanous. A staining of the tissue may
occur in watery or diluted brown-reddish hues
The cellulose thickenings are preserved, and their
birefringence stands out in some cases. This element

This element highlights the fabric of the tissues highlights the fabric of the tissues

Closely packed cells, filled
with birefringent starch grains
Starch
The starch content is completely absent, giving
the tissue an empty appearance, or the starch
content is in different stages of the melting-
gelatinization process. The birefringence
varies depending on the situation. There are
exudates of amorphous starch within and
outside of the tissues
The starch content is completely absent, giving the tissue
an empty appearance, or the starch content is in different
stages of the melting-gelatinization process. The
birefringence varies depending on the situation. There are
exudates of amorphous starch within and outside of the
tissues

Supernumerary simple starch Amorphous starch masses dominate in the
grains interior of the tissue. Occasional clumps or
isolated individuals of modified starch with
damage due to heating (open hilum, darkened
sections, peripheral cracks and damage to the
extinction cross and the birefringence). Little
to no presence of unaltered resistant starch
Calcium crystals dispersed in Crystals preserve their location in the tissue.
the tissue Expulsion events of crystal clusters and
CR
Amorphous starch masses dominate in the interior of the
tissue. There is unaltered resistant starch as isolated and
scarce grains, and grains of modified starch in individual
gelatinization process of (open hilum, damage to the
extinction cross and birefringence, longitudinal cracks)
forming clumps associated with starch exudates
Crystals preserve their location in the tissue. Expulsion
events of crystal clusters and microcrystals into the

microcrystals into the intercellular space intercellular space

Dense clusters of vessel They are preserved unaltered within or outside They are preserved unaltered within or outside the tissue
elements, birefringent, the tissue
VE

silicified or not

Table 3. Characteristic features of the parenchyma and the medullary tissue of fresh and boiled tubers, and tubers cooked al
rescoldo. Note: CE = Cellulose; CR = Crystals; VR = Vessel elements; NP = New products.
 42 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53

RESULTS Description of tuber specimens cooked al

rescoldo
Description of fresh tuber specimens
Carbonized or highly thermally altered sections
Periderm and cortex tissues are turgid and present of the periderm and cortex appear opaque to slightly
a tight or dense mosaic-like fabric of polyhedral cells translucent under the microscope. The internal structures
(Figure 1; Table 2). The tissue is non-birefringent -with and content of some tissues are difficult to observe,
the exception of periderm cell walls that are cellulose but in other sections, birefringent elements stand out
enriched- and either colorless or colored by sections well (Figures 2d-f, o-r and 3k-m; Table 2). Parts of the
(Figure 1a-b). The
presence of calcium
salt crystals (primarily
calcium oxalate)
is variable (Figure
1). They occur as
polyhedra in oca and
ulluco (Figures1 i-n,
p-r); tabular druses and
crystal sand in oca,
ulluco and Solanum
(Figure 3o-p); and flat,
rounded or globular
particles in Solanum
(Figure 1h).
Parenchymal and
fresh medullary tissue
cells are polyhedral
and globular, with
thin and less cellulose-
enriched membranes
than the periderm.
They are closely
packed and contain
numerous starch grains
of the type described
previously (e.g.,
Korstanje and Babot
2007 and references
therein), completely
filling reserve tissue
(Figure 5u, Table 3).
Abundant calcium
crystals are observed
in ulluco and oca
parenchyma (Figure
7i-n); in Solanum,
crystal abundance
depends on the variety
(Figures 4c, e and 5e-
f). Dense clusters of
birefringent conducting
elements are observed,
especially in the
section corresponding
to the vascular ring Figure 1. Appearance of the fresh periderm and cortex of: a-h) Solanum, i-n) Oxalis tuberosa
(Figures 5a-b and 7f-g). and o-r) Ullucus tuberosus. a-b) Pentaoca, c-d) Abajea, e-f) Huanco Suyo, g-h) Solanum 1a, i-l)
Pink oca, m-n) White oca, o-r) Ulluco. The contiguous twin micrographs correspond to views with
parallel (left) and crossed (right) nicols of the same tissue.
 Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary
practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the south-central Andes 43

tissues that were not in direct contact with fire are 3n, p). In a few cases, partial melting of the druses
less thermally altered (Figure 2a-c, h-I). Silicified parts crystallites is observed (Figure 3i).
stand out from the tissues around them due to a higher
Parenchyma and medullary tissues may retain their
relief than the periphery. Occasionally, they appear
original structure. In other cases, cells remain close
as isolated polyhedral or globular siliceous particles
without completely attaching to each other, or are
(Figure 3k, g-h). Some deformation, fragmentation,
entirely detached. Their surfaces are dented, rough,
crack and folds are observed, but this kind of damage is
contracted, cracked, and have lower relief than fresh
less pronounced among tubers cooked al rescoldo than
internal tissues (Figures 4-5; Table 3). Despite being
among those that were boiled (Figures 2c-d, p). Tissues
significantly affected
by heat become
brittle, dehydrated and
shrunken. They are
stained reddish-brown
to black (in carbonized
areas), which
accentuates surface
irregularities regardless
of the original
periderm color. Micro-
charcoals are abundant
throughout the tissue;
some of them are still
recognizable in the
inner layers (Figures
2a-c, h-i, k-n, g and
3d-f, j, q). Typically, it
is possible to observe
isolated clumps, or
clumps attached to
the tissue, within an
unctuous, reddish-
brown matrix, against
which crystals and
occluded micro-
charcoals stand out.
This pattern occurs
in both extensive and
restricted sections of
tissue (Figures 2g-h,
k-n and 3d-f, g-h, q).
Cell wall cellulose
birefringence is
retained or increased.
In the cells of oca,
birefringence is
widespread, not
restricted to cellulose
accumulation (Figure
3n, r). Conducting
tissues remain
unaltered. Calcium
crystals also remain
largely unaltered,
although t h e i r Figure 2. Appearance of the periderm and cortex cooked al rescoldo of: a-o) Solanum sp. and
birefringence stands p-r) Ullucus tuberosus. a-c) Desire, d-i) Abajea, j-n) Malcacha, o) Huaico potato, p-r) Ulluco.
The contiguous twin micrographs correspond to views with parallel (left) and crossed (right) nicols
out (Figures 2r and of the same sample.
 44 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53

retained. Although the

crystals can maintain
their location within
the tissues (Figure
4c, e), clusters of
multiple crystallites
are often found in the
intercellular spaces due
to their expulsion from
the interior of the cells
(Figure 5e-f). Vessel
elements are preserved
unaltered, with
high birefringence,
appearing isolated
or in clusters (Figure
5a-b).

Description of
boiled tuber
specimens

Periderm maintains
its configuration and
original morphology
in some portions,
although there is
more fragmentation of
the tissue than when
cooking al rescoldo
(Figure 6, Table 2).
Highly fragmented, torn
or folded sections are
observed (Figures 6c,
m-r). In general, boiling
causes distension, loss
of tissue turgor, an
increase in size, and
loss of relief. Tissues
become transparent
and noticeably thinner
(Figure 6a-f). Colorless
to gray silicified tissue
and isolated polyhedral
Figure 3. Appearance of the periderm and cortex of Oxalis tuberosa cooked al rescoldo. a-j) White
cells can be seen. If not
Oca, k-s) Pink Oca. The contiguous twin micrographs correspond to views with parallel (left) and
crossed (right) nicols of the same sample. detached, they stand
out from surroundings
dehydrated, they retain a degree of turgor, though some tissues due to their higher relief (Figure 6e-f). A watery
are partially or fully collapsed (Figure 4a). Starches are or diluted pigmentation remains unaltered or lost by
in the process of melting/gelatinization (Figures 4e-g, sections in periderm cells (Figure 6e-f, I, m). Brown
j, o-r and 5o-p, s-t) or absent, giving the tissue the to reddish staining can appear by sections (Figure 6p).
appearance of being almost totally empty (Figure 4c, Birefringence of thickened cell wall cellulose is retained
i). Clumps (Figure 5s-t) and isolated grains of modified (Figure 6j, l, n, r). In pink oca, this phenomenon is
starch with damage from dry-cooking are occasionally widespread, as with cooking al rescoldo (Figure 6g).
observed (Table 3) (Figure 5g-j, m-n), and unaltered, Calcium crystals may be unaltered and retain their
resistant starch is scarce or virtually absent (Figure position in the tissue (Figures 6m, q-r) or be released
5c, k-l). The birefringent cellulose of cell walls is into the inter- or extracellular space (Figure 6k, q-r).
 Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary
practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the south-central Andes 45

of turgor, and cells appear

more distended than when
cooked al rescoldo or
fresh. In sections more
affected by boiling, cells
appear collapsed due to
the partial or total loss of
starch (Figure 7a-e and 8j-
k). There are cracks and
fractures in the cell walls;
the surfaces are rough
or dented, resembling
those of tissues cooked
al rescoldo (Figures 7a,
e and 8n, r). Increased
transparency and areas
with watery or diluted
reddish-brown staining
are observed (Figure 7i
and 8b-e). Some nodular
particles in the same
tones are attached to
tissue (Figures 7i-j and 8a,
c). Discontinuous masses
of gelatinized, amorphous
starch are observed in the
interior or exterior of the
tissues (Figure 8g-h, j-k).
Resistant starch occurs as
scarce, isolated individual
grains (Figures 7c-e, h
and 8g-i, l). Modified
starch is in the process
of gelatinization (Table
3), isolated (Figure 8n-
o, r-s), forming clumps
of individuals that have
lost their original shape
(Figures 7a-b and 8p-
q), and associated with
starch exudates within the
tissues or expelled from
them (Figure 8j-k). The
survival of resistant starch
Figure 4. Appearance of parenchyma and medullary tissue of Solanum sp. cooked al rescoldo.
a-c) Abajea, d-g) Desire, h-i) Malcacha, j-k) Pentaoca, l-r) Huaico potato. The contiguous and of partially gelatinized
twin micrographs correspond to views with parallel (left) and crossed (right) nicols of the individuals is greater in the
same sample. close proximity of cortex
and periderm than in the
Occasionally, crystals are found melted, formed into parenchymal and medullary tissue. Vessel elements
clumps in which the individuals are not discernable within the vascular parenchyma preserve their
(Figure 6j-k). No micro-charcoals or carbonized tissues birefringence and structure forming dense packages
are observed in the boiling specimens. with a persistent linear orientation (Figures 7f-g and
8a, c-d, f). In some cases the crystals maintain their
Globular or polyhedral parenchymal and medullary
original location within the tissues (Figures 7i-j and
tissue cells with rounded edges are present in clusters
8f-h) or are expelled from them to the inter- or extra-
although not attached to each other-, or disaggregated
cellular spaces (Figures 7k-n and 8m). Some are
and dispersed, and there are empty net spaces between
partially solubilized (Figure 7n).
them (Figures 7-8, Table 3). In general, there is a loss
 46 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53

Generally speaking,
certain reactions are
common among tubers
cooked al rescoldo and
those heated in a moisture-
rich medium, the latter
being a more aggressive
transformation technique
that compromises the
integrity of plant tissues
and particles to a
corresponding degree.
However, damage to the
morphology and optical
properties of starch
caused by cooking al
rescoldo is greater than
that caused by toasting, as
reported elsewhere (Babot
2003). Such damage
includes denaturation
and a very low specimen
count. In the case of
cooking al rescoldo, this
is influenced by the fact
that plant matter is in
direct contact with the
heat source and subjected
to higher temperatures
than in toasting.
Although both groups
of cooking techniques
Figure 5. Starch grains, calcium crystals and conduction elements in parenchyma and medullary a n a l y z e d h e r e c a u s e
tissue cooked al rescoldo of: a-n) Solanum sp. and o-t) Oxalis tuberosa. Appearance of the s i m i l a r m o d i f i c a t i o n s
fresh parenchyma and medullary tissue of Solanum sp. (Huaico potato) is in (u). a-c) Abajea, and damage, our results
d) Huaico potato, e-f) Desire, g-n) Pentaoca, o-t) White oca. The contiguous twin micrographs
correspond to views with parallel (left) and crossed (right) nicols of the same sample. indicate that certain
characteristics can be
used to differentiate them and also, to distinguish
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS cooked from fresh samples. For them to be applicable
Experimental results indicate the potential for in archaeological contexts, we need to evaluate the
differentiating two cooking techniques: heating in survival over time of the characteristics reported here.
humid and dry (or low moisture) environments. Based The periderm and cortex generally survive and
on previous studies, we expected these techniques to retain their original fabric. They react differently
be similar in their effects on tubers since both involve to cooking al rescoldo (characterized by reddish-
the same agents of modification: heat and moisture. In brown staining of tissues; unctuous clumps -isolated,
the case of boiling, water is abundant in the cooking or attached to tissue- with crystals and occluded
environment. By contrast, water is scarce but not totally micro-charcoals; contraction and tissue aging) versus
absent in the dry-cooking series techniques. Among boiling (characterized by diaphanous and thin
the latter, there is an increase in both the temperature material, partial preservation of the original watery
gradient and exposure of the matter to temperature. color, tissue distension). However, the natural color
While there are similarities in the effects of the cooking of tuberous plants shell could be confused with the
techniques reviewed, the abundance of water clearly effects of cooking on color and mistakenly attributed
leads to gelatinization, while its absence leads, in to anthropogenic modification. In the external tissues,
theory, to melting due to loss of starch humidity, massive carbonization occurs by sections, and the
although some degree of gelatinization is also possible. presence of micro-charcoals distributed throughout
the tissue occurs only with cooking al rescoldo.
 Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary
practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the south-central Andes 47

contexts, both inside

cooking containers where
whole tubers were cooked
and as discarded peelings
(particularly those of
bitter tuber varieties). The
parenchyma and medullary
tissue suffer greater damage
than the periderm and
cortex. Contraction occurs
in cooking al rescoldo,
whereas distension is
observed with boiling. In
the latter case, a diluted
reddish-brown staining of
the interior tissues may
appear, as well as the
occurrence of some nodular
particles in the same tones.
Observed starch alterations
are consistent with those
reported elsewhere, but
a higher intensity of the
modifications was verified
when cooking al rescoldo,
with respect to what was
previously documented
for toasting (Babot 2003).
Despite the poor survival
of starch as isolated,
identifiable grains, both
ins ide or outs ide t he
cooked mass, resistant
starch specimens are more
common in boiled tubers
than in those cooked al
rescoldo. Both techniques
result in modified starch
grains. Calcium crystals,
conducting tissues and
cellulose survive both
techniques. Melted or
diluted crystals and
Figure 6. Appearance of the boiled periderm and cortex of: a-d, g-l) Oxalis tuberosa, e-f) crystals expelled from the
Solanum sp. and m-r) Ullucus tuberosus. a-d) White oca, e-f) Pentaoka, g-l) Pink oca, m-r)
tissues generally indicate
Ulluco. The contiguous twin micrographs correspond to views with parallel (left) and crossed
(right) nicols of the same tissue. manipulation in a medium
with heat. Nonetheless
Results obtained for the most external tissues are these changes are more intense in the presence of
important for supplementing the data regarding the water. Wet cooking is also more aggressive to cellulose
parenchyma and medullary tissue, where the starches than cooking al rescoldo. After cooking, cellulose
are primarily located. While the latter are distinctively allows excellent visualization of the original tissue
altered by particular processes and, therefore, play an fabric. Silica deposits, located in conduction and
important role in identifying anthropogenic processes, peridermal tissues and usually of little diagnostic value
under certain circumstances they can be denatured or when taken alone, are not affected by the processes
absent, making information about the periderm and studied; on the contrary, they tend to stand out from
cortex particularly relevant. Additionally, the periderm the rest of the tissue, either in situ or detached from it.
and cortex tissue can be preserved in archaeological
 48 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53

Figure 7. Appearance of boiled parenchyma and medullary tissue of: a-h) Solanum sp. (Pentaoca) and i-n) Ullucus tuberosus.
The contiguous twin micrographs correspond to views with parallel (left) and crossed (right) nicols of the same tissue.

No significant differences in changes produced varieties. Thus, the expectations generated should apply
by the processing techniques considered here were to a large number of tuberous plants and potentially
observed between the three types of tubers and their other resources as well.
 Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary
practices and processing residues of native tuberous plants of the south-central Andes 49

Figure 8. Appearance of boiled parenchyma and medullary tissue of Oxalis tuberosa. a-q) White Oca, r-s) Pink Oca. The
contiguous twin micrographs correspond to views with parallel (left) and crossed (right) nicols of the same tissue.
 50 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53
Finally, we must acknowledge that the daily
character of kitchens and food preparation methods
suggests intermediate instances that turn black and
white results from controlled experiments into grays
which cannot be ignored. For instance, tubers and other
items might be cooked in their own liquid, without
additional water, which, strictly speaking, is neither
boiling nor toasting. Such exceptions and the integrity
of the archaeological remains, determine the grain of
the inferences that can made using experimental data.
Despite these caveats, experimental work continues
to contribute positively to our understanding of past
practices.
Acknowledgments
To S. Hocsman, C. Codemo and A. Calisaya for
providing the potatoes, ocas and ullucos analyzed
in this study. To V. Bajales and J. Vildoza, who
participated in sampling of the tubers. To anonymous
reviewers for their useful comments on the content and
language of this paper. To editors, K. Borrazzo and
C. Weitzel for inviting us to publish in this volume
and for their help with translation issues. This research
was supported by projects CIUNT 26/G404 and PIP-
CONICET 464 directed by C. Aschero.
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1997 The roasted and the boiled: food composition and
heat treatment with special emphasis on pit-hearth
cooking. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 16:
1-48.
Taphonomy in the kitchen: culinary
53
Whistler, R. L., J. BeMiller and E. Paschall (editors)
1984 Starch: Chemistry and Technology. Academic
Press, Florida.
Williams, M. R. and P. Bowler
1982 Starch gelatinization: A morphological study of
Triticeae and other starches. Starch/Strke 34: 221-223.
Zucol, A. F. and D. M. Loponte
2008 Anlisis comparativo metodolgico y estudio de
la abundancia fitoltica en trtaro de dientes humanos
de sitios arqueolgicos de la Pcia. de Buenos Aires,
Arg. In Matices interdisciplinarios en estudios fitolticos
y de otros microfsiles, edited by M. A. Korstanje and
M. P. Babot, pp. 39-45. BAR International Series 1870,
Hedges, Oxford.
NOTES
1.- Resistant starch is defined as [...] starch that is not digested
in the small intestine of humans (Champ 2004; Biliaderis
2009). Useful term for explaining why some starches survive
and others do not (INSC 2011). In this paper, we used the
term generically to refer to any starch grain preserved virtually
unchanged.
2.- We consider charring as a special cooking technique
used in ritual performances (e.g., in feeding Pachamama)
(Pazzarelli 2012).
54 M. P. Babot et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 35-53
 | 55

Post-depositional processes studies of wooden

artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site
(Patagonia, Argentina)
Mnica Grosso
Received 21 August 2013. Accepted 20 February 2014

ABSTRACT

The HMS Swift was a British Navy sloop-of-war that sank off the Patagonia coast in 1770. The Swift shipwreck
site, on the northern coast of Santa Cruz Province (Argentina), is a well-preserved underwater archaeological
site. The high frequency of wooden artifacts at the site permitted the development of specific research designed
to identify the primary natural and cultural post-depositional processes related to the preservation and spatial
distribution of those artifacts. This paper presents the methodological framework for this research, which included
both direct observations and experimental studies that led to the characterization of the organisms related to the
shipwreck site and their interaction with archaeological materials. Results confirm that sedimentary conditions
have played a central role in the preservation of wooden materials and their spatial distributions. Furthermore,
the archaeological consequences of organisms damaging activities (mainly those of marine wood-borer mollusks)
are assessed.
Keywords: Wooden artifacts; Post-depositional processes; Shipwrecks; Underwater archaeological sites;
Patagonia.

RESUMEN

ESTUDIOS DE PROCESOS POSDEPOSITACIONALES EN ARTEFACTOS DE MADERA DEL SITIO DE

NAUFRAGIO SWIFT, SIGLO XVIII (PATAGONIA, ARGENTINA). En los ambientes subacuticos marinos,
bajo ciertas condiciones, puede preservarse una diversidad de materiales arqueolgicos de origen orgnico e
inorgnico. Uno de estos casos es el sitio Swift, embarcacin de la Armada Britnica que en 1770 naufrag en
la costa norte de la actual provincia de Santa Cruz. La existencia de una gran cantidad de artefactos de madera
brind una interesante oportunidad para realizar investigaciones dirigidas a identificar los principales procesos
posdepositacionales de ndole natural y cultural involucrados en la preservacin y en la distribucin de estos
materiales. En este trabajo se presenta el enfoque metodolgico aplicado, el cual incluy la realizacin de
observaciones y estudios experimentales que permitieron caracterizar las comunidades de organismos asociados
al sitio y su interaccin con los materiales arqueolgicos. Los resultados obtenidos confirman que las condiciones
sedimentarias han desempeado un rol fundamental para la preservacin de los materiales y sus relaciones
contextuales. Asimismo, se analizan las consecuencias arqueolgicas de la actividad de organismos que ejercen
una accin destructiva, entre los que se destacan los moluscos marinos perforantes de madera.
Palabras clave: Artefactos de madera; Procesos posdepositacionales; Naufragios; Sitios arqueolgicos
subacuticos, Patagonia.

Mnica Grosso. Instituto Nacional de Antropologa y Pensamiento Latinoamericano (INAPL). 3 de Febrero 1378 (1426),
Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: monica.grosso@inapl.gob.ar

Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 55-69. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 56 M. Grosso - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 55-69

INTRODUCTION LOSS OF THE HMS SWIFT

Since the development of underwater archaeology as The Swift was a Royal Navy sloop-of-war stationed
a scientific discipline in the 1960s, interest has increased at Port Egmont, the 18th century British naval base in
in the factors that regulate differential preservation of the Malvinas / Falkland Islands. Like all sailing ships
shipwreck sites. In 1978 Keith Muckelroy proposed a at the time, the Swift was a wooden vessel. She had
pioneering model based on systematic research, which two decks, a length of 27.8 m and a breadth of 7.9
was later expanded upon by Ward et al. (1999) and m (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, NMM
Gibbs (2006). To date, most such studies have aimed to Draughts Box 52 N 3603A sheer and profile, Swift
understand general processes involved in site formation and Vulture).
and factors that contribute to in situ preservation of
In March of 1770, the Swift was stranded on a
sites. Nevertheless, researches designed to improve our
rock off the coast of Puerto Deseado estuary. Several
interpretations of the submerged archaeological record
measures were taken to avoid sinking1 but, eventually,
are still scarce (Grosso 2008, 2011). This situation
the ship slipped away from the rock and sank. Very
can likely be explained by the common perception
few items could be saved before the ship disappeared
of shipwrecks as time capsules. Contrary to this
below the water (The National Archives, Kew, ADM
perception, though, it has been argued that research
1/5304 Court Martial: Loss of HMS Swift, 29 September
must take into account the social and technological
1770; Gower 1803).
biography of ships as well as their contents, that is to
say, their temporal depth (Adams 2001). Moreover, it
should be noted that the loss of a ship is a process
that can last many hours or even days. Therefore, THE SWIFT ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
even at shipwreck sites that appear to contain well-
The wreck site is located in the harbor of present
preserved materials and to display original relationships
day Puerto Deseado city, in northeast Santa Cruz
between objects, the coherence and integrity of the
Province, Argentina (Figure 1).
context should not be assumed but archaeologically
demonstrated (Adams 2001). Archaeological research at the site was begun in
1997 by the Programa de Arqueologa Subacutica
South America has also produced few studies on
(Underwater Archaeology Program, or PROAS) of
wrecksites formation processes; shipwreck archaeology
the Argentinean Instituto Nacional de Antropologa
in the region with the exception of Argentina, Chile
y Pensamiento Latinoamericano (INAPL), under the
and Uruguay is a field of study only now getting
direction of Dr. Dolores Elkin. To achieve the projects
underway (Elkin 2011). In Argentina, archaeological
research goals, survey of visible structural remains and
research at the wreck site of the HMS Swift has
excavation of representative sectors of the ship were
included a multidisciplinary study of natural site
planned (Elkin et al. 2007, 2011).
formation processes from the beginning (Bastida et al.
2004; Elkin et al. 2011).
As part of my doctoral
research which focused
on wooden material culture
onboard the Swift I analyzed
the primary natural and
cultural post-depositional
processes that affected the
preservation and distribution
of wooden artifacts (Grosso
2011). Here, I summarize
the methodological approach
and main results of that
study. Additionally, I hope
it will contribute to provide
information relevant to
the interpretation of other
shipwreck sites located in
the regions underwater
or intertidal marine
environments. Figure 1. Location of the Swift wreck site in the harbor area of Puerto Deseado (Map: C.
Murray).
 Post-depositional processes
studies of wooden artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site (Patagonia, Argentina) 57

The ship remains cover an area of approximately
180 m2. About 70% of the hull has survived, most
still assembled, though sediments cover nearly 60%
(Murray et al. 2003). The site is between 10 and 18
m below surface, depending on the bottom slope and
level of the tide. The shallowest depth corresponds
to the bow-starboard area, and the deepest to the
stern-port. The hull lies on its port side with a list
of about 60 degrees, such that the starboard side is
the most exposed structural portion. While the port
side of the upper deck is well preserved, the opposite
side has collapsed or disappeared, with some frames
and beams protruding up to 3 m above the sediment
level. Neither masts nor yards were preserved (Figure
2). Many detached structural components, as well as
cannons, anchors and a great diversity of organic and
inorganic artifacts lie partially or totally covered by the
sediments. Nearly all exposed elements are colonized
by a variety of organisms, with the exception of those
scrambling devices. Extracting filters are processes
that result in the loss of materials: elements floating
away during the sinking, salvage operations, and
disintegration of perishables. Scrambling devices
are processes that move artifacts around, resulting
in the loss of contextual information: the wreckage
process, movement of the seabed (which may or
may not bury elements), wave action, currents, and
biological activity. Based on Muckelroys proposal,
Ward et al. (1999) produced an expanded model
that distinguishes the primary processes affecting
disintegration of a shipwreck on the basis of the ships
own characteristic, the sedimentary environment,
and the hydrodynamic environment (Figure 3). The
nature of the sedimentation process whether it is
accumulative or erosive is considered the main
factor in the shipwreck preservation, which, in
turn, depends on sedimentary and hydrodynamic
characteristics.

Figure 2. Site plan with the excavated areas highlighted (Drawing: C. Murray).

materials that may be toxic for them (like

copper and copper alloys).
Twenty six percent of the more than
500 artifacts retrieved from the site since
its discovery were made of wood. These
materials are currently housed at the Museo
Municipal Mario Brozoski, Puerto Deseado2.

SHIPWRECK SITES FORMATION

PROCESSES

Muckelroys model of shipwreck site

formation processes take into account the
different components that contribute to the
evolution of a shipwreck, from the time the
ship was sailing to the presently-observed
seabed distribution (Muckelroy 1978). He Figure 3. Muckelroys expanded model. a) The wreck, b) the sedimentary
identified two main processes that operate environment, and c) the hydrodynamic environment. After Ward et al.
during that timeframe: extracting filters and (1999: 564).
 58 M. Grosso - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 55-69
Physical, chemical and biological processes are
involved in the disintegration of a shipwreck, so it
is important to identify and understand the dynamics
of their interaction. Positive and negative feedback
operate continually between the water, the sediment,
and the wreck. In general, physical deterioration
processes dominate in the early stages. Afterwards,
as the shipwreck disintegrates and materials interact
with the sedimentary environment, biological and
chemical processes become relatively more important.
In this model, the rate of shipwreck disintegration is
equal to the sum of the rates of disintegration caused
by physical, chemical and biological processes, in
relation to the depositional history (that is, variation in
sedimentary processes through time). The combination
of these factors defines different possible levels of
preservation (Ward et al. 1999).
BIODETERIORATION STUDIES IN MARINE
ENVIRONMENTS
Marine environments have great biodiversity and
a remarkable variety of colonization modes may
develop in them. Solid marine substrates can be
divided into two groups: soft or sedimentary bottoms
and hard or rocky bottoms, each with species living
in close association with them (Bastida et al. 2004,
2008). Sedimentary bottoms prevail in nature and,
therefore, a great demand exists for colonization of
hard bottoms by organisms that need hard substrata
to live. Consequently, when anthropic material is
submerged in seawater it is immediately colonized
by organisms, providing that it is not toxic for them.
Among organisms that live in the sea, two main
groups have been considered responsible for the
most serious damage to man-made substrata: marine
wood-borers, and biofouling (benthic communities
associated to artificial substrata). These micro- and
macro-organisms are capable of physico-chemical
modification of materials as a result of their attachment
to them (mechanical effects) and their metabolic
processes. The search for methods to prevent the
settling and harmful effects of biofouling has led to the
development of biodeterioration studies as a specific
field of research. Since the 1960s, Argentina has been
a Latin American leader in this discipline. Studies on
the experimental ecology of benthic communities have
played a substantial role in biodeterioration research
developing experimental systems to achieve controlled
studies of the biological communities associated with
diverse materials (see references in Bastida et al. 2004;
Grosso 2008). Therefore, these studies provide basic
information on the biological and ecological processes
involved in the formation of underwater archaeological
sites.
Marine wood-borers
There are two groups of wood-borers in marine
environments: mollusks and crustaceans. Bivalve
mollusks are represented by two families: Teredinidae
(shipworms) and Pholadidae (piddocks). Teredinidae
is the larger group and is composed of a number of
genera and species distributed around the world (but
note that Teredo is often and erroneously referred to
as the only genus). As soon as Teredinidae larvae find
a suitable substratum, they begin to bore tunnels into
the wood. Larvae gradually develop a soft, worm-like
body with two valves at the front extremity that enable
them to bore wood. As Teredinidae grow, they deposit
a calcareous lining in the tunnel where they remain
throughout their lives. A pair of siphons is the only part
of the body that maintains contact with the seawater
through the initial hole. A couple of calcareous pallets
allow organisms to seal the hole when necessary.
These elements enable taxonomic identification of
species. As a consequence of the teredinids activity,
a piece of wood can be completely bored inside while
externally only the small initial holes of 1 to 2 mm in
diameter are visible (Eaton and Hale 1993). Tunnels
only become exposed when a piece of wood is broken
or its surface heavily deteriorated.
Pholadidae is a smaller group of mollusks than
the Teredinidae and their geographical distribution is
more limited. They also have a less significant role as
destructive agents (Pournou 1999). Not all members
of the Pholadidae family are exclusively wood-borers.
Generally, they can be distinguished easily from the
teredinids because they lack the characteristic worm-
like body (with the exception of Xylophaginae) and
do not create a calcareous lining in the tunnels walls.
They have oval valves similar to those of the common
clam but with a denticulate area for boring wood.
Their tunnels can be 3 to 8 times the size of the valves
(Eaton and Hale 1993).
Marine wood-borer crustaceans are represented by
the orders Isopoda and Amphipoda. The first includes
the most important groups: Limnoriidae (gribble)
and Sphareomatidae (pill bug). These organisms
have small, segmented bodies generally 2 to 4 mm
long and legs, so they are capable of moving over
the wood surface. They produce superficial or sub-
superficial galleries of 1 to 3 mm in diameter. The
extensive network of galleries can lead to collapse of
the superficial levels of the wood and, eventually, total
destruction of the substratum.
Teredinidae mollusks have been recorded off the
coasts of Buenos Aires, Chubut (Puerto Madryn) and
Tierra del Fuego (Ushuaia) Provinces, and the Malvinas
/ Falkland Islands. Limnoriidae are reported only in the
first three localities (Bastida and Torti 1972a, 1972b;
Prosser Goodall 1978).

studies of wooden artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site (Patagonia, Argentina)
Biofouling communities
Contrary to what happens with wood-borers, few
studies have been designed to understand the formation
and development of biofouling communities in wreck
sites (Thomson 1997; Randell 1998). This is remarkable
in light of the fact that marine wreck sites develop into
reefs of artificial origin.
When an artificial substratum is submerged in
seawater a biotic colonization process begins, which
leads to the development of a biofouling community.
This benthic succession process begins with the
adsorption of organic macromolecules, followed by
the formation of an initial biofilm constituted mainly
by bacteria and micro algae, and continues with the
settling and growth of different species of invertebrates
and macro algae that form communities of variable
complexity and ecological characteristics. The process
tends to conduct the community to a final, equilibrium
stage known as the climax stage, after which the
detachment and partial restart of a new cycle takes
place (Bastida et al. 2008).
Biofouling in different parts of the world involves
nearly 2000 micro- and macro-organisms (Florian
1987) and comprises aerobic bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, diatoms, algae, bryozoans, coelenterates,
polychaetes, mollusks and tunicates, among others.
The diversity and variety of organisms differs
according to the community stage of development
and to local environmental conditions. Biofouling
species can be sessile attached to the substratum
throughout its life by means of different mechanisms
or non-sessile.
POST-DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES AT THE
SWIFT SITE: GOALS AND METHODOLOGY
The goal of this research was to identify the
primary processes responsible for the differential
preservation of wooden artifacts, as well as those that
modified the artifacts original depositional context.
The wooden artifacts database contains 197 objects
from superficial sediment levels and excavation
areas, and includes multi-component and single-
component artifacts, both complete and fragmented.
The following functional categories were identified:
tableware, cooperage, rigging, storage, tools,
furniture, objects related to military or navigation
activities, as well as unidentified elements. In each
case the following data were recorded: provenience,
general characterization, components (including
other materials), and taxonomic identification when
possible (Grosso 2011)3.
To understand natural formation processes,
prevailing environmental conditions at the site were
Post-depositional processes
59
considered with a focus on hydrological and
sedimentological parameters. Systematic sampling
was performed to record sediment characteristics
by means of three transects along the ships length,
each with five sampling stations. The following
data were collected: qualitative and quantitative
fractions, granulometric classification, concentration
of organic matter, concentration of calcium
carbonate, and relative amounts of bioclasts and
faunistic groups represented (Bastida et al. 2004,
2011).
Afterward, a macroscopic examination of a
sample of artifacts was conducted for the purpose of
identifying the primary associations between different
organisms and specific archaeological substrata, along
with the consequences of these associations on the
archaeological materials. The analysis included
both in situ and recovered artifacts; the depositional
context and general state of preservation were also
considered.
Excavated areas allowed the examination of
wooden elements that had been covered by sediments.
As shown in Figure 2, 20 m2 were excavated, distributed
as follows: on the main deck near the galley (bow-port
side) and the Captains quarters (stern-port side); on
the lower deck, in a possible block storeroom, and
forward of the main mast. In the two first areas listed,
internal planking was reached while the others were
just partially excavated.
Additionally, an experimental study was performed
to obtain controlled information about biofouling
communities and wood-boring organisms, including
their basic ecological and biological characteristics
(Bastida et al. 2004). This study was adapted from
others previously carried out in biodeterioration
research in Argentina (Bastida et al. 2008, see
references therein). The experimental design used
acrylic and pine wood panels of 10 x 5 cm fitted to
acrylic frames of 30 x 40 cm. Samples were taken
at 6 (cold and warm seasons), 12 and 24 months to
monitor seasonal cycles of colonization, growth and
successional strategies of the community. Additionally,
panels of 12 x 12 cm composed of thin wooden layers
were used to obtain complete wood-borer specimens.
The frames were located at the bow and stern areas of
the vessel. Biological and sedimentary analyses were
carried out by the Laboratorio of Ecologa Bentnica
y Biodeterioro (Benthic Ecology and Biodeterioration
Laboratory) of the Mar del Plata National University,
under the direction of Dr. Ricardo Bastida.
Finally, to assess cultural formation processes,
diverse sources of information were analyzed with
the purpose of understanding the human activities that
would have affected the site over the course of more
than two hundred years.
 60 M. Grosso - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 55-69

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS of the local harbor and its industrial fishery (Bastida
et al. 2004, 2011).
The Deseado estuary is 40 km long, depending
on the marine influence, and up to 400 m wide. Its
maximum depth is 32 m, near the entrance, while its
SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATIONS AND
minimum is 0.5 m, at the end of the estuary. The Swift
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
site is situated off the north coast of the estuary and
near its mouth, such that the hydrological parameters Systematic macroscopic observations have
are similar to those of the adjacent open sea. Marine permitted an assessment of the more conspicuous
water in this area is renewed in a high frequency due to association of biofouling and wood-borer communities
the influence of the tides (Khnemann 1971). Average with archaeological substrata. Type of material, shape
annual salinity is 33 (typical ocean waters are 35), and superficial texture, context of provenience, and
and Ph values are slightly alkaline characteristic of primary features regarding their state of preservation
seawater ranging between 7.8 and 8.2. Dissolved (e.g., structural weakness, marine erosion) were
oxygen values vary between 7.85 and 9.56 mg/l and recorded in each case.
slightly lower in areas with anthropic impact. The
water temperature ranges between 13 C (summer) To gain a better understanding of biological
and 4 C (winter) (Elkin et al. 2007). communities associated with wood artifacts, it was also
relevant to compare what happens to wooden ships
Estuary tides are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides structural elements, as well as to artifacts made on
and two low tides each day. They reach amplitudes of other materials. Primary associations are summarized
4.2 m (average spring tides) so the estuary is considered in Table 1 (Elkin et al. 2007; Grosso 2008). In each
a macro-tidal environment. This causes displacement case, levels of biodiversity and biomass are identified.
of huge masses of water, which generates currents of Both refer to the natural communities of the area,
up to 6 knots in narrow zones, though their speed which are considered the maximum level of biomass
decreases in some places according to topographic and biodiversity possible.
characteristics. Maximum currents at the site are about
2 knots. Waves have limited impact on the site; their Among the fouling organisms colonizing the
maximum amplitude is 0.7 m. Prevailing winds are shipwreck, tunicates (sea squirts) are the most
from the west and southwest and are generally strong notorious, due to their size and distribution over the
(Khnemann 1971). Underwater visibility is typically whole site on various types of substrata. Tunicates are
low, ranging from 0.1 to 2 m, with an average of able to develop communities of considerable size even
1 m. The low water transparency, and consequent from very small areas, chiefly in zones of good water
limited light penetration, is caused by suspended flow, as in the case of frames and beams that are
sediment. Precipitation is scarce and without strong nearly vertical due to the ship list (Figure 5).
seasonal variance, with monthly values ranging from
5 to 45 mm. Sediment sampling at the site revealed a
dominance of fine fraction sediments, with a significant
presence of clay, mud, and fine sand (Figure 4). These
small particles have a continental origin; they are
swept by the rain towards the estuary. Coarse sands are
very little represented, as are larger fractions, with the
exception of some areas where a relevant abundance
of granules and pebbles was observed (Bastida et al.
2011).
The sediment composition has contributed to
the formation of low oxygen level deposits. The
considerable quantity of organic material that cannot
be mineralized due to of the lack of oxygen generates
hydrogen sulphide, easily detected by a pervasive,
characteristic smell and the black coloration of the
sediment. Negative Redox potential values (ranging
from -140 to -314) confirm the anoxic nature of
the burial environment. Concentrations of organic
material reach high values of up to 9.02%. This is
due to the high productivity of the water and benthonic Figure 4. Granulometric composition of the Swift site. Sizes
communities, as well as the significant contributions classification follows Udden-Wentworth scale (Bastida et
al. 2011).

studies of wooden artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site (Patagonia, Argentina)
MATERIALS Substrate surface Fouling association (assemblages)
Smooth surfaces Associations represented by several
(bottles) invertebrates groups
GLASS
Rough surfaces
Associations represented by several
(windows emery
glass panels)
invertebrates groups and chordates
Ship structural
Associations represented by algae,
components (beams
and frames)
invertebrates and chordates
WOOD
Small artifacts over Associations represented by several
the sediment (pulley) invertebrates groups
Associations represented by algae
Iron
METAL and invertebrates
Represented by only one invertebrate B1: Low
Lead
group
Table 1. General characterization of the biofouling associated to diverse substrata.
Corynactis carnea) and arborescent briozoans (e.g.,
Hippotoa bouganvillei) predominate.
Figure 5. Deck beams colonized by tunicates of solitary and
colonial species (Photo: S. Massaro).
More conspicuous tunicates are from solitary
species (e.g., Cnemidocarpa verrucosa, Molgula
sp., Paramolgula gregaria, Ciona sp. and Corella
eumyota) and colonial species (e.g., Sycozoa gaimardi,
Amaroucium sp., Didemnum sp., Polyzoa opuntia).
In the structural timbers mentioned above, there are
also abundant small (Corynactis carnea) and large
species of anemone (sea anemones). Species of red with the naked eye (Grosso 2008). More than 50%
algae (Rhodymenia sp. and Ceramium sp.) and brown
algae (Dyctiota sp.) are present, although in small
amounts due to light limitations. Specimens of giant
Post-depositional processes
61
Biodiversity (B1) and kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera)
Biomass (B2) levels detached from nearby
B1: Medium seabottoms are transported
B2: Low
to the site by currents. They
B1: High
can reach 30 m of length and
B2: Medium
frecuently become tangled in
structural timbers.
B1: Medium
B2: High Small size wooden
B1: Low
artifacts, such as blocks
B2: Low and pulleys, present
B1: High comparatively minor species
B2: Medium diversity relative to structural
components and other
B2: Low substrata, such as glass of
rough surfaces and iron; small
coelenterates (anemones
Regarding biofouling effects on archaeological
elements, it was observed that with the detachment
of tunicates from wooden substrates, part of the woody
tissue was also removed. Likewise, the activity of
small organisms may have deleterious consequences,
such as the impressions left by soft tubeworms
(polichaetes) such as Platynereis australis (Figure 6a)
or gastropod mollusks, as is probably the case with
Crepidula dilatata. On the other hand, a positive
outcome of biofouling organism growth might be that
they provide a physical barrier against the abrasion
produced by sediment transport (Thomson 1997; Jones
2003). Biofouling might also play an important role
in preventing the settlement of wood-borers larvae
(Nair and Saraswathy 1971; Pournou 1999).
Low visibility and biofouling organism coverage
complicated the examination of wood-borer activity
on archaeological materials in situ, which necessitated
removal of organisms at specific points. Colonization
was easily identified in ship structure timbers with
minor biofouling coverage and with tunnels exposed
on the bows main deck in the galley area, middle
lower deck, and sterns main deck forward of the
mizzen mast, and bulkheads. Their activity was also
identified in wood remains on the sediment surface
at the bow and port side-stern areas. The morphology
of the tunnels was consistent with those of teredinid
mollusks species.
On the other hand, a survey of more than one
hundred artifacts (n = 140) from excavated and seafloor
surface contexts indicate that at least 15% had been
colonized by wood-borers. This may be a conservative
estimate, however, since the assessment was performed
of these artifacts (including chests, boxes, furniture,
etc.) were not in contact with seawater before Swift
sank. Borer tunnel morphology was also indentified as
 62 M. Grosso - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 55-69
teredinids, with one exception, which was assigned
to the Pholadidae family (Bastida et al. 2004). This is
consistent with the fact that their members colonize
wood occasionally. Diameters of Teredinidae tunnels
at the Swift site are between 4 mm and 15 mm. Larger
diameters are due to erosion processes. Wood-borers
burrows were observed in high densities, even in
some small artifacts, with a length that in some cases
exceeds 20 cm (Figure 6b). Different wood species
were colonized including Ulmus sp. (elm), Quercus
sp. (oak) and pinaceae. While no living wood-borers
were found, the presence of calcareous pallets
permitted identification of Bankia martensi, previously
documented in some parts of the Argentinean coast,
but not in the Puerto Deseado area (Bastida and Torti
1972a).
The experimental study provided valuable
information regarding identification and characterization
of the biofouling community structure. Analysis of the
6-, 12- and 24-month panels included a description of
biofouling organisms examined under a stereoscopic
microscope. Primary species were identified and
quantified, and their maximum density and biomass
calculated (see Grosso 2008 and Elkin et al. 2011 for
detailed information regarding methods and results).
The activity of wood-borers was also considered. The
results indicate that biofouling communities have
a similar composition to those observed in other
Patagonian localities (Bastida et al. 2004). Despite
low water temperatures, they are present throughout
Figure 6. a) Impressions left by soft tube polichaetes in chest components. b) Timber
broken as a consequence of teredinids activity. One of the tunnels still retains its
calcium carbonate lining.
the year, though the warm season is characterized
by increased colonization activities and growth rates.
Indeed, warm months show greater taxonomic diversity
and higher biomass (triple as a minimum) than cold
months. The climax stage -when communities reach a
balance and achieve their maximum development- is
dominated by colonial species of tunicates Paramolgula
gregaria and Cnedomicarpa verrucosa. These
communities can evolve considerably, developing
more than 10 cm of thickness on 10 x 5 cm panels
(Figure 7). Given that other environmental parameters
remain the same all year round, this study reveals
that water temperature is the main factor regulating
growth and development of biofouling organisms.
Wood panels host higher biomass than acrylic ones,
probably because organic material offers a more
suitable surface for colonization, especially in its
early stages. On wood panels, biodeterioration was
mainly produced by bacteria, fungi and Foliculinidae
(ciliated protozoans). The latter were able to perforate
the substrata at a superficial level or settle in its natural
irregularities. No wood-borer activity (neither mollusk
nor isopods) on wooden panels was observed under
the stereomicroscope during the two-year experimental
study.
Finally, a systematic survey of non-archaeological
wooden substrata along more than 5 km of the
Deseado estuarys north coast was designed to
evaluate historical and present day wood-borer activity
in the area. This included examination of an early
20 th century pier, wooden boats,
and natural and anthropic wooden
elements left by tides on the beach.
Nearly a hundred wooden elements
were observed, but only about 1%
showed clear evidence of teredind
activity. It should be noted that
observed tunnels were eroded to
a great extent indicating that the
colonization was not recent.
CULTURAL FORMATION
PROCESSES
Documentary, historical and
oral information was used to
identify anthropic activities that
took place in the Swift site area
between its sinking and the present
to assess their role in site formation
processes. Documentary sources
explain how survivors of the wreck
managed to rescue some objects
(two officers chests and some
spars) that floated away from the
ship in the days after the sinking.

studies of wooden artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site (Patagonia, Argentina)
Figure 7. a) Wooden panels after one year of immersion. b) Significant growth of biofouling precise location (Elkin et
form one of the acrylic panels after two years of immersion.
Additionally, crew members dived into the wreck
and managed to recover rigging elements and sails,
which were used to build tents (Gower 1803). After the
survivors left Puerto Deseado, no salvage operations
or opportunistic recoveries (sensu Gibbs 2006) are
documented for the wreck site. The only historical
reference to such activity is the collection of rigging
elements that were found on the coast by Antonio
de Viedmas expedition in 1780, which probably
belonged to the Swift (Viedma [1837] 2006: 74-78). At
the time of the wreck, no permanent human settlement
could be found within hundreds of kilometers of the
wreck. Until the end of the 18 th century, the only
people inhabiting the adjacent land were nomadic
indigenous groups. It is important to mention, however,
that Puerto Deseado is a natural harbor that has been
frequently visited by vessels since the 16 th century.
Although salvaging shipwreck remains used to be a
common practice, available evidence suggests that it
is possible the Swift remained virtually unknown below
the waters surface until recently.
In the 18 th and 19 th centuries few settlements
were established along the estuary coast, until 1884
when the town of Puerto Deseado was founded. At
the beginning of the 20th century a pier for boats and
small ships was operating near the wreck site. Large
vessels could not come close to the shore due to their
draught, but the anchors of boats and small ships could
have damaged the Swift. A local resident indicated that
in this area anchors and fishing tackle often became
entangled (Elkin et al. 2011). This might have been
an important factor in the physical deterioration of
the most exposed structural remains, like the bow and
starboard side.
In the last decades of the 20 century, Puerto
th
Deseado evolved into one of the most active commercial
ports on the Patagonian coast. In the harbor, large
vessels are frequently towed between the wharf and
a dry dock; the Swift site is very near the tow path. It
is likely that the movement of the propellers -some
of them very powerful- affects the superficial levels
of sediment. Dredging is also occasionally performed
Post-depositional processes
63
near the site, but a recent
assessment during one of these
operations indicated that it had
no noticeable impact on the
site (Elkin et al. 2011).
Finally, interventions on
the site must be considered.
After discovery of the
shipwreck in 1982, local
divers retrieved nearly 180
artifacts. These materials all
lack information about their
al. 2011). According to the
divers reports, the artifacts were distributed on the
sediment surface or buried up to 50 cm, so their
extraction would have disturbed archaeological
contexts. Afterward, four field seasons were carried
out by the Argentinean Committee of the International
Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), and one
season by Fundacin Albenga. The main goal of these
initiatives was to perform non-intrusive recording of
the ship, and only few artifacts were recovered (Elkin
et al. 2011). At that time, and also over the course of
subsequent archaeological work, divers displacement
and equipment operation might have disturbed the
superficial layer of sediment. Likewise, artifacts and
structural components of the ship, previously protected
by stable layers of sediments, became exposed at least
temporarily during archaeological excavation activities.
PRESERVATION AND DISTRIBUTION
PROCESSES
According to biodeterioration models, colonization
by different microorganisms begins almost immediately
after a ship sinks. Enzymes secreted by fungi and
bacteria break down wooden cell walls (composed
mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), causing
physical and chemical damage (Blanchette 2000).
Non-biotic processes also take place, including
hydrolysis, which usually occurs when the wood is
immersed in water, and causes decomposition of
molecules compounds (Pournou 1999). Furthermore,
abrasive sediment particles transported by currents can
erode artifacts (Jones 2003). In this way, the chemical
composition and microscopic structure of wood are
modified, making it more porous and permeable to
the water.
Even if artifacts maintain their general shape,
changes in their structural tissue and external
appearance may occur. For example, some artifacts
from the Swift site have polished edges caused by
marine abrasion and others have a rough surface
due to biotic activity. Quite often, the second case is
 64 M. Grosso - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 55-69
also associated with a significant loss of hardness and
resistance; the wood becomes extremely soft (or spongy)
at the slightest contact. Despite being fragile, artifacts
general shape may remain unchanged because water
and the remaining lignin -more resistant to degradation
than cellulose- support its shape (Jones 2003).
The degree to which organisms can leave
impressions on wood surfaces depends on both
the way they associate with the substratum and the
condition of the wood tissue. Therefore, if the artifact
is significantly decayed, even minor organic activity
might leave marks (Figure 6a). Furthermore, regarding
the consequences of tunicate detachment, we must bear
in mind the cumulative effects of continuous cycles of
fixing, development, and detachment of organisms and
communities over more than two hundred years. The
potential loss of archaeological information caused by
these factors must be considered. Based on observation
of several artifacts from the Swift, such losses include
features associated with the artifacts manufacture, use,
or ownership (such as inscriptions and stamps; Grosso
2011).
The particular physical and chemical properties of
different wood species are also relevant factors when
considering the degradation and water-saturation
processes in the marine environment. In this respect,
it has been stated that porous woods like Betula
sp. (birch), Fagus sp. (beech) and Fraxinus sp. (ash)
become completely saturated within a few hours of
being submerged and scarcely survive in the water.
However, several artifacts manufactured with some
of these species (i.e., Fagus sp. and Fraxinus sp.) were
found at the Swift site. Additionally, objects made from
Fagus sp exhibit clear differences in their preservation,
likely due to differences in their depositional histories.
For example, the most degraded artifacts (tableware
pieces) were found in the galley area, a location more
exposed than the stern, where well preserved objects
(such as a shoe last) were found completely covered
by sediments (Figure 8).
It has also been noted that specific substances of
certain wood species can be toxic for microorganisms,
Figure 8. A shoe last (INA 399) and a plate fragment (INA 471), both made from
Fagus sp., exhibit differential preservation as a consequence of their particular
post-depositional history.
thus inhibiting bacterial decay. This results in
some coniferous species being more resistant to
biodeterioration than some hardwoods (angiosperms).
Nevertheless, as soon as those compounds leach
out, these species become equally vulnerable to
biodeterioration (Jones 2003).
In underwater environments wood permeability
can be counteracted by the deposition of inorganic
salts, calcareous materials, and the byproducts of
metal corrosion, which, prevent its micro-structure
from collapsing (Grattan 1987). This process depends
on the chemical characteristics of the environment
and the amount of time the artifacts have remained
in that environment. This preservative effect has been
observed in several artifacts from the Swift, typically
boxes and a chest, which made possible to identify
completely corroded elements (e.g., hinges and locks)
that otherwise would not have been noticed.
Colonization by teredinid mollusk larvae may also
have occurred in the first years following the wreckage.
There is some evidence to support this such as artifacts
in the lower excavation levels in the stern area that
show signs of colonization. Furthermore, it takes
time for the wood to be eroded enough to expose
teredinid tunnels and to lose the internal carbonate,
as was observed in some cases. It is likely that wood-
borer activity in the Swift began in the Malvinas /
Falkland Islands, where Bankia martensi has been
identified. Once the ship wrecked, colonization
could have expanded to the entire shipwreck. The
scarcity of wood-borer activity observed during the
coastal survey supports the hypothesis that they are
not a chronic problem in this area. Despite the fact
that there is no clear evidence of teredind activity at
present, colonization events may be cyclical through
time, and their future presence at the site should not
be dismissed (Elkin et al. 2011).
In situ observations reveal that colonization has
spread over structural elements and objects of varied
forms and sizes, which supports arguments that
different wood species and their hardness are not
determining factors for wood-borer settlement (e.g.,
Nair and Saraswathy 1971; Bastida
and Torti 1972a). It is interesting to
note also that artifact size has no
apparent relation to the intensity of
colonization (Figure 6b).
C omparing the effects of
different biodeterioration agents,
marine borers have been said to
produce the most severe damage
in a relatively short amount of
time (Gregory 1998). Tunnels
create empty spaces in the wood,
which increase its permeability
 Post-depositional processes
studies of wooden artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site (Patagonia, Argentina) 65

and structural fragility. This leads to a reduction in already well developed (Bastida et al. 2004). There
its density and mechanical resistance (Pournou 1999), is no clear evidence of wood-borers on beams and
which reduces the weight of wood objects and makes frames, though they did colonize the decks planks, so
them more vulnerable to being displaced by currents. may have played a role in structural collapse.
In turn, fungi and bacteria play a relatively minor role
The deterioration of structural boundaries like
in the deterioration of marine archaeological wood,
decks and bulkheads could have led to the dispersion
though they do affect their long-term preservation
of artifacts that had originally been retained in
(Gregory 1998).
ship compartments. For example, those elements
At the Swift site, it was observed that artifacts belonging to the missing sectors of the upper deck
more severely colonized by wood-borers were more might have slipped towards the portside or collapsed
prone to fragmentation. Small fragments are more together with that part of the ship, depending on their
susceptible to further biotic and abiotic deterioration. different attributes (e.g., material, dimensions, weight,
This is why, contrary to what happens with glass or and whether they were fixed or loose). At the stern
ceramic fragments, wooden fragments tend to have a excavation area (captains quarters), materials on the
less significant diagnostic potential. sediment surface or near it did not maintain a clear
contextual association. Objects that seem to come
The deposition of thin particles of sediment was a
from the collapsed starboard area were found there.
slow but constant process since the Swift sank, until
The integrity of the objects themselves was poorly
a certain stability was reached. The wreck constitutes
preserved. For these reasons, contextual associations
an obstacle that slows down tidal currents, acting as
should be interpreted with caution, particularly in the
a sediment trap.
case of cupboards, chests and boxes and their possible
The formation of an anoxic environment is contents. On the contrary, in the lower levels of the
beneficial to the preservation of archaeological excavation, bulkheads have been largely preserved
materials, particularly organic ones, because the lack
of oxygen prevents the development of most organisms,
with the exception of specialized (anaerobic) bacteria.
However it is worth noting that even a small portion
of a wooden artifact that remains exposed it is enough
for wood-borers to colonize the whole piece (Figure 9).
In addition, sediment coverage also protects materials
from the marine erosion produced by the sediment
transportation of tidal currents.
As mentioned previously, the superficial stability of
sediments can be modified by currents, archaeological
work, and bioturbation produced by benthonic
invertebrates, whose effects, while generally minor,
can be cumulative and significant (Ferrari and Adams
1990). All of these factors can result in the exposure of
archaeological materials to new oxygenated conditions,
making them vulnerable to deterioration.
Recording the structural remains provided a more
comprehensive view of the possible processes and
successive stages of the ships deterioration and,
consequently, of the distribution and preservation
of its contents. After the sinking, the elements that
remained more exposed or closer to the water surface
the rigging, the bow and part of the starboard side
would likely have suffered the buffeting of waves
and tidal currents, as well as the consequences of
anthropic impact. In combination with this, the
mechanical effects of the giant kelp Macrocystis
pyrifera (Bastida et al. 2008) and large colonies of
tunicates attached to the structural timbers could have
Figure 9. Part of this sea chest component was seriously
further weakened them; according to the results of
deteriorated because of wood-borers activity and erosion
the experimental studies it is likely that, within one processes. A well preserved area due to sediment coverage
year of the wreck, macrofouling communities were can clearly be observed (Photo: C. Murray).
 66 M. Grosso - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 55-69
and permitted the distinction between the Captains
cabin and his chamber. The spatial location and the
integrity of the objects there seemed more clearly
defined. Some examples of this are furniture (e.g.,
folding stools) found in what it seems to be its original
storage location, and a cupboard and its content that
have maintained their contextual relations. Sediment
accumulated inside boxes and chests before nails and
ironwork corroded, preventing the collapse of wood
components and preserving the original content. This
pattern has also been observed in other areas of the
site where sedimentation was rapid, even in levels
close to the surface (Figure 10).
The results obtained in these studies have been
essential to discuss research questions related to material
culture at the Swift site. This includes artifact provenience,
function, and contextual associations; links between
objects and crew members, and personal belongings
versus navy property (see Grosso 2011, 2013).
CONCLUSIONS
Regarding post-depositional processes affecting the
Swift site, the essential factors affecting the survival
Figure 10. Medicine chest found on the superficial level in the amidhsip
area with a very well preserved content (Photo: C. Murray).
and distribution of archaeological materials are the
environmental characteristics and their particular
dynamics, even in those cases where human activity
had a considerable influence. The integrity of materials
is related to complex processes, which in turn depend
on the depositional microenvironment and the
physicochemical properties of the wood. As Ferrari
and Adams (1990) indicate, it is important to approach
this relationship not simply in terms of the environment
influence on the archaeological materials, but as an
interaction between them.
The shipwreck process, the bottom slope, and
the prevailing current direction have been the most
important factors that determined the distribution
of artifacts towards the portside and stern areas.
The accumulation of sediment at the Swift site
has been a major a control agent, facilitating the
survival and integrity of the archaeological record.
Teredinid mollusks have been the primary agent of
biodeterioration, both in the aggressiveness of their
action but also the rapidity of their colonization.
Teredinids have played a fundamental role in the decay
of wooden artifacts resulting in partial or complete
destruction and also in their spatial distribution.
Fouling organisms can also produce certain deleterious
effects, particularly the loss of surface
evidence in artifacts.
The results obtained to date allowed
us to understand preservational and
distributional processes at different scales,
from the site as a whole, to excavated
areas and individual components. The
research should continue as the excavation
progresses in new areas. At present, the
interventions at the site are temporarily
suspended until further progress with
stabilization treatments can be made at
the conservation laboratory. In addition,
the biotic and abiotic microdeterioration
processes in wooden artifacts is an issue
that still requires investigation at the
site, both in terms of continued study of
formation processes and in situ preservation
assessment. This research field has not yet
been pursued in Argentine Patagonian
waters and in the future could be developed
in the region based in the work carried out
in the last years by several research projects
(e.g., Pournou 1999; Jones 2003; Manders
2004; Palma 2004).
Finally, the recovered data highlight
aspects that must be taken into account
when working at the site. The handling
of wooden artifacts underwater and on
land must be done with extreme care,
even if the artifacts appear to be in a good

studies of wooden artifacts from the 18th century Swift shipwreck site (Patagonia, Argentina)
condition, since the structure of the wood could be
very weak and therefore easily damaged. At the end
of each fieldwork season, excavated areas must be
covered (e.g., refilled with sediment) to avoid further
colonization on newly oxygenated wood (see Gregory
1998, among others). Lastly, periodic monitoring of the
site should be carried out.
In light of the information obtained to date, a
considerable contribution to understanding formation
processes at the Swift site was achieved. This knowledge
may also be relevant for building predictive models
for the assessment of other sites less well preserved
than the Swift, both in underwater and intertidal
environments of the Argentine Patagonian coast.
Acknowledgements
This research was only possible after many years
of joint work. I am especially grateful to my PhD
directors, Dr. Dolores Elkin and Dr. Ricardo Bastida,
for their guidance and support. Dr. Bastida significantly
contributed to the accomplishment of this research
and has generously provided me with specialized
bibliography. I would also like to thank all the people
who have worked or assisted in the fieldwork and
laboratory analyses, particularly the PROAS members
and the team of the Laboratorio de Ecologa Bentnica
y Biodeterioro (Mar del Plata University), to Marilin
Castro and Glenn McConnachie for wood anatomical
identifications, and to the friends from Puerto Deseado
who have generously provided their help through these
years. Several institutions have supported the HMS
Swift Project since it beginning: Fundacin Antorchas,
Secretara de Cultura de la Nacin, Municipalidad de
Puerto Deseado, Museo Municipal Mario Brozoski,
Gobierno de Santa Cruz and the British Embassy in
Argentina. I would also like to thank Women Divers
Hall of Fame for the Cecelia Connelly Memorial
Scholarship in Underwater Archaeology, which I had
the honor to receive. I gratefully acknowledge Cristian
Murray and Alejandra Elas for their comments, and
to the anonymous reviewers and the editors Karen
Borrazzo and Celeste Weitzel for their valuable
observations and suggestions to improve this work,
as well as for translating the abstract. Thanks also to
Ana Castelli for her assistance with the translation and
to Raven Garvey for her helpful review of the English
language that have improved the final manuscript.
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NOTES
1.- A detailed analysis of this response to shipwrecks threat
(sensu Gibbs 2006) is in Elkin et al. (2011).
2.- Some of the Swifts artifacts are at different stages of the
conservation treatment. Once taken out of the water, wooden
artifacts must be stabilized and dried in a controlled proce-
dure (see Jones 2003, among others).
3.- The identification of wood taxonomy based on its ana-
tomical characteristics has limitations because generally the
possible taxonomic specificity reaches only the level of genus
or subgenus. Also, the deterioration of the cell structure of the
wood sample may inhibit or make difficult the identification
(Newsom and Miller 2009).
70 M. Grosso - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 55-69
 | 71

Taphonomy of a village: the early 20th century site

of Mariano Mir (Chapaleuf department, La Pampa,
Argentina)
Carlos Landa, Virginia Pineau, Emanuel Montanari and Jimena Doval
Received 29 August 2013. Accepted 28 April 2014

ABSTRACT

The Mariano Mir archaeological site (Chapaleuf Department, La Pampa Province, Argentina) was a town of
nearly 500 inhabitants, founded in 1901 and abandoned in 1911. From the Historical Archaeology perspective,
this paper aims to reconstruct the taphonomic histories of surface artifact assemblages from the Mariano Mir
ghost town. We analyze taphonomic processes at both the artifact and the assemblage level, considering multiple
variables including size, thermal alteration, weathering, site topography, trampling, anthropic activities and
burrowing animal activities. We use GIS to interrelate the selected variables and assess the roles of various
taphonomic agents in shaping the characteristics and distributions of materials at Mariano Mir. The information
pertaining to formation processes obtained from Mariano Mir is potentially useful for generating expectations
for and understanding other sites in the region that exhibit similar taphonomic conditions.
Keywords: Mariano Mir; Ghost Town; Taphonomy; Historic Archaeology; GIS.

RESUMEN

TAFONOMA DE UN PUEBLO: EL SITIO MARIANO MIR DE PRINCIPIOS DEL SIGLO XX (DEPARTAMENTO

DE CHAPALEUF, LA PAMPA, ARGENTINA). El sitio Mariano Mir (departamento Chapaleuf, Provincia de
La Pampa, Argentina) fue un pueblo de casi 500 habitantes fundado en 1901 y abandonado en 1911. Desde la
perspectiva de la arqueologa histrica, se propone reconstruir las historias tafonmicas del conjunto artefactual
de superficie de este Ghost town. Los procesos tafonmicos son analizados desde la escala del artefacto y su
distribucin espacial considerando mltiples variables (tamao, alteracin trmica, meteorizacin, topografa
del terreno, pisoteo, actividades antrpicas y animales cavadores). Se utiliza sistema de informacin geogrfica
(SIG) para interrelacionar las diferentes variables de anlisis y evaluar la incidencia de los distintos agentes
tafonmicos en las caractersticas y distribucin de los materiales. Esperamos poder comprender la dinmica de
formacin que afect al sitio y generar expectativas para contextos tafonmicos similares de la regin.
Palabras clave: Mariano Mir; Tafonoma; Arqueologa histrica; Ghost town; GIS.

Carlos G. Landa. Instituto de Arqueologa. Facultad de Filosofa y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires (FFyL, UBA).
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas (CONICET). 25 de Mayo 217 3 piso, of. 8 (1002), Ciudad
Autnoma de Buenos Aires. E-mail: carlosglanda@gmail.com
Virginia Pineau. Instituto de Arqueologa. FFyL, UBA. 25 de Mayo 217 3 of. 8 (1002), Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos
Aires. E-mail: virpineau@gmail.com
Emanuel Montanari. Instituto de Arqueologa. FFyL, UBA. 25 de Mayo 217 3 of. 8 (1002), Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos
Aires. E-mail: emanuelmontanari@gmail.com
Jimena Doval. Instituto de Arqueologa. FFyL, UBA. CONICET. 25 de Mayo 217, 3 piso, of. 8 (1002), Ciudad Autnoma
de Buenos Aires. E-mail: jdoval84@hotmail.com

Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 71-84. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 72 C. Landa et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 71-84
INTRODUCTION
After the so-called Conquest of the Desert 1,
thousands of hectares of productive lands in
southwestern Buenos Aires Province, Argentina were
incorporated to the national territory. This led to
economic expansion and the consolidation of the Nation
State, which in turn led to Argentinas penetration of
international markets (Oszlak 1997). Land was divided
into lots and awarded to a small number of individuals,
creating large latifundia. As different social actors
-settlers, tenants, sharecroppers, migrant workers,
farmers, merchants- began to occupy these spaces,
the first rural villages developed. This process was
accompanied by railway expansion that connected
distant areas, peoples, ideas and merchandise. In this
context, Mariano Mir began as a rural village in what,
at that time, was the national territory of La Pampa; it
was established by a train station of the same name
in 1901 and abandoned in 1911. The present study
contributes to our understanding of the dynamics of
spatial occupation by the first tenants of villages in
the current Pampean territory in the late 19th and early
20th centuries.
Currently, the only traces of Mariano Mir are
abundant artifacts on the surface of a vast area (ca.
32,900 m2), clear evidence that settlement attempts
were not always successful. The remains of failed
settlements constitute a significant part of the present
regional identity. Many villages associated with
capitalist production that, like Mariano Mir, were
abandoned have been studied worldwide, contributing
to an Archaeology of abandonment or Archaeology
of ghost towns (Neville and Hooker 1997; Bell 1998;
Vilches et al. 2008; Fuentes 2010; Lawrence and
Davies 2010; Peyton 2012, among others).
As a first approach to the site, and in order to
assess the integrity and resolution of the surface
record, we aim to reconstruct the taphonomic
histories of surface remains (glass, pottery, metal,
bone, earthenware, among others) (Binford 1981). We
analyze taphonomic processes at both the artifact level
and material distributions through space, and assess a
number of variables including topography, object size,
thermal alteration, weathering, agricultural activities,
trampling, and the action of burrowing animals. Our
use of geographic information systems (GIS) allowd
us to interrelate different variables and evaluate the
effects of taphonomic agents on the condition and
distribution of surface materials. In addition, we
used a host of documentary sources such as maps,
population censuses, agricultural censuses, photos and
oral story-telling to provide data for the investigation.
By these methods, we hope to understand the
formation dynamics that affected the site and to
derive expectations for understandin other regional
sites with similar characteristics. Lastly, we hope the
results of our taphonomic analysis will allow us probe
social practices at the site such as those related to
discard and cleaning during its occupation. Following
Borrazzo, we take a taphonomic perspective:
in every routine of archaeological work, it may provide
a diagnosis -in terms of preservation conditions,
resolution and integrity- for each record under study. It
will help us understand and explain the complex genesis
of current material patterns as well as recognizing the
potential and limitations in the comparison of different
samples at regional and supra-regional level (Borrazzo
2007: 147).
Taphonomic analyses are not usually applied in
the field of historical archaeology, which is why we
emphazise its inclusion within investigation protocols
as a significant step towards the interpretation of
historical archaeological sites and social practices of
the past (Brittez 2009; Landon 2009; Weissel 2010;
among others).
A TAPHONOMIC ITINERARY
Taphonomy was originally defined by Efremov
(1940) as the study of the changes that animal remains
undergo from their death to their burial, focusing on
their transition from the biosphere to the litosphere.
Although taphonomic studies were developed in
paleontological and archaeological studies by the
end of the 19th century, it was not until the second
half of the 20th century that they reached their present
expression (Lyman 1994). Processual archaeology
and actualistic studies had a strong influence on the
development of taphonomic research in archaeology,
which was exponential growth beginning in the late
1960searly 1970s (Mengoni Goalons 1988; Borrero
2011). Taphonomic studies in archaeological research
have focused on evaluating the resolution of samples
and understanding the dynamics generated by diverse
agents on organic remains (Gifford Gonzlez 1981;
Lyman 1994, 2010). Thus, it considers the incidence
of anthropic and natural agents on the formation of
the archaeological record.
In the last few years some researchers have gone
beyond the original purview of taphonomic research,
extending its theoretical-methodological precepts to
the study of inorganic materials such as ceramics (Reid
1984; Ozn 2009; Fantuzzi 2010; Prez Winter et al.
2010; Bernabeu Aubn et al. 2011), lithics (Hiscock
1985; Borrazzo 2004, 2007) and phytoliths (Piperno
1985). However, Lyman (2010), a staunch defender of
traditional taphonomy, denies the inclusion of such
approaches within the scope of taphonomic studies,
believing them to be within the field of formation

the early 20th century site of Mariano Mir (Chapaleuf department, La Pampa, Argentina)
processes (Lyman 2010). This conservative standpoint
is untenable in the face of the new and numerous lines
of inquiry that require expansion of analytical horizons
to an irrestrictive taphonomy (Borrero 2011). That is
why we prefer the following definition:
Taphonomy today is much more than the study of
the transition of organisms from the biosphere to the
lithosphere; it is the study of the dynamic processes
of modification of the original properties of all the
components [] of any paleontological, archaeological
or forensic assemblage, comprising its constituent
materials and its context (Dominguez-Rodrigo et al.
2011: 5).
In this sense, we believe that the reconstruction
of the taphonomic history of surface assemblages can
provide information pertaining to aspects of sites that
are often overlooked, especially in very large contexts
and/or those where agricultural-livestock activities
have been common.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
Over the last 30 years, numerous lines of research
have been developed to analyze taphonomic evidence
in the archaeological record, including the impact of
plowing and trampling, and studies of alterations to
inorganic materials such as pottery and glass. These
studies are considered essential contributions to frames
of reference that improve our taphonomic understanding
of sites and archaeological assemblages at different
scales. What follows is a brief introduction to research
of significance to the present study. Although the cited
works do not refer specifically to the same region or to
similar environmental conditions, it is necessary to take
them into account to assess the relevance of diverse
processes, agents and effects in different contexts so
that they contribute to our particular case study. The
literature describing taphonomic research related to
organic remains is vast and will not be considered in
detail here (Binford 1981; Mengoni Goalons 1988;
Lyman 1994, among others).
Plowzone archaeology
The processes and effects on the archaeological
r e c or d g e n e ra te d b y a g ric u ltu ra l t as ks has
been addressed in numerous studies based on
experimentation, simulation and interpretation of
surface and subsurface records (Roper 1976; Lewarch
and OBrien 1981a, 1981b; Ammerman 1985; Odell
and Cowan 1987; Yorston et al. 1990; Gonzlez de
Bonaveri and Senatore 1991; Dunnell and Simek
1995; Nicholson and Malainey 1995; Gmez Romero
1999; Niknami 2003; Ots 2008; Harvey 2012, among
Taphonomy of a village:
73
others). Here we mention a few interesting results
to contextualize our study. Plowzone research has
focused on horizontal shifting and fragmentation of the
archaeological record caused by plowing (Roper 1976;
Lewarch and OBrien 1981a, 1981b; Ammerman 1985;
Odell and Cowan 1987; Gonzlez de Bonaveri and
Senatore 1991; Dunnell and Simek 1995; Ots 2008;
Harvey 2012, among others). There are two main views
of the impact of agricultural work on archaeological
sites. The first states that the plow destroys the
original spatial association of surface artifacts and
moves materials laterally up to 15 meters from their
original location (Roper 1976; Odell and Cowan
1987). The second proposes that even if the plow is
a significant agent in the fragmentation and shifting
of archaeological remains, it does not completely
destroy spatial associations, moving materials less
than 6 meters from their initial position (Lewarch and
OBrien 1981a, 1981b; Riordan 1988; Yorston et al.
1990; Clark and Schofield 1991; Dunnell and Simek
1995). Therefore, interpretations of concentrations as
the results of activity areas, dumps and/or subsurface
dwellings should still be possible in the plowzone.
Supporters of both views agree that because
materials are moved in the direction of the plow,
single-direction plowing causes a bigger shift than bi-
directional plowing, which tends to average the effect
(Roper 1976; Odell and Cowan 1987). Another issue
on which researchers generally agree derives from
experiments that helped determine that the effect of
plowing on fragmentation of archaeological remains
is averaged through timeinitially causing a rapid
reduction in material size that is later stabilized
and that it generates a distribution tending towards
unimodal (Lewarch and OBrien 1981a, 1981b;
Odell and Cowan 1987; Dunnell and Simek 1995;
Boismier 1997). Results of numerous studies designed
to understand relationships between artifact size
and displacement have been inconsistent. That is,
some show increased shifting among larger objects
whereas in others indicate a random correlation
between size/distance (Trubowitz 1978; Lewarch and
OBrien 1981a, 1981b; Dunnell 1990). Furthermore,
Ammerman (1985) has indicated a need to consider
the slope of the terrain, and he reports that shifting is
greater on steep slopes.
The effect of plowing on vertical movement has
been studied thoroughly by Dunnel and Simek (1995),
who suggest that the area most substantially affected by
plowing ranges between 20 and 40 cm below ground
surface. The equipment used and geomorphological
features are significant factors conditioning the effect
on vertical displacement of the archaeological record.
In affected areas, archaeologists should expect removal,
mixture, and fragmentation of smaller objects located
on the upper portion of the plowzone, whereas below
 74 C. Landa et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 71-84
this area, bigger objects, unaffected by this agent,
should be found (Yorston et al 1990; Boismier 1997;
Diez Martin 2009). As with horizontal shifting, the
effect would be averaged through time (Lewarch and
OBrien 1981a, 1981b; Boismier 1997).
This brief review summarizes some of the primary
archaeological research on cultivated lands. Even
when our results are not consistent with these findings,
we will be able to establish a minimum/maximum
effect of the impact of agricultural tasks in a site. We
see an immediate need for experiments that take into
account the particular characteristics of the study
region (geomorphological features, rainfall patterns,
type of crops, etc.) and their effects at particular stages
in the agricultural cycle.
Trampling Studies
Trampling is another area of research useful in
assessing the effects of anthropic and non-anthropic
agents in the vertical and horizontal movement of
archaeological remains, and in the damage they
produce on artifacts. Trampling by humans, animals
(large and small), and agricultural equipment has
been evaluated by numerous researchers. Experiments
designed to assess the effects of different types of
trampling on different artifact types in terms of both
damage and horizontal and vertical displacement
(Gifford Gonzlez et al. 1985; Olsen and Shipman
1988; Mc Brearty et al. 1998; Flegenheimer and
Weitzel 2007; Lopinot and Ray 2007; Eren et al.
2010, among others). Research on the effects of human
trampling on a diversity of materials including some
historic and industrially manufactured ones (e.g.,
ceramic, brick and handicraft pottery), are relevant to
our study of the Mariano Mir assemblage (Gifford-
Gonzlez et al. 1985; Nielsen 1991). The type and
compaction of sediments on which trampling took
place are important variables given that penetrability
diminish with increased substrate hardness (Nielsen
1991); all such studies confirm that when artifacts
cannot penetrate the substrate, more damage results
(Nielsen 1991; Flegenheimer and Weitzel 2007),
whereas a soft substrate mitigates the effect and permits
migration within the substrate (Gifford Gonzlez et
al. 1985). We will not devote attention to vertical
artifact movement since this work focuses on surface
assemblages.
Horizontal shifting due to trampling creates a
clustered pattern towards the margins of the affected
area, which may resemble a discrete concentration
such as those associated with activity areas or dumps
(Nielsen 1991). Concentrations have size patterns
characterized by an absence of small objects, which
are incorporated into the sediment, while medium
and large artifacts move the most and are likely to
be kicked (Nielsen 1991; Eren et al. 2010). Results
obtained from experimentation indicate a problem
of equifinality between the effects of plowing and
trampling, which must be considered when interpreting
archaeological records.
Studies of non-organic materials
Materials found at Mariano Mir are typical of late
19th early 20th century industrial production and may
not be directly comparable those used in actualistic
studies; ideally, studies should be replicated using
materials that match the particilar characteristics of the
Mariano Mir collections. Alteration to ceramics are
conditioned by its porosity, hardness and composition
(Skibo 1992; Ozn 2009; Fantuzzi 2010). The pottery
recovered at Mariano Mir was mass-produced and
characterized by low porosity, a lack of inclusions and
high hardness due to high firing temperatures (e.g.,
earthenware, pottery, and porcelain, among others). Its
properties are similar to those of glass, which is more
resistant to chemical alterations, but more susceptible
to mechanical damage because of their extreme
fragility (Fantuzzi 2010). Due to their physical and
chemical characteristics, glass is significantly affected
by several agents. Surface alterations to glass artifacts
have been characterized according to categories
suggested by Pineau (2010):
- Iridescence: presence of gleaming caused by sandy se-
diments and heat.
- Chemical weathering (intemperizado): loss of original
gleam caused by environmental conditions with no
alteration of glass edges.
- Physical weathering (erosionado): opacity of fragments
and grinding of borders and walls caused by abrasive
action including rolling down slopes or contact with
water and/or sand.
Alteration of metal artifacts cannot be assessed
using the same analytical criteria since processes such
as corrosion often preclude macroscopic observation of
specimen surfaces. Although the contexts of the studies
presented above differ from that of the present study,
reviewing the taphonomic literature contextualizes our
study of the surface record at Mariano Mir and helps
us avoid issues of equifinality.
MARIANO MIR SITE: HISTORICAL CONTEXT
AND EARLY RESEARCH
Mariano Mir is located in La Pampa Province
(Chapaleuf Department; 35 01 31.1 S, 63
4871.1 W), on dune-like plains formed by aeolian
deposition of sand during the Pleistocene (Figure 1). The
expansion agricultural has significantly modified the
landscape, destroying the dunes and caldn (Prosopis
caldenia) forests that once predominated in this region.
 Taphonomy of a village:
the early 20th century site of Mariano Mir (Chapaleuf department, La Pampa, Argentina) 75

of success; as Jackson
notes (1963 in Peyton
2012: 307) Men have
a tendency to forget
rather than record
disappointment and
failure, so the story
of the average camp
has not won much
space in old mens
memoirs. This lack
of documentation
makes studies of oral
history all the more
important. Accounts
from settlers of Hilario
Lagos indicate that
those who left Mariano
Mir brought along
tin plates, wood and
every usable material
Figure 1. Location of the site Mariano Mir in the north of the province of La Pampa, Argentina. to assemble their new
dwellings (Apuntes
The few remaining dune formations in the area have para una nostalgia, 1985). Village abandonment was
become fixed by vegetation, whereas disturbed fields forced by the abusive and speculative policies of big
have formed mollisols, making the region suitable for landowners on which the lease system was based in
agriculture and animal husbandry. Studies of soil pH Pampean territory, as well as the fact that lands were
indicate slight acidity (pH 5.2 to 6.2) (Romano and often sublet by colonizing companies (Cazenave 1971;
Zinda 2007; Sainz Rosas et al. 2008). The region is Colombato 1995; Moroni 2007).
considered humid, with an annual average rainfall of
Presently, the place where the settlement was located
800 mm, falling predominantly between October and
is plowzone largely under soybean cultivation (Figure
March (Servicio Meteorolgico Nacional).
2). For operative and visibility reasons archaeological
The village of Mariano Mir was founded in 1901, fieldwork is performed after the harvest. Nonetheless,
adjacent to an eponymous railway station. According different crops (e.g., corn, soybean) leave diverse
to data in the 1905 national Census of Territories, visibility conditions in the field after the harvest. It is
the village consisted of almost 500 inhabitants and likely that these fields have been used for agriculture
a typical variety of stores related to agriculture and and pasturage since the village was abandoned,
livestock. It is believed that the main part of the village which has significant implications for modificaiton of
was extended 3 ha south of railway station, although the archaeological record and its context. In 2011, a
some occupation to the north is mentioned as well local school teacher, Alicia Macagno, and her students
(Apuntes para una nostalgia, 1985; Giorgio 2008). from Rural School No. 65 collected surface materials
The land where the town grew up was leased to the from the old settlement as an initiative to rediscover
Santa Marina family. Around 1911,
after the lease contract was cancelled,
the village was abandoned and its
inhabitants founded new villages in the
region including Alta Italia and Aguas
Buenas (presently Hilario Lagos). The
abandonment of Mariano Mir was
gradual, as shown by the census of
1912, which indicates 254 inhabitants
and continued use of the railway
station (National Institute of Statistics
and Census; Archive of the Railway
Friends Association). Documentation of
Mariano Mirs decade of occupation
is scarce, perhaps due to its very lack Figure 2. The Mariano Mir site covered by soybean cultivation in January of 2012
 76 C. Landa et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 71-84
their past. They also excavated and removed a lot of
material from a sector that we have geo-referenced
and recorded on planimetries as Mmirop1 2. At the
2011 Provincial Science Fair, Ms. Macagnos class
presented their archaeological findings in the context
of historical information pertaining to the abandoned
village, after which the Cultural Research Department
(Subsecretara de Cultura de la Provincia de La Pampa)
contacted our research team directed by Alicia H.
Tapia to evaluate the archaeological site and recover
the village heritage.
In April of 2011 the first contact was made with
the school community of Mariano Mir and in August
fieldwork began to determine the sites boundaries
based on the distribution of surface materials. A
39,200 m 2 area south of the railway station was
thus deemed the most likely area of occupation and
targeted for the first topographic survey. In 2012,
a systematic survey of the site was completed. The
crew surveyed fourteen transects, oriented west to
east and each divided into seven 40-meter segments
labled A through G (Figure 3). Pedestrian survey was
made with included use of a metal detector (Garret
1500 model) to identify concentrations of subsurface
metals. Metal concentrations (N = 402) were found
and subsequently mapped in two dimensions. Surface
collection was performed by four surveyors walking in
straight, parallel lines with a 2.5 -meter interval between
them. Additionally, a 5 m2 grid and a 4 m2 trench
were excavated.
Complementary to the fieldwork, the research team
actively engaged with the community to communicate
the results of archaeological research, to reinforce
Figure 3. Map of the systematic survey of the site across 14 transects of 280 metres each.
the importance of historic preservation and value of
cultural heritage, and to increase local knowledge of
the areas history; allowing them to the conservation of
the local archaeological heritage (Pineau et al. 2013).
METHODOLOGY
M a r ia n o M ir s t a p h o n o m i c h is t o r y wa s
reconstructed through multi-scale (e.g., artifact, site)
analysis of multiple variables (Behrensmeyer 1991)
including: (artifact) weathering, trampling, thermal
alteration, size distributions in surface collections; (site)
topography, geomorphology, and the effects of plowing
burrowing animals.
Topography was studied during the 2012 field
season and augmented with NASAs high-resolution
images (30 meters per pixel), to create a topographic
model. Caves of burrowing animals were mapped
because their creation can cause movement,
accumulation and/or dispersal of archaeological
materials (Wood and Johnson 1978; Politis and Madrid
1988; Mello Araujo and Marcelino 2003; Frontini
2011; Frontini and Ecosteguy 2011; Salemme et al.
2012, among others).
Archaeological materials were sorted into three size
classes: small (0.1 to 2 cm), medium (2.1 to 4 cm)
and large (4.1 cm and over). The presence/absence
of weathering, thermal alteration, trampling and plow
marks was recorded. Weathering on vitreous fragments
included both physical and chemical weathering
(Sanford 1975; Purdy and Clark 1987; Pineau 2010).
Weathering recording for ceramics followed criteria

the early 20th century site of Mariano Mir (Chapaleuf department, La Pampa, Argentina)
similar to those for glass, since ceramics often have
glazed surfaces. On bone, weathering was identified
following Behrensmeyer (1978). In all cases, all
modifications on all sides of each artifact were recorded
(Lyman 1994; Ozn 2009). Effects of thermal alteration
are not uniform across material types. For bones, we
used the color scales suggested by Shipman and co-
authors (1984). Thermal alterations to pottery were
identified by black surfaces and/or nuclei (Buenger
2003). On glass, several featuers were considered
indications of thermal alteration, including iridescent
or crackled surfaces, or deformation (Pineau 2010).
Agricultural activities can have direct and indirect
effects on the archaeological record. Direct impact
includes plow marks on archaeological materials,
such as scratches or fresh cracks. Indirect impact
can be inferred from objects sizes and spatial
distributions. Maps of objects spatial distributions
and sizes can be overlain with satellite images that
show plow turning marks to help determine whether
plowing accumulated or shifted the materials. To
understand the effects of trampling, we considered
material size and displacement. However, multiple
taphonomic agents cause similar correlations between
the two variables. Thus, human, animal or equipment
trampling may generate patterns that are easily
confused with the shifting and fragmentation caused
by plowing (Gifford-Gonzlez et al. 1985; Nielsen
1991; Eren et al. 2010).
Given the complexity of the relationships between
multiple variables, we used bidimensional modeling
aided by geographic information systems (GIS;
ARCGIS10 software and ArcMap complement). This
software calculates the nearest points to each raster
cell using the kernel density method and Gauss Kruger
cartographic projection band 4.
We consulted documents, blueprints and
photographs of Mariano Mir available in the Land
Registry of Municipalidad (City Hall) de Santa Rosa,
La Pampa; the Provincial Historical Archives (Santa
Rosa, La Pampa); the Railway Friends Association;
the Railway Museum Scalabrini Ortiz; the National
Institute of Statistics and Census (INDEC); and the
General Archive of the Nation
(AGN). We believe that documentary
sources and archaeological objects,
as the material products of multiple
social actors, are means to approach
past representations and meanings in
a comparative way (Gmez Romero
and Pedrotta 1998; Carbonelli
2010; Pineau 2011). For this reason,
we draw on both sources in the
following analyses.
Figure 4. Amount of materials per category according to raw material.
Taphonomy of a village:
77
RESULTS
Characteristics of the surface sample and its
distribution
We recovered 11,407 objects scattered across
32,900m2 of Mariano Mirs surface. Materials were
grouped by both raw material and functionality in
the case of ceramics (pottery, porcelain, brick, tile,
kaolin and earthenware). Also, for graphic display, we
grouped uncommon materials (those with 30 or fewer
specimens) into a miscellaneous category (plaster,
tile, leather, sulphur, cement, wood, lithic, masonry,
slate, kaolin and mortar). The sample contains a wide
variety of materials, however glass (N = 8,324) and
pottery (N = 1,125) predominate (Figure 4). Materials
are predominantly medium-sized (55%) or small
(46%), and though some large-size objects were found
(9%). There is no clear relationship between artifacts
size and their topographic location. Based on their
morphology, marks/backstamps and manufacturing
techniques, most of the artifacts could be assigned to
the late 19th or early 20th century. While some of the
materials may be younger materials may be present,
these would not make up a significant proportion of
the assemblage.
There are concentrations of artifacts in the
northwestern portion of the survey area, and lower
frequencies in the southeast (Figure 5). That is, although
materials are distributed across the sites surface, they
cluster in several high-density patches. One of these
concentrations is located in the northwest corner
(section A, transects 1, 2 and 3). On elevated portions
of sections B and C, two smaller concentrations were
observed. A fourth concentration exhibiting low
material density was detected at section E in transects
7, 8 and 9, close to the point Mmirop1. These four
higher-density patches are composed of small- and
medium-sized materials, whereas large fragments are
notebly concentrated in sections B and C of transects
3, 4 and 5. Glass predominates in all concentrations.
Material-specific concentrations were also observed
for metal (section B, transects 3, 4 and 5; section E,
transects 8 and 9), earthenware (section E - transects
5, 6 and 7), brick (section C, transects 1, 2 and 3),
 78 C. Landa et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 71-84
Figure 5. Distribution of surface materials with georeferenced tracing of the villages outline as indicated by documentary sources.
bone (section C, transects 3, 4 and 5), mineral coal
(sections A and E, transects 1, 2 and 3), and pottery
(section A, transects 1 and 2). The map of subsurface
metal concentrations is consistent with surface artifact
distributions (Figure 6). Furthermore, subsurface metal
concentrations coincide with metal concentrations on
the surface.
Alterations on materials
The analysis of surface materials shows that 1,397
(12.7%NR3) exhibit evidence of weathering. Of the
weathered materials, 92% is glass and the remaining
8% is composed of bone and pottery; 66.6% of
weathered artifacts are affected on a single side. The
distribution of weathered artifacts is homogeneous
across the first seven transects, with the exception
of two concentrations in sections B and E, which
Figure 6. Density distribution of subsurface metal concentrations.
coincide with a slope and plateau, respectively. Of the
weathered artifacts, 33.4% showed signs of chemical
weathering on both sides. Most of these were located
in transect 2, sections A, C and E, which suggests
they may have rolled down slopes in those sections.
Weathering on glass and pottery was present as surface
opacity, perhaps due to the relative acidity of the
soil, which tends to promote chemical weathering
these materials (Sandford 1975). Signs of mechanical
weathering (erosion or corrasion) were not observed,
despite the sandy substrate.
Evidence of thermal alteration was observed
on 164 artifacts (1.5% NR) recovered from artifact
concentrations in transects 3, 4 and 9. Glass represents
79% of the thermally-altered sample, pottery 9% and
bone 8% (Figure 7).

the early 20th century site of Mariano Mir (Chapaleuf department, La Pampa, Argentina)
Figure 7. Thermal alteration percentage of those materials
found on the surface.
Direct plow marks were recorded on very few
objects (N = 51; 0.5%), particularly small- and medium-
sized glass pieces. However, thorough evaluation of the
effects of plowing requires consideration fragmentation
and horizontal dispersion.
DISCUSSION
As mentioned, the abandonment of the Mariano
Mir circa 1911 was a gradual process. During this
process, the villages 500 inhabitants surely generated
a differential discard pattern, with normal, daily refuse
being augmented by discard associated with moving,
which would show a high fragmentation rate (Peyton
2012). Thus, on the one hand, we found a diversity
of material fragments representative of daily life
in Mariano Mir, such as glass containers (bottles,
perfume and pharmacy jars), earthenware bottles,
several types of pottery and porcelain, fragments of
a porcelain doll, bone remains and parts of metal
utensils. On the other hand, we found remains related
to the buildings, such as brick, tile, nails and wooden
fragments, among other things. In this sense, it is
virtually impossible to distinguish daily life in the village
from village abandonment based on surface artifacts
or their distributions. Abandonment of the villagea
product of landowners zeal for increased production
led to the demolition of structures after all reusable
materials had been taken away (Figure 5). Ultimately,
this resulted in a low-resolution archaeological record,
making it difficult to differentiate based on surface
remains events that occurred prior to abandonment
from those that followed it.
Analysis and evaluation of taphonomic processes
involved in the formation of the site over the course
of a century offer a means of understanding the
natural processes andin a future researchthe
social practices that influenced site formation. The
Mariano Mir site has been impacted by agricultural
and livestock activities. Agricultural censuses in the
study region from 1937 to 2008 reveal simultaneous
Taphonomy of a village:
79
use of different plowing equipment including chisels,
coulters and discs through the 1990s (INDEC). Since
2000, landowners have practiced no-till farming, which
causes little alteration relative to plowing, although
heavy equipment can still affect the archaeological
record (INDEC; Hctor Morales pers. comm. 2012).
Surface material distributions are affected by a
variety of agents such as plowing, trampling, slope
and gravity, and rainfall. To understand the specific
effects of each agent on the archaeological record
and to interpret our assemblage, we must consider
the results of other studies. At the artifact level, such
comparisons facilitated assessment of artifact size
distributions, in this case dominated by medium/small
artifacts and a low percentage of large objects (9%).
Artifact size at Mariano Mir is unimodal, possibly as a
result of fragmentation generated by plowing (Lewarch
and OBrien 1981a, 1981b; Odell and Cowan 1987;
Dunell and Simek 1995; Boismier 1997). Furthermore,
trampling on a sandy substrate is expected to bury
smaller objects within the uppermost centimeters of
the deposit while larger objects would remain on the
surface (Baker 1978; Gifford Gonzlez et al. 1985).
However, this is not the pattern observed at our site.
Nonetheless, we think plowing was not the primary
agent responsible for material fragmentation since the
type of sediment diminishes the possibility of artifact
fragmentation; once artifacts are buried they do not
encounter resistance as they would in a compact
soil (Gifford Gonzlez et al. 1985; Nielsen 1991).
Although trampling may have had an influence on
lateral displacement, particularly among larger artifacts
that are prone to being kicked or dragged (Gifford
Gonzlez et al. 1985), it was not sufficient to create
the expected size pattern at the site. Also, rainfall in
addition to slope, may have moved some materials
both downslope and laterally. Considering the heavy
rainfalls at certain times of year, surface water may
re-expose archaeological materials, though there is
no evidence that this affected different sized materials
differentially. The correlation between topography,
rainfall and trampling, and the size of artifacts and
their dispersal is not significant. Therefore, we suggest
that, while they may have had some influence, the
general patterns observed in the assemblage are likely
the result of successive plowing that fragmented and
dispersed artifacts over a wide surface (Yorston et al.
1990).
At the site level, we were able to determine that
the distribution of remains are consistent with the
locations of buildings indicated on village maps from
1902, produced by Ferrocarril Central Oeste (Archives
of the Railway Museum Scalabrini Ortiz) (Figure 5).
Conversely, overlaying a map of burrowing animals
caves (N = 80) on that of the spatial distribution of
artifacts does not reveal a correlation. The material
 80 C. Landa et al. - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 71-84
concentration in the northwest sector of the site could
primarily be the result of plows turning around in that
section, according to our interpretations of agricultural
equipment tracks observed in satellite images provided
by Google Earth and ESRIs server. Moreover, the slope
in that sector could exacerbate artifact movement and
accumulation initiated by plowing.
Previous studies indicate that plowhing should have
high impact on altering archaeological context. Even
though in low frequencies, clusters of certain artifact
categories and thermally altered material at Mariano
Mir are remarkable. The presence of thermally-altered
materials in sectors with high artifact densities and
concentrations of bones may support the hypothesis
that these areas were trash dumps. There is a high
proportion of thermally-altered materials among those
collected by the school group in section Mmirop1,
particularly the glass, pottery and wood. The frequency
and pattern of artifacts with this alteration lead us to
believe it was not caused by a natural fire or deliberate
burning of the field to eliminate weeds (Whyte 1984;
Bennett 1999; Coirini and Karlin 2011). It remains
unclear, however, whether these concentrations
correspond to structures or trash pits or are simply
random, a question that requires stratigraphic data to
fully resolve. Moreover, excavations are recommended
more generally since all of the strategraphic agents
considered here also influence vertical distributions
of artifacts. Subsurface testing should be done in
conjunction with the development of experiments
designed to identify the taphonomic processes that
influenced our study area in particular. In light of
this, we reiterate the benefits of studying taphonomic
processes at every archaeological site and taking both
surface and stratified deposits under consideration
(Lewarch and OBrien 1981a, 1981b; Dunnell and
Dancey 1983; Butzer 1989; Dunnell 1992).
CONCLUSIONS
Mariano Mir is an exceptional archaeological
case: a village established by the railway that then
succumbed to the advance of the agricultural frontier
and landowners speculative tendencies. Studies
of ghost towns or the archaeology of abandonment
typically deal with abandoned villages where at least
some structures still stand, such as Newhouse, Frisco
and Silver Reef (Utah, USA) or sites associated with
mining activities in Australia, New Zealand or Chile
(Neville and Hooker 1997; Bell 1998; Vilches et al.
2008; Fuentes 2010; Lawrence and Davies 2010). Only
the New Philadelphia site (Illinois, USA) is similar to
our case study, having been abandoned gradually circa
1869 and later razed to permit agriculture. None of
these cases have been considered from taphonomic
perspective, however, and their archaeological records
were described as intact, leaving aside descriptions
of particular alterations (e.g., roads, agriculture;
Hargrave 2010). Despite differences in abandonment
processes, material cultures, degree of preservation and
approaches to their study, these sites share narratives
about unsuccessful experiences that left traces on the
landscape, memories and identities of the descendants
of those upon whom an exodus was forced. Historic
archaeology will help us understand the histories of
those settlers in the region, and aid preservation of
their material and immaterial heritage.
Consideration of diverse variables and scales of
analysis allowed us to describe a complex process in
which multiple agents acted over the course of the
last century. We acknowledge that there are issues of
equifinality when attempting to distinguish the effects
of some agents. Nevertheless, we propose that plowing
was the most significant taphonomic agent at Mariano
Mir, fragmenting and moving artifacts. However,
some of our observations suggest that plowing did
not completely obliterate patterns generated during
occupation and abandonment of the village. For
example, the three largest artifact concentrations in
section A of transects 1, 2 and 3; sections B and C of
transects 3, 4 and 5; and section E of transects 7, 8 and
9 correspond to structures or loci, such as dumps used
during the towns occupation or abandonment. These
high-density patches consist of small- and medium-
sized materials, whereas large fragments are primarily
concentrated in sections B and C of transects 3, 4 and
5, where there are also numerous thermally-altered
materials and bones. This also supports the idea that
plowing disturbance was not sufficient to completely
alter artifact clustering, though we are well aware that
we do not yet have enough information to confirm
this hypothesis. Toward this end, we will complete
additional systematic surveys in the light of the data
collected here. Stratigraphic information will improve
our knowledge of the effects of taphonomic agents on
artifacts vertical displacement. Moreover, it is vital
that we design experiments to helps us to understand
the effects of agents involved in the formation and
alteration of the material record in the study region.
Finally, given the sites size and the possibility
that some structures remain, we intend to conduct
geophysical survey as well.
We believe that the surface record, despite its
limitations, provides valuable information and can be
used to understand both formation processes and social
practices at a site (Butzer 1989; Dunnell 1992). A
taphonomic perspective allows us to pose new questions
and generate new expectations for interpreting the site.
The study presented here highlights the importance of
a taphonomic perspective for interpreting a site where
all that is left of a community of 500 inhabitant are
numerous fragments found on the surface.

the early 20th century site of Mariano Mir (Chapaleuf department, La Pampa, Argentina)
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. Jorge Alsina and Hctor Morales
for their generous hospitality, and the communities
of Hilario Lagos and Rural School No. 65 in Mariano
Mir, particularly Alicia Macagno.
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1984 Lithic artifact burning and archaeological
deposit formation on three early archaic sites in east
Tennessee. M. A. Thesis. University of Tennessee,
Tennessee.
Wood, W. and D. Johnson
1978 A survey of disturbance processes in archaeological
site formation. In Advances in Archaeological Method
and Theory 1, edited by M. Schiffer, pp. 315381.
Academic Press, New York.
Yorston, R. M., V. L. Gaffney and P. J. Reynolds
1990 Simulation of artifact movement due to cultivation.
Journal of Archaeological Science 17: 67-83.
NOTES
1.- In Argentinian historiography, the so-called Conquest of
the Desert was set up as a series of military campaigns and
actions carried out by the Argentinean Army against diverse
indigenous people between the years 1878 and 1885 in the
Pampean and Patagonian regions. Its outcome was the con-
quest of the territory and the control, reduction and genocide
of the native inhabitants.
2.- An inventory of this collection registered 4,621 artifacts.
3.- The acronym NR is used to refer to the total Number of
Remains.
4.- It would be difficult to identify the specific agent that
caused trampling due to equifinality problems.
 | 85

Trampling, taphonomy, and experiments with lithic

artifacts in the southeastern Baguales Range (Santa
Cruz, Argentina)
Catalina Balirn
Received 18 September 2013. Accepted 20 April 2014

ABSTRACT

This work assessess the impact of taphonomic processes on the surface lithic record of La Verdadera Argentina
archaeological locality (Santa Cruz, Argentina). Different stages of weathering were observed on lithic artifacts
surfaces, the edges consistently exhibiting less intense alteration, which may be the result of a reclamation
process of the archaeological record or of animal trampling. At such, this project was designed to understand
the potential effect of animal trampling on surface lithic artifacts. Toward this end, two experimental plots were
established in La Verdadera Argentina. Results of these actualistic tests are used as a frame of reference for the
taphonomic analysis of the surface artifact assemblage recovered along an archaeological survey transect (T9).
Preliminary results indicate that the effects of taphonomic processes are registered very quickly. The hypothesis
explaining the edge modifications observed in the local lithic record as a result of taphonomic processes cannot
be discarded.
Keywords: Lithic taphonomy; Lutite; Weathering; Archaeology; Patagonia.

RESUMEN

PISOTEO, TAFONOMA Y EXPERIMENTOS CON ARTEFACTOS LTICOS EN EL SUDESTE DE LA SIERRA

BAGUALES (SANTA CRUZ, ARGENTINA). Este trabajo tiene como objetivo general discutir la incidencia de los
procesos tafonmicos que actan sobre el registro ltico de superficie en la localidad arqueolgica La Verdadera
Argentina (Santa Cruz, Argentina). En la superficie de dichos artefactos se observan diferentes grados de me-
teorizacin, siendo siempre los filos los que exhiben menor intensidad de alteracin. Se ha planteado que esta
diferencia puede ser resultado tanto de prcticas de reclamacin del registro arqueolgico como producto del
pisoteo de animales. Este trabajo busca evaluar los efectos potenciales del pisoteo sobre los artefactos lticos
de superficie. Para ello se sembraron dos pistas experimentales en la localidad. La informacin actualstica
obtenida se utiliza como marco de referencia para el anlisis tafonmico del conjunto artefactual de superficie
recuperado en una transecta (T9). Los primeros resultados indican que los efectos derivados de los procesos
tafonmicos son registrables en el corto plazo. Se concluye que la hiptesis que explica el fenmeno observado
en el registro ltico como producto de procesos tafonmicos no puede ser descartada.
Palabras clave: Tafonoma ltica; Lutita; Meteorizacin; Arqueologa; Patagonia.

Catalina Balirn. Facultad de Filosofa y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Pun 480 (C1406CQJ), Ciudad Autnoma
de Buenos Aires. Argentina. cataclorofila@gmail.com

Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 85-95. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 86 C. Balirn - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Volumen especial 1 (2014) 85-95
INTRODUCTION
Understanding the role of taphonomic processes
in the transformation of lithic archaeological records
is key to their interpretation (Hiscock 1985; Schiffer
1987; Eren et al. 2010, among others). The effects
of trampling have been studied extensively (Wilk and
Schiffer 1979; Gifford-Gonzalez et al. 1985; Nielsen
1991; Lopinot and Ray 2007; Eren et al. 2010,
among many others). This paper aims to contribute
to taphonomic studies, focusing on animal trampling
and its effect on surface lithic archaeological records.
This work is part of a long-term, actualistic program
of investigation geared towards understanding the
effects of trampling on the lithic record at La Verdadera
Argentia (LVA) locality (Argentine Patagonia).
BACKGROUND
Trampling taphonomy
The occurrence of artifacts produced or transformed
by taphonomic processes is a topic that has been studied
extensively (Hiscock 1985; Pryor 1988; Peacock 1991;
Thibaut et al. 2010b; Borrazzo 2011a). Different lines
of investigation regarding features observed on these
artifacts or pseudo-artifacts suggest how this kind of
record is produced and how it should be studied. When
artifacts are affected by geomorphological processes,
attributes associated with weathering should indicate
the gradual action of geomorphological processes
in the form of differing degrees of surface alteration
(Peacock 1991). Nonetheless, several authors advise
the use of multiple attributes to assess the origin of
surface characteristics (Peacock 1991; Burroni et al.
2002; Borrazzo 2011a). For some of these authors,
comparison between a lithic assemblage and the
regions prehistoric technological baseline is key to
detecting patterns. Such studies aim to understand how
taphonomic processes alter artifacts and create pseudo-
artifacts that mimic those of anthropic origin.
Much experimental work has been done to link
characteristics of the archaeological record in general
and in lithic artifacts in particular to specific causes
(Gifford-Gonzalez et al. 1985; Burroni et al. 2002;
Weitzel and Colombo 2006; Lopinot and Ray 2007;
Borrazzo 2008, 2011a y b; Schoville and Brown 2010;
Weitzel 2010, 2012; Eren et al. 2010, 2011; Pargeter
2011; Balirn 2012; Weitzel et al. 2014). Among them,
trampling experiments provide a frame of reference for
understanding artifact distributions (Gifford-Gonzalez
et al. 1985; Pintar 1987; Nielsen 1991; Osborn and
Hartley 1991; Eren et al. 2010; Borrazzo 2011b,
among many others), and factors that alter artifacts or
produce pseudo-artifacts (Gifford-Gonzalez et al. 1985;
Burroni et al. 2002; Flegenheimer and Weitzel 2007;
Lopinot and Ray 2007; Schoville and Brown 2010;
Weitzel 2010, 2012; Borrazzo 2011a; Eren et al. 2011;
Pargeter 2011; Balirn 2012; Weitzel et al. 2014).
Study region
La Verdadera Argentina archaeological locality is
located in the southeast of the Baguales Range, Santa
Cruz Province, Argentina. It is a steppic environment,
between 300 to 600 m asl, characterized by a
mean annual rainfall of 300 mm, and mean annual
temperature of 8 C. Both native and exotic fauna are
present today (Borrazzo 2011b), including (native)
guanaco (Lama guanicoe), grey fox (Pseudalopex
griseus), choique (Rhea pennata), and puma (Puma
concolor puma); and (exotic) cattle and horses. La
Verdadera Argentina ranch was established in 1923
(J. P. Riquez, personal communication, 2011), from
which date forward the introduction of large numbers
of European cattle significantly amplified the trampling
effects of the local fauna that has been present
throughout the Holocene.
Several lithic sources have been recorded in the
locality, occurring mainly as secondary deposits
composed of several lithologies (chert, dacite, diabase,
and lutite) available as boulders and/or large blocks.
However, lutite is the most frequently occurring
material in all LVA lithic assemblages (Borrazzo
2006, 2008; Borrero et al. 2006). The chronology
for local human occupation was obtained from the
stratified Cerro Len 1 and 3 rock shelter sites. Humans
appear to have been present in the area throughout
the Holocene, between 8,856 84 and 907 45 14C
years BP1 (Borrazzo 2006, 2008; Borrero et al. 2006;
Borrero and Borrazzo 2011).
The southeastern extent of Baguales Range has
been characterized as marginal to the home ranges
of populations settled to the east (Franco and Borrero
2000; Borrazzo 2006, 2008; Borrero et al. 2006).
The absence of archaeological materials in viable
local rock shelters (e.g., LVA cave; Borrazzo 2008) is
consistent with this interpretation.
Although the LVA archaeological locality has been
occupied throughout the Holocene, the archaeological
record is sparse. Open-air surface sites are the most
common evidence of a human presence in the locality
and these are primarily lithic scatters, probably
indicating low sedimentation rates (Borrazzo 2011b).
This paper addresses the formation of surface lithic
assemblages in the LVA archaeological locality.
Surface lithic assemblages collected from the
LVA locality contain high frequencies of lutite tools
weathered to differing degrees. Retouched and flaked
edges exhibit lower intensities of weathering. In a
previous publication, Balirn (2012) suggested that this

and experiments with lithic artifacts in the southeastern Baguales Range (Santa Cruz, Argentina)
phenomenon could be explained by either reclamation
-reintroduction of artifacts from the archaeological
contexts to systemic contexts (Schiffer 1987)- or
taphonomic processes, particularly animal trampling
in the current context. This led to a pilot project aimed
at evaluating the impact of trampling on surface lithic
artifacts.
The focus of this work is to quantify the occurrence
of fractures and/or macroscopic edge damage in
experimental samples and to compare these patterns
to those observed during the taphonomic analysis of a
local archaeological surface assemblage (T9) in order
to evaluate the relevance of experimental data for
interpreting the archaeological record.
Behavioral vs. taphonomic processes: working
hypotheses
As mentioned, LVAs surface lithic assemblages
are dominated by lutite artifacts. Weathering is readily
identifiable on this raw material since the color of the
rock surface becomes lighter as weathering increases. A
recurring pattern of varying degrees of weathering (sensu
Borrazzo 2006) among lithic artifacts was recorded;
artifact edgesboth isolated and continuous flake
scarsare less weathered than other surfaces (Figure 1).
These observations raise the question: Are the
observed intra-artifact differences in weathering a
result of human behavior or of taphonomic processes?
To answer this question it is necessary to examine
both possibilities and determine how each of these
factors might have contributed to the formation of
the archaeological record throughout the Holocene.
Thus, the aim of this paper is to compare experimental
trampling data and archaeological collections.
Currently we know that while archaeological evidence
at LVA is sparse, the locality was available to and
Figure 1. Artifacts from archaeological sample T9 that exhibit different weathering stages on their surfaces. Lower stages
can be observed on the edges.
Trampling, taphonomy,
87
visited by hunter-gatherers during the Holocene and,
although this pattern is interpreted from stratified sites,
it is assumed that surface assemblages reflect a similar
level of human use.
One hypothesis to explain the observed patterns
of weathering on lutite artifact surfaces is artifact
reclamation (sensu Schiffer 1987). That is, if different
degrees of weathering can be interpreted as different
exposure times of rock surfaces, we can assume that
a considerable amount of time passed between the
production of an artifact and any other scar exhibiting
a lesser amount of weathering. Therefore, lower
weathering stages on edges would be the result of a
provisioning strategy that seeks to save time and energy
by resharpening abandoned tools or by selecting
preexisting flakes as blanks for tool manufacture. An
alternative hypothesis explains the occurrence of less-
weathered fractures and/or flake scars as the effects
of taphonomic processes. An assessment of local
taphonomic agents and processes suggests that animal
trampling is the most likely source of the pattern.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Several features of the LVA locality make this
latter hypothesis plausible: a low sedimentation
rate, which reduces the likelihood of artifact burial;
a generally hard substrate with ample gravels and
sparse vegetation cover; and an abundance of native
wildlife and European livestock. In this context, it is
reasonable to propose that the surface lithic record
is subject to animal trampling and that this has been
the case for a long time. To test this hypothesis, a
long-term experimental study was specifically designed
to assess how taphonomic processes act on the LVA
surface lithic record. In this first stage of our research,
we focus on the effects of the animal trampling.
 88 C. Balirn - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Volumen especial 1 (2014) 85-95
Transect 9 (T9)
The archaeological material discussed in this paper
comes from a surface collection identified as Transect
9 (T9). This transect runs NW-SE and the surface slopes
gently to the east. Visibility ranges from 50% to 100%
and two surveyors collected all surface materials within
an area 250 m long by 10 m wide.
The sample is composed of 305 artifacts, 87.87%
(N = 268) of which are made from lutite. The remaining
12.13% (N = 37) were manufactured from other local
and non-local raw materials (e.g., chert, basalt, dacite).
This study considers only the lutite artifacts, since 1)
this material exhibits higher degrees of macroscopic
weathering as surface exposition time increases and 2)
it is the most common raw material in T9 and other
archaeological samples collected in the area.
Previous work in the study area called attention
to taphonomic processes affecting surface lithic
assemblages and suggested the need to account for
such processes during techno-morphologic analyses
(Borrazzo 2006, 2008). Here, we follow Hiscock
(1985), who posits that lithic artifacts change between
their deposition and later retrieval and that, therefore,
the study of formation processes is not only useful,
but necessary for proper interpretation of the lithic
record. We also follow Borrazzos (2004, 2006, 2010)
approach to taphonomic analysis of archaeological
lithic assemblages, defining the taphonomy of lithic
artifacts as an archaeological and actualistic study
which describes, defines and systematizes the effects
produced by natural and cultural processes and agents
that acted on lithic artifact sets since their deposition
and until their retrieval from the archaeological
context (Borrazzo 2004: 9).
Chemical weathering intensity is the focus of this
taphonomic analysis. Borrazzo (2004, 2006) defines
four stages (0, 1, 2 and 3) of abrasion (physical
weathering) on different parent materials, while Hiscock
(1985) describes four continuous but different stages
for chemical weathering in chert, ranging from fresh
to heavily weathered. Following these two authors, a
qualitative scale of lutite weathering is developed here;
higher degrees of weathering result in a more porous
rock texture and a lighter or whiter color:
Stage 0: no weathering, or fresh in Hiscocks
(1985) terminology
Stage 1: the rock surface exhibits a thin, light grey
coating. The texture of the rock remains similar to
that in stage 0.
Stage 2: the surface turns lighter grey and becomes
porous.
Stage 3: the rock texture is rough and very porous
and the surface has an almost white coloration.
Techno-morphological analysis of both experimental
and archaeological samples was conducted following
Ascheros (1975, 1983) protocols.
We recorded the occurrence of less-weathered
fractures and micro-flaking on the edges of artifacts
recovered from surface contexts. To build a framework
for systematic analysis of the origin of these features,
we designed a trampling experiment. The author
established two experimental plots (see below) based
on previous experimental work in the area (Borrazzo
2011b) as well as more general experimental research
on formation processes (Schiffer 1987; Borrero 1991;
Kligmann 2009) and trampling in particular (see Pryor
1988; McBrearty et al. 1998; Eren et al. 2010; Weitzel
2010; Thibaut et al. 2010b).
Trampling experiments aim to link particular effects
with their potential causes; this information is then used
to interpret the archaeological record (e.g., Nielsen
1991; Flegenheimer and Weitzel 2007; Eren et al. 2010;
Weitzel 2010). In this particular case, special attention
was paid to average thickness of fracture sections since
it has been demonstrated that this attribute is a good
indicator of flake breakage by trampling (Merenzon
1988; Borrazzo 2010; Weitzel 2010; Jennings 2011;
Weitzel et al. 2014): the thinner the flake, the more
likely it is to be broken during trampling (Borrazzo
2010). The proposed maximum thickness for trampling
fractures is 7 mm (Flegenheimer and Weitzel 2007;
Weitzel 2010, 2012; Weitzel et al. 2014).
Experimental plots
In 2011, two plots were established in LVA. This
longitudinal study includes annual survey for each of
10 years (the time it took another local experimental
plot to stabilize; Borrazzo 2011b), or until no changes
to the experimental assemblage are recorded during
three consecutive surveys (i.e., the plot stabilizes),
whichever occurs soonest. The experiment consisted
of three stages:
- sample preparation
- plot set up
- survey
The first stage included manufacture of a sample of
lutite artifact replicas (N = 100) using a hard hammer
and free hand percussion, the most frequent technique
recorded in LVA lithic assemblages. Each piece was
labeled, measured, and photographed, and a drawing
of its outline was produced. This information was
recorded to aid detection of any changes in the sample
through time. Subsequently, each piece was painted
with white diluted acrylic to increase the visibility of
changes (fractures, flaking, micro-flaking) to dark gray
lutite surfaces. Subsequently, the sample was divided
randomly into two subsamples: A (n = 54) and B (n = 46).

and experiments with lithic artifacts in the southeastern Baguales Range (Santa Cruz, Argentina)
The second stage involved placement of the
experimental assemblage on two active livestock tracks
and recording of each artifacts exposed surface. The
experimental plots were measured, georeferenced
and photographed (Figure 2). Survey began one
year following plot establishment. Each survey, the
following observations are recorded:
- fractures and/or alterations to each pieces
- placement of the exposed face, changes in which provi-
de evidence of trampling even when no other changes
are detected
- frequency of burial (recorded as 0%; 25%; 50%; 75%
of artifact surface)
- length of experimental artifact distribution
This experiment was designed to control for several
variables in order to improve its comparability with the
archaeological record. However, we must acknowledge
that there are factors related to both the timescale
of the processes involved and the scope and goals
of our research that are beyond the control of this
experiment. It is important to bear these limitations
in mind throughout the experiment, as the results
are directly dependent on both controlled and un-
controlled variables. Here, the controlled variables
are raw material, substrate and local fauna; the
archaeological and the experimental samples are both
made on lutite, the substrate is the same due to the
fact that both tracks were plotted near T9 and, for
this reason, the available fauna is expected to be the
same. Uncontrolled variables include the animal that
generated each fracture, the action of other taphonomic
Figure 2. Experimental plots on animal tracks. Plot A (Left) and Plot B (Right).
Trampling, taphonomy,
89
agents such as water, wind, gravity or snow, and the
accumulated effects of these agents over long periods
of time.
RESULTS
Experimental observations
The first survey was conducted one year after the
plots were established, at which time it was clear that
the animal tracks were still active. All observations
were made in the field and the experimental sample
left in place for future surveys. The information
collected during this first survey shows that:
- 32% of the specimens had a new surface exposed (Plot
A = 13; Plot B = 19). This is a minimum value since
exposed faces may have changed multiple times but only
those with the opposite face showing at the time of survey
can be recorded as having changed;
- 11% of the sample exhibited fractures involving the entire
artifact and/or its edge (Plot A = 112);
- 9% became partially buried (between 25 and 75% of
their surface; Plot A = 4; Plot B = 5);
- 9% of the sample could not be relocated (Plot A = 7;
Plot B = 2);
- the plots length increased (horizontal distribution of the
sample, parallel to track margins; additional length: Plot
A = 12 cm, Plot B = 15 cm);
- one piece was found 276 cm away from its original
location in Plot A;
 90 C. Balirn - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Volumen especial 1 (2014) 85-95
Seven percent of the sample exhibited micro-
flaking. Edges with continuous micro-flaking did
not exceed 12 mm in length, although a few pieces
presented more than one fracture and/or micro-flaking.
This suggests that such edge damage can be generated
in the short term and that its presence and therefore
flake scar continuity- could be expected to increase
over the long run.
Features on the edges of specimens in the
experimental collection appear in some cases as
isolated micro-flaking and in others as continuous
flaking with up to six scars (Figure 3). Micro-flaking
is usually longer along the edges of pieces (1 to 3
mm) than on their surfaces (1 to 2 mm). Continuous
micro-flaking occurs along edges in lengths between
6 and 12 mm and intrudes artifacts surfaces 2 mm or
less. It is worth mentioning that they always occur as
a series of individual flake scars and appear randomly
on both sides of specimens.
The presence of cattle and horses was recorded
near T9 area during fieldwork. This suggests that fauna
walked over places where archaeological materials
were collected, increasing the chances of lithic artifact
trampling. It is also important to note that fresh animal
footprints, excrement, and sheep wool were observed
on the tracks where the experimental material was
placed -very near T9- and, that vegetation was absent
from the tracks. All of these characteristics are proxies
for recent animal circulation on these tracks, which
in turns increases the chances that the experimental
sample was trampled.
These preliminary results indicate that a single
year was enough time for the sample to register
changes. These observations highlight the presence
of high-energy conditions to which LVAs surface
Figure 3. Modifications on experimental artifacts recorded in the first-year survey. A - B:
fracture; C - E: edge flaking.
archaeological record is currently exposed. One year
after the plots were established, 6% of the sample
exhibited edge damage or fracture. Maximum fracture
thickness recorded was 6 mm. We used this measure
as a minimum reference value when analyzing T9
archaeological sample. Conservatively, we proposed
that all the fractures present in the archaeological
record equal to or less than 6 mm thick could be the
result of either taphonomic or anthropic processes.
Archaeological sample
Using the experimental data as a reference
collection, techno-morphological (Aschero 1975,
1983) and taphonomic aspects of the T9 archaeological
sample were analyzed. The following attributes are of
particular importance to this study:
Fractures (excluding edge damage): 64.18% (n =
172) of the pieces are complete and 35.82% (n = 96)
are fractured, including longitudinal split fractures3,
which are considered of technological origin (Hiscock
2002). Artifacts with split fractures were excluded for
further analysis since their anthropic origin is clear
(Figure 4). Excluding split fractures (N = 10), 33.33%
of lutite artifacts were broken.
Average thickness of broken artifacts: we compared
the thickness distributions of split and non-split
fractured artifacts. While the distribution of maximum
thicknesses in the former is relatively homogeneous,
the non-split sample is quite different: 68.60% of the
fragmented pieces (N = 59) are up to 6 mm thick
(Figure 5). In order to assess the potential of breakage
by trampling (Borrazzo 2010; Weitzel 2010; Weitzel
et al. 2014), we measured the thickness of the fracture
section in pieces with maximum thicknesses greater
than 6 mm. The calibrated
result is that 76.74% of the
s a m p l e c o n ta i n s f r a c t u r e s
with thicknesses up to 6 mm
(excluding split fractures).
Considering the experimental
data presented above, the
occurrence of fractures and
thicknesses of fractured sections
in the T9 archaeological sample
does not appear to be random.
Fracture frequency increases as
specimen thickness decreases.
Considering the experimental
results, 76.74% of the
fractures could be explained
by taphonomic processes
(specifically trampling) because
those pieces exhibit fractures
thickness equal to or below
 Trampling, taphonomy,
and experiments with lithic artifacts in the southeastern Baguales Range (Santa Cruz, Argentina) 91

non-anthropic processes on artifact

fragmentation -in this case the animal
trampling- cannot be rejected either.
Micro-flaking (edge damage) and
intensity of weathering: the presence
of micro-flaking and differences in
weathering intensity were analyzed.
In all cases, the weathering stage
observed on micro-flaking scars was
lower than those on the rest of the
artifact surface (Figure 1). Of the lutite
artifacts (N = 268), 55.60% (N = 149)
had flaking and/or micro-flaking on
their edges. Among these, recorded
Figure 4. Lutite archaeological artifact condition in the T9 sample. Complete weathering stages ranged between 1, 2
(N = 172), fractured (N = 86) and split fracture (known origin) (N = 10), before or 3 on artifacts surfaces, but 93.96%
calibrating the sample. of the pieces have no weathering on
their edges (stage 0) and the remaining
6.04% are minimally weathered (stage
1; Figure 6).
The archaeological lithic
collection can be divided into two
groups: tools and artifacts with flaked
edges. While the tools are clearly of
anthropic origin, the artifacts with
flaked edges could be the product
of taphonomic processes (Figure 1).
Flaked edges appear as both isolated
and continuous micro-flaking and
flaking. The longest flaked edge in the
sample is 64 mm. Scar width varies
from 3 to 10 mm, and length from 2 to
12 mm. These features always appear
as a series of individual flaking scars,
Figure 5. Maximum thickness of fractured lutite artifacts (split and non-split and the relation between length and
fractures). width seems to be random. All of the
tools have marginal unifacially flaked
6 mm; that is, the taphonomic hypothesis cannot
edges. The length of these edges ranges from 8 to 82
be rejected for these artifacts. Although we cannot
mm, and flake scars are up to 10 mm long. In some
completely exclude the possibility that reclamation
cases, tools exhibit two- and three-flake-scar series
also affected the surface archaeological record, the
as well as evidence of edge resharpening. However,
experiment provides evidence that the effects of

Figure 6. Weathering stages on the surface of the artifacts with different (lower) weathering on their edges, and weathering
stages exhibited by T9 artifact edges.
 92 C. Balirn - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Volumen especial 1 (2014) 85-95
resharpened tool edges present the same weathering
stage as the rest of artifact surface (Figure 7).
DISCUSSION
As mentioned, observed patterns differ when we
consider only the weathering stages on artifacts edges
relative to artifact bodies. If reclamation for economic
purposes did occur, we would expect different (lower)
weathering stages (0 to 2) on artifact edges. This is
not the case for the T9 archaeological sample, since
93.96% of the pieces have weathering stage 0 on their
edges while the remaining 6.04% presents weathering
stage 1. In this regard, and returning to the concept of
weathering as an indicator of length of exposure, the
traces on artifact edges show a relative synchronicity.
Furthermore, as their weathering stages suggest, they
would have been produced recently. It was also
observed that among archaeological artifacts with
retouched edges, some instruments show a different
pattern (more-than-one-scar series). This difference
requires further study since it may help us better
understand the processes involved in the formation
of the edges.
While the results obtained to date do not
definitively exclude the possibility of intentional
human modification of the archaeological record, they
do strengthen arguments in favor of trampling -the
intensity of which surely increased during the 100 years
since the introduction of European livestock- as the
primary process responsible for the observed pattern
among surface lithic assemblages. That is, although
Figure 7. Two tools from T9 archaeological assemblage. Above, a tool with
two retouched edges (1: an end-scraper; 2: a side-scraper). Below, a side-
scraper and a detail of its retouched edge.
we cannot exclude human agency (i.e., reclamation)
as a contributor to the weathering patterns described
here, the introduction of large herds of cattle during
the last hundred years and the relative synchronicity
recorded by low weathering stages on flaked edges
of T9 stone tools support the taphonomic hypothesis.
Furthermore, the average thickness observed among
fractured sections in the experimental sample also
suggests that a large proportion of those fractures could
have been produced by animal trampling.
CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
This work began with an archaeological question
prompted by a case of equifinality in the LVA
archaeological record: Are the patterns we observe in
the surface lithic archaeological record the product of
anthropic or taphonomic agents? This question guided
the development of a research protocol designed to
achieve a better understanding of the surface lithic
record. In this instance, experimentation has proven
fruitful in terms of generating frames of reference for
interpreting the LVA surface lithic record.
Based on the experimental and archaeological
data presented here, the taphonomic hypothesis
cannot be rejected. The phenomena observed in
the experimental sample were also recorded in the
archaeological sample from T9, and comparison of
the two samples is appropriate given that we were
able to control for several key variables (raw material,
substrate, animals presence). Although the results
presented here are preliminary, the changes recorded
on the experimental collection in a single
year suggest that future surveys will yield
still more information that will improve
our understanding of the potential effects
of local taphonomic processes, and
clarify whether damage to experimental
collections eventually stabilizes (Borrero
1991).
Although the results reported here
were obtained from only the first survey,
our findings have already proven relevant
for determining parameters for analysis
and stimulating new lines of inquiry.
Specifically, the experimental research
led to a hypothesis regarding the origin
of patterns observed in the LVA surface
lithic assemblages. In accord with other
authors (Flegenheimer and Weitzel
2007; Borrazzo 2010; Weitzel 2010;
Weitzel et al. 2014), we consider that
the thickness of fractures is a sensitive
variable in the identification of animal
trampling. However, it is important to

and experiments with lithic artifacts in the southeastern Baguales Range (Santa Cruz, Argentina)
note that 23.26% of the sample exhibits fractures with
an average thickness greater than 6 mm. Fractures
of these thicknesses have not been observed in the
experimental sample to date, so they may indicate
interaction of several different processes on the
LVA surface record. These observations and results
suggest new avenues of analysis for understanding
the LVA record, such as fracture type analysis, which
would allow us to identify the origin of fractures
on archaeological artifacts (Miller 2006; Weitzel
and Colombo 2006; Jennings 2011; Weitzel 2012).
Moreover, it is necessary to assess whether there
is a direct relationship between edge angles and
the occurrence of trampling damage. Also, a more
thorough analysis of the edge flaking measurements
and morphologies is required to determine whether
there are clear morphological patterns useful for
distinguishing anthropically from taphonomically
flaked edges. Finally, this paper illustrates the utility of
actualistic studies to improve our interpretations of the
archaeological record. As have other studies (Nielsen
1991; Lopinot and Ray 2007; Eren et al. 2010, 2011;
Thibaut et al. 2010a; Borrazzo 2011a, 2011b; Weitzel
et al. 2014), we hope this paper offers a case study
in which experimentation generated new data and
questions about the formation of the archaeological
record, contributing to trampling taphonomic studies
and, in particular to the understanding of LVAs surface
lithic assemblages.
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank Luis Borrero and Karen Borrazzo
for their constant advice and support. Special thanks
to Celeste Weitzel who has patiently read and
commented on previous versions of this paper and to
three anonymous reviewers who helped to improve this
paper. I specially thank the Riquez family for their kind
support of our archaeological research at La Verdadera
Argentina. This study was funded by the Universidad
de Buenos Aires (UBACyT 20020100100957) and
CONICET (PIP 11220110100262).
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Weitzel, C. NOTES
2010 El estudio de los artefactos formatizados
1.- Date on bone, (AA98670, dC13 -20.7).
fracturados. Contribucin a la comprensin del
registro arqueolgico y las actividades humanas. PhD 2.- Although artifacts from plot A showed no fractures or
damage on their edges in this first survey, in a subsequent
dissertation. Facultad de Filosofa y Letras, Universidad
survey, conducted in January 2014, broken pieces were re-
de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires. corded in that plot (Fractured N = 2; edge damage N = 6).
2012 Cuentan los fragmentos. Clasificacin y causas
3.- Longitudinal split fractures are those that split the flake
de fractura de artefactos formatizados por talla. into left and right along the percussion axis. Each fragment
Intersecciones en Antropologa 13: 43-55. retains a portion of the platform (often with a portion of the
ringcrack in hertzian initiations), and usually a portion of the
Weitzel, C., K. Borrazzo, A. Ceraso and C. Balirn
termination and one lateral margin (Hiscock 2002: 252).
2014Trampling fragmentation potential of lithic
artifacts: an experimental approach.In this volume, pp.
97-110.
96 C. Balirn - Intersecciones en Antropologa - Volumen especial 1 (2014) 85-95
 | 97

Trampling Fragmentation Potential of lithic artifacts:

an experimental approach
Celeste Weitzel, Karen Borrazzo, Antonio Ceraso and Catalina Balirn
Received 20 August 2013. Accepted 11 November 2013

ABSTRACT

A proposal to estimate the Trampling Fragmentation Potential (TFP) on lithic artifacts from their metric attributes
is presented. We apply a data mining technique known as decision tree to experimental datasets obtained in
several trampling experiments. Results show that the ratio of area to thickness is the main element affecting the
probability of breakage on lithic artifacts by trampling. Also, a maximum thickness value for lithic artifacts prone
to be broken by trampling is estimated. Finally, we argue establishing threshold values for trampling potential
allows distinguishing incidental fractures with similar traits and different origins.
Keywords: Trampling; Fragmentation potential; Lithics; Experiments; Decision tree.

RESUMEN

POTENCIAL DE FRAGMENTACIN POR PISOTEO EN ARTEFACTOS LTICOS: UNA APROXIMACIN

EXPERIMENTAL. Este trabajo presenta una propuesta para estimar el Potencial para la Fragmentacin por Pisoteo
(PFP) en artefactos lticos a partir de los atributos mtricos de las piezas. Se aplica la tcnica de data mining
denominada rbol de decisin, para el anlisis de datos experimentales obtenidos en diversas experiencias de
pisoteo. Los resultados indican que la razn superficie/espesor es el elemento ms influyente sobre la probabilidad
de fractura de los artefactos sometidos a pisoteo. De modo complementario, se estima un valor mximo para el
espesor de los artefactos lticos que pueden fracturarse por este proceso. Finalmente, el establecimiento de valores
lmite para la fragmentacin por pisoteo permitira diferenciar fracturas accidentales causadas por otros procesos.
Palabras clave: Pisoteo; Potencial de fragmentacin; Ltico; Experimentacin; rbol de decisin.

INTRODUCTION 2000; Deller and Ellis 2001; Petraglia 2002; Miller

Fragmentation is common among lithic assemblage
and its causes and implications have been the focus
of much archaeological research (i.e., Crabtree 1972;
Cotterell and Kamminga 1979; Johnson 1979; Odell
1981; Rondeau 1981; Bergman and Newcomer 1983;
Fischer et al. 1984; Hiscock 1985, 2002; Odell and
Cowan 1986; Whittaker 1995; Root et al. 1999; Shott
2006; Weitzel and Colombo 2006; Flegenheimer and
Weitzel 2007; Lombard and Pargeter 2008; Tallavaara
et al. 2010; Weitzel 2010, 2011, 2012; Jennings 2011,
among many others). Lithic artifacts, considered one of
the most durable cultural materials, have the potential
to bear and preserve valuable information related to
the formation of archaeological records (Hiscock
1985; Goldberg et al. 1993; Borrazzo 2004, 2006a,

Celeste Weitzel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientficas y Tcnicas (CONICET). rea Arqueologa y
Antropologa. Municipalidad de Necochea, Av. 10 entre 63 y 67 sin No. (7630), Necochea, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
E-mail: celweitzel@gmail.com
Karen Borrazzo. CONICET. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas (IMHICIHU). Saavedra 15 piso 5
(1083ACA), Buenos Aires. Argentina. Universidad de Buenos Aires. E-mail: kborrazzo@yahoo.com.ar
Antonio Ceraso. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Calles 122 y 60 (1900), La
Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: antonioceraso@gmail.com
Catalina Balirn. Facultad de Filosofa y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Pun 480 (C1406CQJ), Buenos Aires,
Argentina. E-mail: cataclorofila@gmail.com

Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1: 97-110. 2014. ISSN 1850-373X

Taphonomic Approaches to the Archaeological Record.
Copyright Facultad de Ciencias Sociales - UNCPBA - Argentina
 98 C. Weitzel et al.- Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 97-110
2010; Thibaut et al. 2010a). Artifact fragmentation
has been used to assess assemblage preservation and
integrity, human occupation intensity, and taphonomic
modifications to lithic artifacts themselves (Bordes 1961;
Gifford-Gonzalez et al. 1985; Hiscock 1985, 2002;
Nielsen 1991; Osborn and Hartley 1991; Borrazzo
2004, 2010; Ramos and Merenzon 2004; Eren et al.
2010, 2011; Thibaut 2010, among others). Within
this framework, we believe that understanding factors
that influence lithic artifact breakage is a key issue in
need of further investigation. In this paper we define
artifact breakage or fragmentation as macroscopic
damage (macrofractures) involving the whole artifact,
as opposed to edge damage, and the research we
present centers on the study of macrofractures.
Several archaeological studies have focused on the
agents and processes involved in artifact fragmentation.
Current archaeological knowledge indicates that lithic
artifacts might break as a result of manufacture, use,
deliberate breakage, and postdepositional or taphonomic
processes (Crabtree 1972; Johnson 1979; Frison and
Bradley 1980; Rondeau 1981; Nami 1983; Fischer et
al. 1984; Root et al. 1999; Deller and Ellis 2001; Miller
2006; Weitzel and Colombo 2006; Borrazzo 2010;
Weitzel 2010, among others). Moreover, the study of
fracture surface markings suggests that several patterns
of breakage are identifiable as the unequivocal effects
of specific processes (Johnson 1979; Frison and Bradley
1980; Fischer et al. 1984; Quinn 2007; Weitzel 2010,
2012). However, bending (transverse) fractures the
most common fracture type in lithic assemblages may
result from a variety of taphonomic processes (Fischer
et al. 1984; Cotterell and Kamminga 1987; Whittaker
1995; Weitzel 2010). The low diagnostic power of
bending fractures, therefore, has severely limited their
usefulness in studies designed to identify causes of
lithic fragmentation.
Trampling is likely an important cause of lithic
fragmentation but the process has been shown to
result in numerous bending fractures (Fischer et al.
1984; Cotterell and Kamminga 1987; Whittaker
1995; Flegenheimer and Weitzel 2007; Weitzel
2010, 2012; Jennings 2011). Therefore, understanding
the contribution of trampling to overall assemblage
fragmentation patterns requires alternative lines
of evidence. With this aim, this paper explores
methodological tools to gauge the extent of human and
faunal trampling in lithic assemblage fragmentation. A
crucial first step, and the primary goal of this paper,
is to identify which artifacts can and which cannot
be broken by trampling. We analyzed relationships
between experimentally produced lithic artifacts
metrics and whether they broke during five independent
trampling experiments carried out by the authors.
Experimental data is explored with a data mining
technique called decision-tree (Quinlan 1986; Williams
2011) and a model with material expectations to asses
Trampling Fragmentation Potential is presented.
BACKGROUND
Trampling exposes lithic artifacts to complex high-
energy processes that can alter both their shape and
spatial position. Flakes have morphological attributes
that allow us to determine whether their original shape
was subsequently modified, which, in turn, permits
the study of taphonomic processes that contributed to
this modification. Thus, analysis of metric attributes
(length, width, and thickness) and the ratios between
them among complete artifacts may help us understand
the intensity of the post-depositional processes that
acted on an assemblage.
Several investigations have focused on the processes
that can lead to artifact fracture (i.e., Crabtree 1972;
Cotterell and Kamminga 1979; Johnson 1979; Odell
1981; Rondeau 1981; Bergman and Newcomer 1983;
Fischer et al. 1984; Root et al. 1999; Miller 2006;
Weitzel and Colombo 2006; Weitzel 2010). Bordes
and Bourgon (1951) were among the first exploring
the effects of trampling on lithic assemblages. With
the advent of experimental archaeology and studies of
site formation processes, several trampling experiments
were designed to test specific hypotheses. One of the
first such studies was that of Tringham et al. (1974)
who proposed a set of criteria for identifying edge
damage caused by trampling: random distribution of
flake scars, scars on a single surface of the flake, flake
scars without patterned orientation or size but always
elongated. This paper was discussed later by several
researchers who were unable to replicate the results
(Flenniken and Haggarty 1980; Mansur-Franchomme
1986; Pryor 1988). Gifford-Gonzlez et al. (1985)
describe an experiment designed to evaluate vertical
artifact movements due to human foot traffic. They
used a sample of 2000 obsidian flakes ranging in size
from 3 to 13 mm and arranged half of them on a
loam substrate and the other half on a sandy substrate.
Their results showed both a higher fracture rate and
the breakage of smaller pieces on the harder substrate
(loam).
Pintars (1987) experiment was designed to track
horizontal and vertical displacements due to heavy
human foot traffic on surface and subsurface lithic
assemblages. She used basalt flakes between 2 and
12 cm, placed on a sandy substrate. Fractures defined
as those thicker than 1 mm- were the least frequent
type of damage recorded. Pryor (1988) presents an
experiment designed to define material signatures of
trampling. The author arranged two sets of artifacts
on substrates of different hardness, sandy and loamy.
Nine hundred obsidian flakes of different sizes were
 Trampling Fragmentation Potential of lithic artifacts: an experimental approach
laid on a sandy beach and on a residential garden with
loosely compacted loam that included rocks. He found
that flakes between 12 mm and 25 mm are resistant
to fracture. The experiment focused on edge damage;
there are no references to fracture ratios, thickness,
or other fracture traits. Jorge Merenzon carried out
several experiments in 1983, 1984, and 1986 aimed
at controlling the trampling effects of intense human
foot traffic on lithic assemblages deposited in shell
middens located along the Beagle Channel (Tierra del
Fuego, Argentina). He placed lithic artifacts on loamy
soils (dry and wet), loamy soils (dry and wet) with shell
fragments added, and a fresh, complete shells substrate
(dry and wet). In one set of experiments (Merenzon
1988), 511 flakes were deposited in two plots that
were trampled for 28 days. The author observed that
90% of the sample was displaced either vertically or
horizontally, or both. Regarding macrofactures, he
reported that flakes trampled on the complete shell
substrate exhibited the highest mass loss (30.5%). In
addition, Merenzon observed that both macro- and
microfractures were more frequent in the wet plot
samples. Finally, he concluded that trampling is a
non-linear process and proposed a sequence of three
stages, at which particular phenomena predominate: 1)
pronounced horizontal dispersal; 2) vertical migration,
and 3) edge damage and stability (i.e., no further
displacement or breakage while conditions hold).
Osborn and Hartley (1991) created twelve
experimental plots in Capitol Reef National Park
(Utah, USA) to monitor the effects of livestock
trampling, specifically post-depositional breakage,
artifact visibility, and displacement. Plots included
lithic artifacts and ceramic vessel fragments. After
approximately six month of livestock grazing, the
authors found that only eleven of the 589 original
lithic artifacts exhibited fractures and that 22% of
the lithic sample recorded horizontal displacement.
Nielsen (1991) carried out six experiments to evaluate
contradictory results reported by several published
trampling experiments. Of his six experiments using
obsidian flakes, bone, wood, bricks and sherds, five
were conducted on dry consolidated surfaces with
no vegetation and one on those same muddy gravel
sediments after a heavy rain. The experiments focused
mainly on vertical and horizontal displacement,
general artifact damage, and patterns of ceramic
breakage. Three plots included lithic artifacts. Among
them, he assessed three types of damage: breakage,
microflaking, and abrasion. Breakage occurred on 19
to 24.8% of the artifacts after trampling and it was
more frequent on harder surfaces (24.8%), even though
the number of crossings performed on another plot was
larger (800 vs. 1500 crossings).
McBrearty et al. (1998) designed an experiment to
evaluate edge damage due to trampling vs. deliberate
99
retouch. They used 1400 flakes of obsidian and a
coarse chert ranging in size from 3 to 7 cm, which
were arranged on two different substrates: compact,
moist loam and unconsolidated sand. The highest
breakage ratio was recorded on high density chert
assemblage located on moist loam substrate (39%).
The authors concluded that substrate was the most
important factor influencing damage, followed by raw
material and artifact density.
Eren et al. (2010) carried out an experiment
to evaluate the effects of short-duration animal
trampling on dry and water-saturated substrates.
They used 120 limestone flakes that were trampled
by buffalos and goats, and recorded horizontal
and vertical displacements, artifact inclination, and
breakage. The latter occurred only on two artifacts.
Thibaut et al. (2010b) carried out an experiment of
bison trampling on flint and chert flakes and bone
to evaluate disappearance, spatial displacements,
edge modification, and fractures. They observed a
fragmentation ratio of nearly 50%. Jennings (2011)
conducted three flake fracture experiments testing
damage due to manufacture, intentional breakage,
and trampling. The goal of the trampling experiment
was to break each flake by walking on it. The sample
included twenty chert flakes, which were first placed
on a dry, hardened silty clay surface with no vegetation
cover. Each flake was then stepped on in a single step.
Flakes that could not be broken in a single step were
subjected to flake-on-flake trampling in which one flake
was placed on the silty clay surface, two additional
flakes were placed directly on top of it, and all three
flakes were stepped on a single time. Nineteen out of
twenty flakes were broken during this experiment: eight
by a single step (single flake placed on the ground)
and eleven during flake-on-flake trampling. The 19
broken flakes exhibited bending, radial, and Hertzian
fractures. Bending fractures were the most common
(n = 21). The recorded average thickness at break was
3.48 mm in the trampling experiment. Pargeter (2011)
assessed human and cattle trampling on dolerite,
quartz, and quartzite flakes. Artifacts were placed on
sandy clay soil with rock and sand inclusions. In each
plot, half of each sample was buried at a depth of
10 cm and the other half was deposited just below
the surface, to assess whether fracture occurrence
was affected by depth below surface. Cattle (n = 40)
trampled the experimental plots for 15 minutes twice
a day for 27 days. Human trampling was conducted
by six individuals in sock feet, for a period of 1 hour
per experiment. The author reported that 2.4% of
the sample was broken during cattle trampling while
human trampling produced fractures in only 1.5% of
the flakes. Pargeter proposed that most fracturing takes
place within the first few hours of trampling since,
after that time, artifacts are generally covered with
sediments and often protected from further fracturing.
100 C. Weitzel et al.- Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 97-110

However, nearly 50% of the cattle-broken

assemblage was originally located 10 cm
below the surface.
As this brief review shows, trampling
studies focused primarily on: (1) natural/
accidental edge fractures that can simulate
intentional retouch or use wear (Tringham
et al. 1974; Fischer et. al. 1984; Mansur-
Franchomme 1986; Pryor 1988; McBrearty
et al. 1998; Lopinot and Ray 2007; Thibaut
2010); (2) distinguishing macrofractures
originated during production and use from
those produced by trampling (McBrearty et
al. 1998; Jennings 2011; Pargeter 2011);
(3) the extent of horizontal and vertical
displacement caused by trampling (Gifford-
Gonzlez et al. 1985; Pintar 1987; Merenzon
1988; Eren et al. 2010); and (4) differential
rates of fragmentation by raw material type
(Nielsen 1991; Osborn and Hartley 1991;
McBrearty et al. 1998; Pargeter 2011).
Specific traits of trampling fractures have
seldom been identified, defined or proposed
(Hiscock 1985; Cotterell and Kamminga
1987; Weitzel 2010, 2012; Jennings 2011;
Pargeter 2013).

Figure 1. Locations of authors trampling experiments. 1: Necochea

MATERIALS AND METHODS (Buenos Aires); 2: La Verdadera Argentina Ranch archaeological locality
(Santa Cruz); 3: Northern Tierra del Fuego.
Experiments
a hard, compact substrate (brick) and the second one
Data considered in this study were collected was established on loamy soil in a residential garden
during five experiments in nine plots, carried out by (Figure 2). One hour of intense human trampling was
the authors in Buenos Aires, Santa Cruz, and Tierra performed in each plot by experimenters weighing 50
del Fuego Provinces, Argentina (Figure 1). These and 60 kg, one wearing soft-soled shoes and the other
experiments involved various lithic raw materials, wearing socks. Artifact fracture and movement were
substrates, trampling agents,
Exp RM Substrate Agent t N N Fth (min/ F%
and durations (Table 1). (fl) (F) mean/max)
The first experiment Necochea Ortho- Loam Human 1 hour 47 5 3/5/7 mm 10.6%
was carried out by CW quartzite
Brick Human 1 hour 52 14 3/5/7 mm 26.9%
and Nora Flegenheimer in
LVA Lutite Loam with Fauna 7 years 22 9 1/1.44/4 40.90%
Necochea, Buenos Aires
steppe gravels mm
Province (Flegenheimer and
LVA Lutite Loam with Fauna 1 year 46 3 1/3.67/6 6.52%
Weitzel 2007) as part of track gravels (livestock) mm
CWs dissertation research on
lithic artifact fragmentation Loam with Fauna 1 year 54 3 2/3.67/5 5.56%
gravels (livestock) mm
(Weitzel 2010). Experimental
Tierra del Rhyolite, Compact silty Fauna 5 years 12 3 2/4/6 mm 20%
artifacts were manufactured Fuego silicified clay
from Sierras Bayas rocks and
lutite
orthoquartzites, the main Wet silty clay Fauna 5 years 12 0 0 0%
lithic raw material used Tierra del Fine- Compact silty Human 20 18 1 3 mm 5.55%
by hunter-gatherer groups Fuego grained clay
silicified
in the Pampean Region rocks
(Flegenheimer et al. 1996;
Table 1. Summary of the experimental data sets. Ref: Exp: Experiment; RM: raw material;
Bayn et al. 2006). One of fl: flakes; F: fracture; Fth: fracture thickness.
two plots was established on
 Trampling Fragmentation Potential of lithic artifacts: an experimental approach 101

culpaeus and P. griseus],

and hare [Lepus europaeus])
as well as livestock (horse,
cow, and sheep) that graze
in the area. Experimental
artifacts were manufactured
from lutite, an immediately
available raw material
that dominates the local
archaeological assemblages
(Borrazzo 2006b, 2008).
Figure 2. Necochea human trampling experiments. A: brick substrate plot; B: detail of brick
substrate after trampling; C: general view of loamy soil plot; D: detail of loamy soil substrate
after trampling. Arrows indicate fractured artifacts.
The second experiment
carried out in LVA consisted of two plots established
assessed every 10 minutes. Rotations, displacements, by CB in 2011 (Balirn 2012, 2014). The primary goal
and fractures were recorded in both plots at the end of of this experiment was to assess fracture patterns of
each experiment. Results indicate that fractures were faunal trampling, specifically large cattle. Plots were
far more common among artifacts in the brick plot located on active livestock tracks, away from roads
(Table 1). In the loamy soil experiment, fragmentation and ranch houses (Figure 4). As in the previous case,
occurred primarily during the first 20 minutes and then all artifacts were manufactured from lutite. The plots
plateaued. Breakage ratios among the materials in the were assessed for movement, burial frequency, and
brick plot increased throughout the hour; in the last fractures in 2012.
10-15 minutes breakage was highest among already-
broken pieces. Finally, all of the fractures were bending The final two experiments were developed by KB in
type, most of them transverse and perpendicular to the northern Tierra del Fuego (Borrazzo 2010, 2013a). The
longitudinal axis (Flegenheimer and Weitzel 2007). substrate in the study area (aeolian-lacustrine plains,
Vilas et al. 1986-1987, 1999; Borrazzo 2012, 2013b)
The other four experiments were developed in
Fuego-Patagonia as part of the larger
Magallania Archaeological Project
directed by Luis Borrero (Borrero
2001a, 2001b). These long-term
experiments focus on the study
of taphonomic transformations in
surface lithic assemblages located
within different steppe environments.
Two of these experiments were
conducted in La Verdadera Argentina
Ranch archaeological locality (LVA),
in the southeastern Baguales Range
(Santa Cruz Province; Borrero et
al. 2006, 2007). All of the plots
were established on loamy soils
containing gravel. One experiment
consisted of regular monitoring of
a plot first established by KB at the
end of 2004 (Borrazzo 2011a), and
subsequently revisited in 2005, 2008,
2010, 2011, and 2012 to assess
artifact movement, burial frequency,
and fracture occurrence (Figure 3).
The location of the plot away from
roads and ranch houses suggests
that main trampling agents are wild
fauna (guanaco [Lama guanicoe],
puma [Puma concolor], choique Figure 3. LVA steppe plot. A: general view of the environmental setting; B: LVA
[Rhea penatta, foxes [Pseudalopex steppe plot; C: detail of plot substrate.
 102 C. Weitzel et al.- Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 97-110
Figure 4. LVA animal track experiment (plot A). A: general view of the environmental
setting; B: plot A in year 2011; C: detail of track substrate.
is primarily composed of clay (with a small amount of
silt). The first experiment in Tierra del Fuego included
three plots established in 2007 and assessed in 2008
and 2013. Here we will consider data collected at
plots A and C (Borrazzo 2010, Figure 5). Potential
trampling agents in the area are guanaco and livestock
(cow and sheep) but evidence suggests that guanaco
Figure 5. Tierra del Fuego plot A. A: general view of the environmental setting; B:
Tierra del Fuego plot A; C: detail of experimental artifact deposited on silty clay
substrate.
is the primary trampling agent
(presence of dung and footprint on
the plots, guanaco sightings near
plots). Finally, a human trampling
experiment was conducted near
plot A. The experiment included
one plot (silty clay substrate) and
two agents (55 and 80 kg) wearing
rubber-soled shoes. Local lithic raw
materials employed for Tierra del
Fuego experiments include rhyolite,
lutite, and fine-grained silicified
rocks.
Table 1 summarizes the results
of the five experiments presented
above and assessed in the following
section. It bears noting that only 38
of 263 artifacts broke during the
experiments (Figure 6).
Analytical Methods
The need for a taphonomic
perspective in lithic artifact analysis was first expressed
by Hiscock (1985) and has in recent years been
acknowledged and applied by an increasing number
of scholars (Nash 1993; Paddayya and Petraglia
1993; Burroni et al. 2002; Bordes 2003; Borrazzo
2004, 2006a, 2011a, b; Thibaut et al. 2010a;
Borrero 2011; Domnguez-Rodrigo et al. 2011; Eren
et al. 2011, among others). Our
theoretical approach is that of lithic
taphonomy, which we define as
the archaeological and actualistic
study of the effects of natural and
cultural agents and processes on
lithic artifact assemblages that
occurred after their deposition in
an archaeological context (Borrazzo
2004, 2006a). In studies of site
formation processes (Schiffer 1983,
1987), the study of lithic taphonomy
focuses on artifact and assemblage
morphological and spatial attributes
to understand their post-depositional
history and paleobiological and
paleoenvironmental contexts.
To assess which variables might
explain the observed condition of
artifacts which might have been
broken by trampling and which not
we analyzed the maximum length
(L), maximum width (W), maximum
thickness (T), and raw material of
experimental lithic artifacts using
R 2.11.0 (R Development Core
 Trampling Fragmentation Potential of lithic artifacts: an experimental approach 103

material, trampling agent,

and substrate were explicitly
detailed in those experiments,
the measures for the three
main shape axis (length, width,
and thickness) of each artifact
subjected to trampling were not
systematically informed and
considered in further analysis.
As we will show here, all of
these morphometric attributes
are a significant factor in
fracture occurrence since they
condition the fragmentation
potential of each artifact and,
thus, the expected rate of
assemblage fragmentation due
to trampling. The statistical
characterizations of metric
attributes and indices for
the experimental data sets
considered in our study are
summarized in Table 2.
The data were analyzed
Figure 6. Examples of broken artifacts from trampling experiments. A-C: LVA livestock using a data mining technique
track plots; D: LVA steppe plot (drawing below the artifact indicates its original shape
known as decision trees.
and the missing fragment); E-F: Tierra del Fuego plot A; G: Necochea hard surface plot;
H: Necochea soft surface plot. Data mining (DM) is defined
by Williams (2011) as the
Team 2011). We also included two ratios, maximum science of intelligent data analysis. DM consists in
length/ maximum width/ maximum thickness (L/W/T) the application of specic algorithms and statistical
and area to thickness (A/T)1. We previously proposed methods for extracting patterns from large data sets.
these rates as potentially significant variables as we Technically, it is the process of finding correlations
observed that absolute artifact measures are not always or patterns among dozens of fields in large relational
themselves conclusive on its condition (Borrazzo 2004, databases (Fayyad et al. 1996; Williams 2011). It
2010; Weitzel 2010). For example, a very thin artifact is also described as a process of building models,
will not break when subject to trampling if it offers a since the information extracted from data is often
small surface of encounter (small size). Furthermore, expressed through models (Williams 2011). Decision
we expected its probability of breakage will also trees (DT) are a classic learning system of data mining
diminish as the difference for its length and width or knowledge discovery in databases, and a class of
measures approximates to 0 (i.e., similar values for statistical methods that generate predictive models.
length and width). Finally, we proposed those artifacts These tree-shaped structures represent sets of decisions;
exhibiting spherical shape (i.e., similar measures for they consist of a root (the most representative attribute
its three shape axis, sensu Zingg 1935) are the less that describes the data set); branches (a classification
sensitive items to trampling fragmentation (Borrazzo question or probability, one of the possible alternatives
2004). Thus, we considered L/W/T and/or A/T rates as or courses of action available at that point); and leaves/
possible syntheses of some of the existing relationships nodes (cases within the dataset, a point where a choice
among main shape axis may be significantly
Max. Max. Max. Area/ Length/Width/
related to artifact condition. Length Width Thickness Thickness Thickness

As evidenced by the studies cited in the N (observations) 263 263 263 263 263
literature review and our own experiments, Minimum 10 9 2 27.86 .020
fragmentation ratios are quite variable, even Maximum 74 93 49 427.50 .88
among similar substrates and trampling Mean 35.26 33.66 8.18 151.71 .17
agents (i.e., Osborn and Hartley 1991; Eren Median 35 31 7 145.71 .15
et al. 2010; Thibaut et al. 2010b; Jennings Variance 179.05 180.61 21.70 3909.22 .01
2011; Pargeter 2011). We believe this is Std.dev. 13.38 13.44 4.66 62.52 .12
due in part to the fact that, although raw Table 2. Experimental data set descriptive statistics. All measures in mm.
104 C. Weitzel et al.- Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 97-110
must be made) (Berson et al. 1999; Rokach and
Maimon 2010; Williams 2011). The system (decision
tree) learns from examples in a non-incremental
manner: the system is presented with cases relevant
to a classification task and it develops a DT from the
top down, guided by frequency information in the
examples (Quinlan 1986; Berson et al. 1999; Williams
2011). DT inducers are algorithms that automatically
construct a DT from a given data set. Specifically,
the algorithm seeks to create a tree that explains as
perfectly as possible all the available data, that is, to
find the optimal DT by minimizing the generalization
error (Rokach and Maimon 2010: 151). Algorithms
frequently used in DT building include ID3 (Iterative
Dicotomiser 3), C4.5 an extension of ID3 CART
(Classication and Regression Tree) and CHAID
(Chi Square Automatic Interaction Detection). These
algorithms construct a model that explains the given
data generating a predictive model by providing a set
of rules that can be applied to a new (unclassified)
dataset (Quinlan 1986; Palace 1996; Berson et al.
1999). In this work we considered artifact condition
(complete or broken) as the target.
RESULTS
The decision tree we obtained for the condition of
artifacts exposed to trampling is shown in Figure 7.
The diagram reads from the top down. According to
Figure 7. Decision tree for the condition of experimental
artifacts subject to trampling.
the DT, the ratio of artifact area to maximum thickness
(A/T) is the first significant variable (root) to explain
artifact condition (complete or broken).
The decision tree, then, shows given the variables
in our experimental data set that artifacts with A/T
values less than or equal to 172.28 mm were not broken
by trampling. Thus, the condition of approximately 91%
of the experimental dataset (unbroken) is explained by
the model. The first node (following the right branch)
indicates that artifacts with an A/T greater than 172.28
mm were broken after trampling when their length/
width/thickness ratio (L/W/T) was greater than or equal
to 0.28. If L/W/T is smaller than 0.28 (left branch of
the first node) the DT produces a second node where
length is the decisive variable: artifacts equal to or
longer than 35.5 mm remained unbroken after being
trampled (left branch of the second node), while
shorter artifacts are evaluated by another condition,
indicated in the third node (right branch). Here, A/T
becomes important again since short artifacts (L <
35.5) with A/T values below 210.6 mm should not
break when subjected to trampling (left branch of the
third node), but should break if A/T is greater than or
equal to 210.6 mm.
In order to assess if the relationships between
artifact condition and the variables selected by the DT
were statistically significant, we perform a Students
t-test for artifact condition against each DT variable.
Results show that the relationship between A/T and
artifact condition is the only statistically significant (see
Table 3). Therefore, factors other than A/T may change
their role in the model as new data is submitted to
the decision tree. Still, although we do not expect the
role of A/T to change, its switch-point values may
change as new data or datasets are considered. The DT
presented here will only be useful for samples holding
metric values and raw materials similar to the ones in
our experimental data set.
Next we included in the decision tree the contextual
variables shown by our trampling experiments to affect
damage outcomes; particularly trampling agent and
substrate. Considering all the variables together (raw
material, metric, and contextual), the decision tree
arrived at exactly the same structure for trampling
expectations. That is, raw material, agent, and substrate
were not selected by DT as determining factors for
artifact condition after trampling events. It is worth
p T
Thickness .08 1.72
Length .054 -1.96
Width .55 -.59
Area .39 -.85
Area/Thickness .00007 -3.6
Length/Width/Thickness .24 -1.16
Table 3. Student`s t-test for artifact condition (significance
level: .05).
 Trampling Fragmentation Potential of lithic artifacts: an experimental approach
considering that the influence of raw material may
increase with obsidian artifacts because of its high
fragility. Further experimentation is needed to assess
this statement.
So far, DT selected A/T ratio as the key variable
affecting artifact condition when subjected to trampling.
Students t test showed that the relation between these
variables is the only statically significant. Furthermore,
DT predicts that artifacts exhibiting A/T values below
172.28 mm are unlikely to be broken by trampling.
Thus, DT predictions suggest that the occurrence
of fractures on pieces exhibiting smaller A/T values
should be attributable to other processes. Based
on these results, we propose that the ratio of area
to thickness is a key in the assessment of trampling
fragmentation potential (TFP) in lithics. Our results
indicate that TFP is primarily conditioned by artifacts
metric attributes and that other factors such as substrate
and trampling agent may influence the frequency of
fragmentation but not whether an artifact can be
broken by trampling. For example, the results from
the Necochea experiment showed that there was a
significant relationship between substrate hardness
and fracture ratio (Weitzel 2010), as demonstrated
previously by other researchers (Gifford-Gonzalez et al.
1985; Nielsen 1991; McBrearty et al. 1998). A further
important observation from our study is that in none
of the experiments fracture section thicknesses of more
than 7 mm were recorded. Therefore, we propose to add
thickness as a complementary variable to assess artifact
TFP. If we consider 7 mm the maximum thickness
that can be effectively broken by trampling given the
other morphological characteristics represented in our
experimental dataset, then tentatively, we can suggest
that any artifact with an A/T value above 172.28 and
7 mm or more thick cannot be broken by trampling.
Of course, the 7 mm thickness threshold is based
on trampling agents weighting up to approximately
600 kg; agents above this weight (i.e., elephants or
several extinct mammals, Borrero and Martin 2012)
might break artifacts 7 mm thick; further actualistic
research is required in areas that include or included
such large-bodied animals.
DISCUSSION
Based on the results of our analyses using decision
trees and experimental observations of attributes that
influence lithic artifact breakage by trampling, we
propose two threshold values for assessing TFP. The
first is the ratio of area to thickness, selected as the
DT root for predicting artifact condition (threshold
value for current sample is 172.28 mm). So far, A/T
is the only variable among those considered for this
study exhibiting a statistically significant relationship
with artifact condition. The second threshold value we
105
propose for artifact TFP assessment derives from our
actualistic observations: thickness. Given our dataset,
artifacts whose sections are up to 7 mm thick can be
broken by trampling and therefore have high TFP.
These threshold values explain artifact condition
for the dataset obtained from our five trampling
experiments, but the DT also serves as a predictive
model. That is, we can evaluate new data (experimental
or archaeological) relative to this model, so long as
it is within the morphological range, and suite of raw
materials, substrates and agents. Meeting these criteria,
the model will predict artifacts condition (broken or
whole), and we can then compare artifacts actual
condition to the modeled predictions to assess whether
trampling is the most likely mechanism to explain
the fragmentation pattern observed in any given
assemblage. Furthermore, the model can be refined
with new experimental data; as it incorporates more
training data, the models predictions become more
accurate and applicable to more diverse assemblages.
The DT also shows that, among our sample, other
variables (length/width/thickness and artifact length)
contribute to artifact condition, though they are not
statistically significant. The size of the available
sample remains small, and the role of these variables
in explaining artifact condition may change as more
data are introduced to the DT. We will be better able
to judge the relative importance of these and other
variables when the available experimental sample is
diverse enough to represent the morphological universe
of flaked artifacts. The model presented above is useful
for assessing lithic assemblages with attributes (metric
variables and raw materials) similar to those considered
in our data set (Table 2), but assemblages exhibiting
different values for artifact morphometric attributes
are not strictly comparable and therefore specific
experimental data are needed for the construction of
a new DT.
We recommend a cautious use of threshold values
to assess whether a lithic assemblage was subjected to
trampling by calculating the frequency of whole flakes
with a high TFP (here, A/T >172.28 mm and maximum
thickness < 7 mm). If a sample contains intact artifacts
with a high TFP, that lithic assemblage may not have
been intensively affected by trampling processes. On
the other hand, if high TFP flakes are scarce or absent
from an assemblage, the analyst will need to determine
whether such artifacts were ever present in the original
assemblage before making a claim for trample damage
since flake morphological attributes depend on tool
production techniques and parent material size. To
address this, we suggest a thorough examination of
broken flakes to understand an assemblages original
composition (Hiscock 2002). Lastly, TFP expectations
provided by the model permit special consideration of
broken artifacts with fracture thicknesses greater than
106 C. Weitzel et al.- Intersecciones en Antropologa - Special Issue 1 (2014) 97-110
7 mm. In this case, fracture-type analyses might help
us distinguish fractures generated through production
technique, knapping errors, or deliberate breakage
(Weitzel 2010).
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND PERSPECTIVES
The decision tree technique generated a model
that explains and predicts the attributes that determine
lithic artifact breakage by trampling. The model
predicts the condition of an artifact (broken or whole)
after trampling based on its metric attributes and
their relationships. Given these predictions, we can
interpret the likelihood that trampling was a leading
cause of artifact fragmentation in a given assemblage.
Moreover, the model can be trained with new datasets,
which will improve the accuracy of its predictions. It
is worth repeating that the dataset used to generate
the critical A/T and length values reported here was
relatively small. A more diverse sample is necessary
to generate an A/T threshold applicable to any lithic
assemblage. Nonetheless, this exploratory research
suggests a promising new avenue for trampling
fragmentation research which may ultimately generate
threshold values able to evaluate both the causes that
originated fragmentation in given lithic assemblages
and the impact of trampling. In addition, the accuracy
of the A/T values can be adjusted to specific contexts
by generating large experimental datasets for the
specific context under study, that is, by replicating the
archaeological substrate, potential trampling agents,
and lithic artifact morphometric attributes.
Finally, we suggest that future work to improve
our knowledge of lithic artifact fragmentation due to
trampling requires: increasing the experimental sample;
increasing the samples diversity (different artifact
morphologies, lithic raw materials, substrates, etc.);
adding new variables and reporting the morphometric
characteristics of experimental datasets subjected to
trampling as a standard in trampling experiments.
Trampling and its effects have been a frequent
topic in actualistic research in archaeology. However,
further work is necessary to improve our knowledge of
the complex processes that lead to the fragmentation
patterns seen in archaeological assemblages worldwide.
Aknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Nora Flegenheimer
and Luis Alberto Borrero for their careful reading
and support. Three reviewers and Raven Garveys
comments and suggestion improved this paper.
This study was funded by CONICET, ANPCyT, and
Universidad de Buenos Aires.
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Weitzel, C. and M. Colombo NOTES

2006 Qu hacemos con los fragmentos? Un
experimento en fractura de artefactos lticos tallados. La
Zaranda de Ideas. Revista de Jvenes Investigadores en
Arqueologa 2: 19-33.
1. Area=L x W; L= artifact maximum length (in mm);
W=artifact maximum with (in mm). All measures were made
with a digital caliper.