Handout 3

Free Electron Gas in 2D and 1D

In this lecture you will learn:

Free electron gas in two dimensions and in one dimension

Density of States in k-space and in energy in lower dimensions

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Electron Gases in 2D

In several physical systems electron are confined to move in just 2

dimensions STM
micrograph
Examples, discussed in detail later in the course, are shown below:

Semiconductor Quantum Wells: Graphene:

InGaAs
GaAs quantum well
(1-10 nm)

GaAs

Semiconductor quantum
wells can be composed of
Graphene is a single atomic layer
pretty much any
of carbon atoms arranged in a
semiconductor from the
TEM honeycomb lattice
groups II, III, IV, V, and VI of
micrograph
the periodic table

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

1
 Electron Gases in 1D

In several physical systems electron are confined to move in just 1 dimension

Examples, discussed in detail later in the course, are shown below:

Semiconductor Quantum Semiconductor Quantum Carbon Nanotubes

Wires (or Nanowires): Point Contacts (Rolled Graphene
(Electrostatic Gating): Sheets):

GaAs metal
metal

InGaAs InGaAs
Nanowire Quantum well

GaAs GaAs

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Electrons in 2D Metals: The Free Electron Model

The quantum state of an electron is described by the time-independent

Schrodinger equation:

2 2
r V r r E r
2m

Consider a large metal sheet of area A= Lx Ly :

A Lx Ly
Use the Sommerfeld model:
Ly
The electrons inside the sheet are confined in a Lx
two-dimensional infinite potential well with zero
potential inside the sheet and infinite potential
outside the sheet

V r 0 for r inside the sheet

V r for r outside the sheet
free electrons
The electron states inside the sheet are given (experience no
by the Schrodinger equation potential when inside
the sheet)
ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

2
 Born Von Karman Periodic Boundary Conditions in 2D
2 2
Solve: r E r
2m
Use periodic boundary conditions:
y
A Lx Ly
These imply that each
x Lx , y , z x , y , z x Ly
edge of the sheet is
x , y Ly , z x , y , z folded and joined to Lx
the opposite edge

1 i k . r 1 i k x x k y y
Solution is: r e e
A A

The boundary conditions dictate that the allowed values of kx , and ky are such
that:

2
e i k x Lx 1 kx n n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.
Lx

e

i k y Ly 1 ky m
2
m = 0, 1, 2, 3,.
Ly

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Born Von Karman Periodic Boundary Conditions in 2D

Labeling Scheme:
All electron states and energies can be labeled by the corresponding k-vector
1 i k . r 2k 2


k r e Ek
A 2m
2 2
Normalization: The wavefunction is properly normalized: d r k r 1

Orthogonality: Wavefunctions of two different states are orthogonal:

i k k ' . r

2
r k r d 2r e

d r k* ' k ' , k
A
Momentum Eigenstates:
Another advantage of using the plane-wave energy eigenstates (as opposed to the
sine energy eigenstates) is that the plane-wave states are also momentum
eigenstates

Momentum operator: p p r r k r k k k
i i
Velocity:
k 1
Velocity of eigenstates is: vk
m
k E k
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3
 States in 2D k-Space ky 2
k-space Visualization: Lx
The allowed quantum states states can be
visualized as a 2D grid of points in the entire
k-space
2 2
kx n ky m
Lx Ly kx
2
n, m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . Ly

Density of Grid Points in k-space:

Looking at the figure, in k-space there is only one grid point in every small
area of size:
2 2 2 2

Lx Ly
A

A Very important
There are grid points per unit area of k-space
2 2 result

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electron Gas in 2D at Zero Temperature - I

Suppose we have N electrons in the sheet.

Then how do we start filling the allowed quantum states? N

y
A Lx Ly
Suppose T~0K and we are interested in a filling scheme x Ly
that gives the lowest total energy.
Lx

The energy of a quantum state is: ky

Ek
2 k x2 k y2

2k 2
2m 2m
Strategy:
Each grid-point can be occupied by two electrons
(spin up and spin down)

Start filling up the grid-points (with two electrons kx

each) in circular regions of increasing radii until
kF
you have a total of N electrons

When we are done, all filled (i.e. occupied)

quantum states correspond to grid-points that are
inside a circular region of radius kF

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 The Electron Gas in 2D at Zero Temperature - II
ky
Each grid-point can be occupied by two electrons (spin
up and spin down)
kF
All filled quantum states correspond to grid-points that
are inside a circular region of radius kF kx
Area of the circular region = kF2
A Fermi circle
Number of grid-points in the circular region = kF2
2 2

Number of quantum states (including A A 2

spin) in the circular region = 2 kF2 kF
2 2 2
But the above must equal the total number N of electrons inside the box:
A 2
N kF
2
N kF2 Units of the electron
n electron density density n are #/cm2
A 2
1
kF 2 n 2
ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electron Gas in 2D at Zero Temperature - III

ky
All quantum states inside the Fermi circle are filled (i.e.
occupied by electrons)
All quantum states outside the Fermi circle are empty
kF
Fermi Momentum: kx
The largest momentum of the electrons is: kF
This is called the Fermi momentum
Fermi momentum can be found if one knows the electron
density: 1 Fermi circle
kF 2 n 2
Fermi Energy:
The largest energy of the electrons is:
2kF2
2m 2 2
kF
This is called the Fermi energy EF : EF
2m

2 n m
Also: EF or n EF
m 2

Fermi Velocity: kF
The largest velocity of the electrons is called the Fermi velocity vF : v F
m
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5
 The Electron Gas in 2D at Non-Zero Temperature - I
ky
dk x
A
Recall that there are grid points per unit area of k- dk y
space 2 2
So in area dk x dk y of k-space the number of kx
grid points is:
A A
dk x dk y d 2k
2 2
2 2

The summation over all grid points in k-space can be replaced by an area integral

d 2k
A
all k 2 2
Therefore:

d 2k


N 2 f k 2 A f k
all k 2 2

f k is the occupation probability of a quantum state

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electron Gas in 2D at Non-Zero Temperature - II

The probability f k that the quantum state of wavevector k is occupied by an
electron is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function:


f k
1

2 k x2 k y2
2k 2
1 e
E k Ef K T
Where: Ek
2m 2m
Therefore:
d 2k d 2k

1
N 2 A f k 2 A
2 1 e Ef KT


2 2 2 E k

Density of States:
The k-space integral is cumbersome. We need to convert into a simpler form an
energy space integral using the following steps:

d 2k 2 k dk and 2k 2 2k
E dE dk
2m m
Therefore:

d 2k k dk m
2 A A A dE
2 2
0 0 2

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6
 The Electron Gas in 2D at Non-Zero Temperature - III

d 2k 1 1
N 2 A A dE g2D E
2 1 e E k Ef KT

2
1 e E E f KT
0

m
Where: g2D E Density of states function is constant
2 (independent of energy) in 2D
g2D(E) has units: # / Joule-cm2
ky
The product g(E) dE represents the number of
quantum states available in the energy interval
between E and (E+dE) per cm2 of the metal

Suppose E corresponds to the inner circle

from the relation:
kx
2k 2
E
2m
And suppose (E+dE) corresponds to the outer
circle, then g2D(E) dE corresponds to twice the
number of the grid points between the two
circles

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electron Gas in 2D at Non-Zero Temperature - IV

1
N A dE g2D E E E f KT
A dE g2D E f E Ef
0 1 e 0
g2D E
m
Where: g2D E
2
f E Ef
The expression for N can be visualized as the
integration over the product of the two functions:
Ef E
Check: Suppose T=0K: Ef
N A dE g2D E f E Ef A dE g2D E
f E Ef 0 0
1 m
T = 0K A Ef
2
0
Ef E m
n Ef
2
Compare with the previous result at T=0K:
m At T=0K (and only at T=0K) the Fermi level
n
2
EF Ef is the same as the Fermi energy EF

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

7
 The Electron Gas in 2D at Non-Zero Temperature - V
For T 0K:

Since the carrier density is known, and does not change with temperature, the
Fermi level at temperature T is found from the expression

Ef
1 m 1 e K T
n dE g2D E K T log
0 1 e E E f KT 2

In general, the Fermi level Ef is a function of temperature and decreases from EF as
the temperature increases. The exact relationship can be found by inverting the
above equation and recalling that:
m
n EF
2
to get:

EF
Ef T KT loge KT 1

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Total Energy of the 2D Electron Gas

The total energy U of the electron gas can be written as:

d 2k


U 2 f k E k 2 A f k Ek
all k 2 2

Convert the k-space integral to energy integral:U A dE g2D E f E Ef E
0
U
u
The energy density u is: dE g2D E f E Ef E
A 0
Suppose T=0K:
EF
m
u dE g2D E E EF2
0 2 2

m
Since: n EF
2

1
We have: u n EF
2

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8
 2D Electron Gas in an Applied Electric Field - I
ky e ky
E
E E x x

f k e
k t k E

kx kx

Electron distribution in k-space Electron distribution is shifted in

when E-field is zero k-space when E-field is not zero

Distribution function: f k Distribution function: f k
e
E

Since the wavevector of each electron is shifted by the same amount in the
presence of the E-field, the net effect in k-space is that the entire electron
distribution is shifted as shown

E
Ly
Lx
ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

2D Electron Gas in an Applied Electric Field - II

e ky
Current density (units: A/cm) E

d 2k e E


J 2 e f k Ev k
2 2
Do a shift in the integration variable: kx
2

e

d k
J 2 e f k v k E
2 2

Electron distribution is shifted in
e
k-space when E-field is not zero
d 2k k E

e
J 2 e f k Distribution function: f k E
2 2 m

e 2 d 2k
J 2
f k E
m 2 2
electron density = n (units: #/cm2)
2
ne
J E E
m
Same as the Drude result - but
n e 2 units are different. Units of are
Where:
m Siemens in 2D
ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

9
 Electrons in 1D Metals: The Free Electron Model

The quantum state of an electron is described by the time-independent

Schrodinger equation:

2 2
x V x x E x
2 m x 2
L
Consider a large metal wire of length L :

Use the Sommerfeld model:

The electrons inside the wire are confined in a

one-dimensional infinite potential well with zero
potential inside the wire and infinite potential
outside the wire
V x 0 for x inside the wire
V x for x outside the wire
free electrons
The electron states inside the wire are given by (experience no
the Schrodinger equation potential when inside
the wire)
ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

Born Von Karman Periodic Boundary Conditions in 1D

2 2
Solve: x E x
2 m x 2
Use periodic boundary conditions:
L
These imply that each
x L, y , z x , y , z facet of the sheet is
folded and joined to
the opposite facet

1 i k x x
Solution is: x e
L

The boundary conditions dictate that the allowed values of kx are such that:

2
e i k x L 1 kx n n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.
L

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

10
 States in 1D k-Space
k-space Visualization:
The allowed quantum states states can be
visualized as a 1D grid of points in the entire 2
k-space
L
2
kx n kx
L 0

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .

Density of Grid Points in k-space:

Looking at the figure, in k-space there is only one grid point in every small
length of size:
2

L

There are L grid points per unit length of k-space Very important
2 result

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electron Gas in 1D at Zero Temperature - I

Each grid-point can be occupied by two electrons (spin
up and spin down)
kF kF
All filled quantum states correspond to grid-points that
are within a distance kF from the origin kx
0
Length of the region = 2kF
Fermi points
L
Number of grid-points in the region = 2k F
2

Number of quantum states (including L

spin) in the region = 2 2k F
2
But the above must equal the total number N of electrons in the wire:
2k F
NL

N 2k F Units of the electron
n electron density
L density n are #/cm
n
kF
2
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11
 The Electron Gas in 1D at Zero Temperature - II
All quantum states between the Fermi points are filled (i.e.
occupied by electrons)
All quantum states outside the Fermi points are empty
kx
0
Fermi Momentum:
The largest momentum of the electrons is: kF
This is called the Fermi momentum Fermi points
Fermi momentum can be found if one knows the electron
density:
n
kF
2
Fermi Energy:
The largest energy of the electrons is:
2kF2
2m 2 2
kF
This is called the Fermi energy EF : EF
2m

2 2 n2 8m
Also: EF or n EF
8m

Fermi Velocity: kF
The largest velocity of the electrons is called the Fermi velocity vF : v F
m
ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electron Gas in 1D at Non-Zero Temperature - I

Recall that there are L grid points per unit length of k-

space 2 dk x

So in length dk x of k-space the number of kx

0
grid points is:
L
dk x
2

The summation over all grid points in k-space can be replaced by an integral
dk x
L
all k 2
Therefore:
dk x
N 2 f k x 2 L f k x
all k 2

f k x is the occupation probability of a quantum state

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

12
 The Electron Gas in 1D at Non-Zero Temperature - II
The probability f k x that the quantum state of wavevector k x is occupied by an
electron is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function:
1 2k x2


f k x Where: Ek
1 e E k x Ef K T 2m
Therefore:
dk x dk 1
N 2L f k x 2 L x
E k x E f KT
2 2 1 e
Density of States:
The k-space integral is cumbersome. We need to convert into a simpler form an
energy space integral using the following steps:
dk x dk
and 2k 2 2k
2L 2L2 E dE dk
2 0 2
2m m

Therefore:
dk x 2m 1
2L L dE
2 0 E

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electron Gas in 1D at Non-Zero Temperature - III

dk x 1 1
N 2L L dE g1D E
2 1 e
E k x E f KT
0 1 e E E f KT
2m 1
Where: g1D E Density of states function in 1D
E
g1D(E) has units: # / Joule-cm

The product g(E) dE represents the number of

quantum states available in the energy interval
between E and (E+dE) per cm of the metal

Suppose E corresponds to the inner points

from the relation: 2 2
k
E
2m 0 kx
And suppose (E+dE) corresponds to the outer
points, then g1D(E) dE corresponds to twice the
number of the grid points between the points
(adding contributions from both sides)

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

13
 The Electron Gas in 1D at Non-Zero Temperature - IV
1
N L dE g1D E E E f KT
L dE g1D E f E Ef
0 1 e 0

2m 1 g1D E
Where: g1D E
E
f E Ef
The expression for N can be visualized as the
integration over the product of the two functions:
Ef E
Check: Suppose T=0K: Ef
N L dE g1D E f E Ef L dE g1D E
f E Ef 0 0

1 8m
T = 0K L Ef

0
Ef E 8m
n Ef

Compare with the previous result at T=0K:

8m At T=0K (and only at T=0K) the Fermi level

n

EF Ef is the same as the Fermi energy EF

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

The Electron Gas in 1D at Non-Zero Temperature - V

For T 0K:

Since the carrier density is known, and does not change with temperature, the
Fermi level at temperature T is found from the expression
1
n dE g1D E E E f KT
0 1 e

In general, the Fermi level Ef is a function of temperature and decreases from EF as

the temperature increases.

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

14
 Total Energy of the 1D Electron Gas
The total energy U of the electron gas can be written as:
dk x
U 2 f k x E k x 2 L f k x E k x
all k 2

Convert the k-space integral to energy integral: U L dE g1D E f E Ef E
0
U
The energy density u is:u dE g1D E f E Ef E
L 0
Suppose T=0K:

EF 32
8m E F
u dE g1D E E
0 3

8m
Since: n EF

1
We have: u n EF
3

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

1D Electron Gas in an Applied Electric Field - I

e
E
f k x e
E E x x
k x t k x Ex

kx kx

Electron distribution in k-space Electron distribution is shifted in

when E-field is zero k-space when E-field is not zero
Distribution function: f k x
e
Distribution function: f k x
Ex

Since the wavevector of each electron is shifted by the same amount in the
presence of the E-field, the net effect in k-space is that the entire electron
distribution is shifted as shown

E

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15
 1D Electron Gas in an Applied Electric Field - II

Current (units: A) e
Ex
dk x e E E x x

I 2 e f kx E x v k x
2
Do a shift in the integration variable:
kx
dk x e

I 2 e f k x v k x Ex Electron distribution is shifted in
2
k-space when E-field is not zero
e e
dk k x Ex Distribution function: f k x
Ex
I 2 e x f k
x
2 m
e 2 dk
x f k E
I 2 x x
m 2 electron density = n (units: #/cm)
2
ne
I E E
m
Same as the Drude result - but
n e 2 units are different. Units of are
Where:
m Siemens-cm in 1D
ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

ECE 407 Spring 2009 Farhan Rana Cornell University

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