Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

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Structural behaviour of cold-formed thin-walled

short steel channel columns at elevated
temperatures. Part 2: Design calculations and
numerical analysis
M. Feng, Y.C. Wang , J.M. Davies
Manchester Centre for Civil and Construction Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Received 2 May 2002; accepted 6 December 2002

Abstract

The companion paper has presented results of elevated temperature tests on 52 cold-formed
thin-walled channels under compressive load. This paper presents the results of theoretical
studies using a number of different calculation tools, these including simple design calculations
based on modifying a few current design methods and a commercial finite element package
ABAQUS. The design methods considered in this paper include the British standard BS5950
Part 5, Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 and the American Specification AISI. Modifications of the current
design equations are made to enable them to include distortional buckling, the effects of service
holes and elevated temperatures. To enable BS5950 Part 5 and Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 to predict
the ultimate strength of thin-walled columns with a service hole, the AISI (1996) design
method is introduced. To extend the capacity of these design methods to deal with distortional
buckling failure mode, the method of Young, Kwon and Hancock for calculating distortional
buckling capacity is introduced in these codes. Finally, the ambient temperature design
methods are modified to take into account changes in the strength and stiffness of steel at
elevated temperatures. From extensive comparisons between the results of tests, code predic-
tions and numerical analyses, it may be concluded that by adopting the aforementioned modi-
fications, the current code design methods can be easily modified to consider these advanced
modes of behaviour.
For finite element analyses, both geometrical and material non-linearities are taken into
account. The high temperature stressstrain relationships of steel are determined according to
Eurocode 3, Part 1.2 or Outinen et al.
2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 161 2008968; Fax: +44 161 2004646.
E-mail address: yong.wang@man.ac.uk (Y.C. Wang).

0263-8231/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0263-8231(03)00003-X
572 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

Keywords: Local buckling; Distortional buckling; Design methods; Effective width; Fire resistance; Mech-
anical properties; Elevated temperature; Service hole

1. Introduction

Cold-formed thin-walled steel structural members can fail in a variety of buckling

modes including local, distortional and global buckling at ambient temperature or
high temperatures. Due to highly non-linear stressstrain relationships of cold-formed
steel at high temperatures in fire, these types of buckling behaviour become more
complicated. However, there are very few theoretical studies, with validation by
experimental results, of cold-formed thin-walled steel columns at elevated tempera-
tures.
In Ref. [2], transient-state fire tests on rectangular hollow sections under concentric
and eccentric compression loading are reported. They proposed a simple calculation
method for local buckling based on Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 [4]. In this method, the
effective width at elevated temperatures may be determined with the same formulae
as at normal temperature, but the yield strength and the modulus of elasticity of steel
at elevated temperatures should be reduced. The yield strength of steel is determined
according to the 0.2% plastic strain at elevated temperatures. Randy [12] carried out
a more detailed theoretical study and reached the same conclusion. Wang and Davies
[15] performed a theoretical study using the design equations in Eurocode 3 Part
1.3 [4] to calculate the fire resistance of thin-walled cold-formed members. They
found that the ambient temperature approach was suitable for adoption under fire
conditions, however, design calculations should take into account reductions in the
strength and stiffness of steel at elevated temperatures, the additional bending
moments due to thermal bowing and shift in the neutral axis of the column cross-
section. They made many assumptions about the effects of non-uniform temperature
and stress distributions on the cross-sectional properties of thin-walled members and
further research studies would be necessary to improve these assumptions. Lawson
[8] presented a design method for cold-formed thin-walled steel structures. This
method is based on the limiting temperature method for hot-rolled steel structures
in BS 5950 Part 8 (BSI 1990).
This paper has three objectives. Firstly, it will introduce modifications to three
current design methods to enable them to predict the elevated temperature tests on
short thin-walled steel columns in the companion paper. Secondly, it will check the
accuracy of these modifications and other design methods. Finally, it will evaluate
the capabilities of a commercial software, ABAQUS [1], so as to make preparation
for more extensive parametric studies in the future to deal with more complicated
situations such as non-uniform temperature and non-uniform stress distributions.
 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594 573

2. Material properties of cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures

To perform structural analysis of thin-walled cold-formed steel structures in fire,

it is necessary to have available information about the mechanical properties of this
type of steel at elevated temperatures. The mechanical properties of cold-formed
steel are different from those of hot-rolled steel. During the cold-forming process,
the yield strength of steel is enhanced. However, the strengthening effect of cold
forming will be progressively reduced at higher temperatures under fire conditions.
The loss of strength in cold-formed steel may be 20% higher than in those of hot-
rolled steel [8,13].
Outinen [911] carried out a large number of transient and steady state tensile
coupon tests of cold-formed steel at elevated temperatures and reported compressive
stressstrain relationships for S350GD+Z steel at temperatures up to 600 C. He
observed that there were large differences in the results between these two different
types of tests. This is in agreement with the test results of Kirby and Preston [6] on
hot-rolled steel. Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 [5] has recently introduced mechanical proper-
ties of cold-formed steel. Fig. 1 compares the strength retention factors for 0.2%
proof stress of Outinen with Eurocode 3. It can be seen that the Outinen model gives
slightly higher results at temperatures lower than 450 C and slightly lower results
at temperatures over 450 C. Both Outinen and Eurocode 3 give the same results for
the stiffness retention factor and these are the same as for hot-rolled steel. Eurocode 3
Part 1.2 does not distinguish between steady-state or transient state mechanical
properties. The test results of Sidey and Teague [13] are shown in Fig. 2 as ratios
of the steel stresses at the 0.5 and 1.5% total strains to the steel yield stress at ambient
temperature. These results were used by Lawson [8] to derive limiting temperatures
for cold-formed thin-walled steel members.

Fig. 1. Strength retention factors for 0.2% proof stress.

574 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

Fig. 2. Strength retention factors at the 0.5% and 1.5% total strains (from Lawson [8]).

3. Current design methods

At present, the design of cold-formed thin-walled steel structures in fire is only

briefly treated in design codes. The British Standard for fire resistant design of steel
structures, BS 5950 Part 8 (BSI 1990), is for hot-rolled steel structures only and
does not address cold-formed thin-walled steel structures. Nevertheless, the limiting
temperature concept has been extended to cold-formed thin-walled steel structures
by Lawson [8]. Fig. 3 compares the limiting temperatures of different types of cold-
formed thin-walled steel structures and the strength retention factors of cold-formed
steel in Fig. 2 at different temperatures. It can be seen that the Lawson limiting
temperatures for cold-formed steel beams correspond to the strength at 1.5% strain
and those for cold-formed columns to 0.5% strain. The load ratio in the limiting
temperature method is defined as the ratio of the structural load bearing capacity at
elevated temperatures to that at ambient temperature.

Fig. 3. Limiting temperatures (C) of different types of cold-formed thin-walled steel structures.
 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594 575

Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 [5] has recently introduced cold-formed, thin-walled steel
structures. By introducing the strength retention factors in Fig. 1 into the design
equations in Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 for hot-rolled steel structures, the scope of Eurocode
3 Part 1.2 is extended to include cold-formed thin-walled steel structures. The AISC
method [14] does not consider cold-formed thin-walled steel structures in fire.
Thus, the first objective of this paper is to use the experimental results in the
companion paper to assess and improve current design methods. Since these tests
were on short columns under uniform temperatures, this paper will only address
local and distortional buckling. Future studies will also consider overall buckling,
the interaction between different modes of buckling and non-uniform temperature
distributions.
In all design methods, local buckling is dealt with using the effective width method
and the effective area of a column cross-section is assumed to be the summation of
the effective width multiplying the thickness of all individual plates, i.e.

Pu fy beff,iti (1)

where fy is the yield stress of steel, beff,i and ti are the effective width and thickness
of the ith plate of the cross-section.
The Winter [16] expression has been accepted in the AISI [14] method and in
Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 [4] for the analysis of local buckling. The effective width beff
of a plate is:

Y (10.22 Y )
beff pcr pcr
(2)
b s s

in which b is the plate width, pcr is the elastic critical buckling stress of the plate
and Ys is the maximum edge stress of the plate, which may be taken as the yield
stress of steel fy. The elastic critical buckling stress pcr of a plate depends on such
factors as the boundary condition along the plate edges and stress distributions in
the plate, which is given as:

12(1 n2)

b
pcr (3)
t p2Ek
in which t is the plate thickness, E is the elastic modulus of steel, v is the poissons
ratio and k is a buckling factor. The buckling factor depends on the edge condition
and stress distribution of the plate. Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 and AISC give slightly
different values of k for uniformly compressed element with an edge stiffener.
A slightly different approach to deal with local buckling is adopted in the British
Standard, BS5950 Part 5 [3], which gives:

p 0.35) ]
beff fc
[1 14( 4 0.2
(4)
b cr

where, fc is the compression stress on the effective element, which may be taken as
576 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

the yield stress of steel fy and pcr is the elastic critical buckling stress of the plate,
which can be calculated according to eq. (3).

4. Modification of design methods

Apart from the design method of Lawson [8], all other methods need some modi-
fications to enable them to analyse the test results in the companion paper. The
required modifications are as folows.

4.1. Distortional buckling

Distortional buckling in a compression member such as a lipped channel section

usually involves rotation of the flanges and the lip around the flange-web junctions.
Fig. 4 illustrates a typical distortional buckling mode of a lipped channel section.
Acording to Young et al. [17], distortional buckling may be treated as for local
buckling by obtaining an effective width of the plate. However, the elastic critical
buckling stress for local buckling pcr should be replaced by the elastic distortional
buckling stress sde. For a lipped channel section, distortional buckling applies to the
flanges only. Thus, the effective width of a flange for distortional buckilng is:
beff,de
1 for l0.673 (5)
b

f f
beff,de sde sde
(10.22 ) for l0.673 (6)
b y y

where, beff,de is the effective width of the flange plate for distortional buckling and
the elastic distortional buckling stress sde may be calculated according to Lau and

Fig. 4. Distortional buckling mode of a lipped channel section.

 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594 577

Hancock [7]. The flange plate slenderness for distortional buckling is calculated
using:

s
fy
l (7)
de

4.2. Service hole

Of the three different design methods, only the AISI method [14] considers plates
with a service hole. Referring to Fig. 5, the AISI recommendations are:

If a / h 0.38, the effective width of the web should be determined by assuming

a solid web;
If a / h0.38, the effective width of the web should be determined by assuming
that the web consists of two unstiffened elements adjacent to the hole and their
effective widths calculated accordingly.

4.3. Elevated temperatures

According to Ranby [12], when predicting the column failure load under a uniform
elevated temperature, the reduced 0.2% proof stress and the reduced elastic modulus
should be used.
Thus, the specific modifications for different design method are as follows:

For using BS 5950 Part 5: distortional buckling, service hole and elevated tem-
peratures.

Fig. 5. Lipped channel with a service hole.

578 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

Fig. 6. Comparison between test failure loads and modified BS5950 Part 5 predictions.

For using Eurocode 3 Part 1.3: distortional buckling, service hole and elevated
temperature.
For using the AISI method: distortional buckling and elevated temperatures.

5. Comparison between design methods and test results

The various design methods with aforementioned modifications have been used
to calculate the strength of the short columns reported in the companion paper. Figs
68 show comparisons between the test failure loads with the calculated values. Each
figure compares the test results with calculations using the retention factors for the

Fig. 7. Comparison between test failure loads and modified Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 predictions.
 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594 579

Fig. 8. Comparison between test failure loads and modified AISI predictions.

0.2% proof stress of Outinen [911] under steady state test condition and the strength
retention factors of Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 [5]. It can be found that all predicted failure
loads are close to the test failure loads, suggesting the suitability of using the three
design methods as basis of calculations and the validity of the previously described
modifications. Furthermore, Fig. 9 suggests that there is very little difference in
results obtained from the three different methods. Since the tests were carried out
under steady state condition, it appears that the steady state strength retention factors
of Outinen [911] give slightly better agreement between the calculated and test
failure loads.
In the companion paper, it was mentioned that ratios of failure loads of different

Fig. 9. Comparison between test failure loads and predictions of modified BS5950 Part 5, Eurocode 3
Part 1.3 and AISI, using Outinen properties.
580 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

types of columns at the same elevated temperature were close. The ratio of the failure
load of a column at elevated temperature to that at ambient temperature is the load
ratio of the column and the test temperature is the limiting temperature. Thus, the
closeness of different test strength values at the same test temperature suggests that
the limiting temperature method may be used. However, only the test temperature
550 C is within the range of application of Lawsons method [8]. For this particular
temperature and the case of column in walls, which is appropriate for the tested
columns, Lawsons method gives a load ratio of 0.425. Table 1 indicates that this
appears to be a good approximation of the average value of test results.

6. Finite element modelling using ABAQUS

Finite element modelling using a commerical program ABAQUS [1] has also been
performed. The purpose of this study is to check the suitability of this software and
to determine appropriate modelling parameters.

6.1. Basic parameters

All cross-sections were modelled using the measured centre line dimensions. One
rigid plate was attached to each end of the column to simulate the end support. The
rigid plate was only allowed to deform in the axial direction with all other modes
of deformation prevented.
Initial imperfections used for the non-linear FE analyses were scaled from eigen-
vectors obtained from the results of linear eigenvalue analyses. Since the distortional
buckling mode is in general more sensitive to initial imperfections than the local
buckling one, initial imperfections have been chosen so that the final failure mode
is consistent with the observed failure mode even though in some cases the elastic
distortional buckling stress may be higher than the elastic local buckling stress. For
example, Table 2 shows initial deflection profiles for each specimen used in FE
analyses at ambient temperature. The maximum initial deflection was assumed to be
the same as the thickness of the cross-section.
The results of tensile coupon tests indicate that the stressstrain relationship of
cold-formed steel exhibits a gradual yielding behaviour followed by a considerable
period of strain hardening. Hence the elastic-plastic model of hot-rolled steel cannot
be used. Fig. 10 shows the s curve used in FEM analyses based on the tensile
coupon test results. In this model, the elastic stressstrain behaviour is represented
by a linear segment up to a limit stress fp = 0.7fy, where fy is the 0.2% proof stress.
The slope of this linear segment equals to the measured elastic modulus. The gradual
yield behaviour is idealised by using a bilinear representation with tangent modulus
E1 and E2 between the proportional limit fp and the yield strength fy with an inter-
mediate point at a stress of 0.875fy. The strain-hardening behaviour is represented
by a linear segment with a tangent modulus E3. The value of E1, E2 and E3 are
80 000 N/mm2, 20 000 N/mm2 and a proportion of the initial elastic modulus.
The stressstrain relationship at high temperatures used in finite element analyses
Table 1
Comparison between load ratios of tests and Lawson [8]

Section type Temp. (C) Test ID Test results Lawsons method [8] Load ratio at
fire limit

Failure load Load ratio

Lipped channel 100 56 15 2 without 550 Lip2C355 45.52 0.40 0.425

hole
Lip2a555 43.33 0.38
Lip2e155 45.03 0.40
Lipped channel 100 54 15 1.2 with hole 550 Lip12C355 23 0.44
Lip12C455 27 0.52
Unlipped channel 104 63 1.5 550 Unlipd155 27.07 0.50
Unlipd255 28.38 0.52
Lipped channel 100 56 15 2 with hole 550 Lp2ch155 48.01 0.42
Lp2ch255 47.99 0.42
Lipped channel 100 54 15 1.2 with hole 550 Lp12bh155 22.64 0.42
M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

Lp12bh255 25.17 0.47

581
582 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

Table 2
Initial imperfection shape and magnitude for ambient temperature analysis

Unlipped Lipped Lipped Lipped channel Lipped

channel 104 channel 100 channel 100 100 56 15 channel 100
63 1.5 54 15 54 15 2 without 56 15 2
1.2 without 1.2 with hole hole with hole
hole

Initial imperfection t 1%t, 10%t, t t t t

magnitude
Initial imperfection
shape

Fig. 10. Stressstrain relationship.

are based on the models in Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 and Outinen [9,10], but modified
by the appropriate measured yield stress and elastic modulus. Eurocode 3 Part 1.2
gives mathematical equations for the stressstrain relationships of steel at elevated
temperatures and can be directly used in this study if the yield stress is based on
the stress at 2% total strain. Since the retention factors of 0.2% proof stress have
only been given in Eurocode 3 Part 1.2, a suitable modification has been done in
order that the mathematical equations for the stressstrain relationships of steel at
elevated temperature in Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 can be used directly. The modification
 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594 583

is to select a value for the stress retention factor at 2% total strain by trial and error
so that the retention factors for the 0.2% proof stress obtained from the resulting
stressstrain relationship equal to the Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 value for the 0.2% proof
stress. To use the stressstrain relationships of Outinen [9], since the ambient tem-
perature strengths of steel from this study are different from those used by Outinen,
modifications are necessary. The final stressplastic strain curves to be used in
ABAQUS at different temperatures are given in Fig. 11. To obtain these curves, the

Fig. 11. Input stressstrain relationships according to Outinen [9] (a) for lipped channel 100 54
15 1.2 (b) for lipped channel 100 56 15 2 (c) for unlipped channel 104 63 1.5.
584 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

plastic strains were extracted from the stresstotal strain curves reported in Outinen
[9]. At the same plastic strain, the stress of steel used in ABAQUS simulations was
obtained by multiplying the stress in the Outinen stressstrain curve by the ratio of
the measured 0.2% proof stress to the 0.2% proof stress of Outinen.

6.2. Results of sensitivity studies

In order to determine the values of a number of parameters in ABAQUS simula-

tions, the following sensitivity studies have been performed. In these sensitivity stud-
ies, the lipped column section 100 54 15 1.2 mm was chosen for the reason
that the unlipped section would behave predominantly in the elastic range and the
2-mm lipped channel section would involve limited buckling behaviour.

6.2.1. Finite element mesh

Fig. 12 compares the test and simulation results using different finite element
meshes. Three element sizes were used: (i) element size the smaller of half lip width
or 15 mm; (ii) element size twice that in (i) and (iii) element size half that in (i). It
can be clearly seen that more elements (mesh iii) give the most accurate simulation
results. Also the simulation results converge rapidly with very little difference in
results by using either mesh (i) or (iii). Thus, mesh (i) may be used to reduce compu-
tational effort.

Fig. 12. Loadaxial displacement curves for lipped channel 100 54 15 1.2 with different element
sizes.
 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594 585

As far as the type of elements is concerned, Fig. 13 indicates that these tests may
be modelled by using ABAQUS elements S8R, S8R5 and S4R. S8R is eight-noded
doubly curved thin shell element using six degrees of freedom per node; S8R5 is
8-noded doubly curved thin shell element using five degrees of freedom per node
and S4R is 4-noded doubly curved thin shell element using six degrees of freedom
per node. Obviously, when using S4R elements, more elements should be used.
In ABAQUS, as in many other FE analysis programs, integration is carried out
numerically by summing up contributions at a number of integration points. The
more integration points are used, the higher the accuracy of simulation and compu-
tational demand. Fig. 16 shows that the difference in results of using five and three
integration points in the thickness direction of the element is less than 5%. Using
more integration points than five would increase computational effort without gain-
ing accuracy.

6.2.2. Initial imperfection

Since thin-walled columns fail by inelastic buckling, it is expected that the failure
mode and failure strength will be affected by the input data of initial imperfections.
Due to impracticality, no initial imperfection was measured for the tests reported in
the comparison paper. The input data into ABAQUS simulations have been obtained
by scaling the elastic deflection profile of the lowest eigenvalue that gives a deflected

Fig. 13. Load-axial displacement curve for lipped channel 100 54 15 1.2 with different element
types.
586 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

shape close to the observed failure mode. This may be different from the deflected
shape of the lowest eigenvalue. Numerical analysis of lipped channel 100 56
15 2 has been chosen for this sensitivity study since predominantly distortional
buckling failure mode was observed for this section, but the lowest eigenvalue is
from local buckling. Nevertheless, simulation results in Fig. 14 suggest that neither
the loadaxial displacement response nor the ultimate strength of the column was
affected by the profiles of initial deflections. In addition, Fig. 15 compares the test
results with simulations using different maximum imperfections. It can be seen that
the smallest imperfection, at 1% of the web thickness, gives a very sharp loss of
stiffness when approaching the failure load of the column of about 64.41 kN. As
the magnitude of initial imperfection is increased, the predicted column behaviour
becomes smoother, as observed in the test. Nevertheless, the predicted ultimate loads
are in general close to each other, less than 5% different, and also agree well with
the experimental results.
Thus, depending on the input initial deflection profile, any failure mode may be
obtained. The loadstrain and loadlateral deflection responses would have been dif-
ferent. However, the column strength would have not been noticeably affected. Also,
the maximum initial imperfection may be taken as the thickness of the cross-section.

Fig. 14. Axial loaddisplacement curves for lipped channel 100 56 15 2 (without hole) with
different initial imperfection curves.
 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594 587

Fig. 15. Load-strain curves for lipped channel 100 54 15 1.2 with different initial imperfections.

Fig. 16. Load-lateral displacement curve for lipped channel 100 56 15 1.2 (without hole) with
different strain hardening modulus.
588 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

6.2.3. Influence of stressstrain relationships

Due to the inelastic behaviour of cold-formed thin-walled structures, it is important
that the appropriate stressstrain relationships are used. At ambient temperature, the
measured stressstrain relationship is assumed in Fig. 10. Three parameters, the yield
stress (0.2% proof stress), the initial modulus and the strain hardening stiffness are
required to construct the stressstrain relationship. Fig. 16 shows the influence of
using different values of strain hardening stiffness E3. It can been seen that this
parameter has very little influence on the predicted response.
The effect of using different values of the elastic modulus is to change the slope
of the load-deflection and loadstrain curve, however Fig. 17 suggests that the ulti-
mate loads of the column are not affected. On the other hand, changing the yield
strength of steel has a great effect on the failure load of the column, indicating that
accurate information on the yield strength is essential and also that the test column
was behaving in the plastic range.
Because the test column was behaving in the elasto-plastic range, using different
values of the proportional stress will change the ultimate failure load of the column,
as shown in Fig. 18. The stressstrain relationship assumed in Fig. 10 gives a suf-
ficiently accurate representation of the true stressstrain relationship for simulation
purpose.

6.3. Comparison between results of tests and ABAQUS simulations

To check the accuracy of the ABAQUS model, all the tests have been simulated.
Based on the results of the sensitivity studies, the following values have been used
in all ABAQUS simulations:

Element type: S8R5 (eight-noded doubly curved thin shell element using five
degrees of freedom per node).
1
Element size: the smaller of 15mm or lip width;
2
Stressstrain relationship: as in Fig. 10 for ambient temperature simulations; based
on Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 or Fig. 11 for elevated temperature simulations.
Integration points: 5.
Profile of initial deflection: the lowest eigenvalue that gives a deflection shape
similar to the observed failure mode.
Maximum value of initial deflection: thickness of cross-section.

Outinen [9] only provided stressstrain relationships up to 600 C. Therefore, the

tests at 700 C could not be simulated.
Tables 3 and 4 compare the calculated ultimate strength using ABAQUS and test
results. Since the yield stresses at 250 and 400 C in Eurocode 3 Part 1.2 [5] are less
by 5% than those of Outinen [911], and the elastic modulus is same, the ABAQUS
simulation results using the stressstrain relationships in Eurocode 3 part 1.2 [5] are
slightly lower. As found out from comparisons between results of tests and design
calculations, the simulated results using the Outinen stressstrain model in ABAQUS
 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

Fig. 17. Loadstrain curves for lipped channel 100 54 15 1.2 (no hole) with different elastic modulus and different yield stress.
589
590 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

Fig. 18. Loadaxial displacement curves for lipped channel 100 54 15 1.2 with different pro-
portional stresses.

appear to be more accurate. However, the results of simulations using the Eurocode
model are also acceptable and may be more suitable for realistic structures which
tend to be under transient state condition in fire.

7. Conclusion

This paper has presented the results of a theoretical study of the strength of cold-
formed thin-walled steel short columns under uniform high temperatures, using a
number of design calculation methods and a commercial finite element package
ABAQUS. All analysis results have been compared to the test results. The following
conclusions may be drawn:

The ambient temperature design formulations can be extended to elevated tem-

peratures, provided the reduced yield strength based on the 0.2% proof stress and
the reduced elastic modulus are used. Predictions using the material model of
Outinen [911] for steady-state condition give slightly better correlations with test
results than using the EC3 model for tests conducted under steady-state condition.
The distortional buckling model of Young et al. [17] can also be used at elev-
ated temperatures.
Service holes may be dealt with by using the method in the AISI specifications.
The limiting temperature method may be used. However, because most of the test
Table 3
Comparison between ABAQUS simulations and test strengths for solid sections

Section type Temperature (C) Name of Test results ABAQUS simulation

specimens

Failure load Observed EC3 s Outinen [10] s

(kN) failure mode

Failure load Observed Failure load Observed

(kN) failure mode (kN) failure mode

Lipped Ambient Lip12d5 53.86 L,D,B 61.22 D 61.22 D

channel 100
54 15 1.2 without
hole
Lip12b1 50.97 As above 61.22 As above 61.22 As above
250 Lip12b225 40.04 L,LC 53 L 52.32 L
Lip12b325 53.16 L,D,B 54.06 D 51.67 D
Lip12d225 47.86 As above 54.06 D 51.67 As above
400 Lip12C140 45.75 L,B 40.08 L 43.4 As above
Lip12C240 47.01 As above 40.08 L 43.4 As above
550 Lip12C355 23 D 25.53 D 23.13 As above
Lip12C455 27 L,B 25.81 L 23.45 L
700 Lip12e170 8.85 L,D,B 7.82 D
Lipped Ambient Lip2b1 116.79 L,D,B 125.3 D 125.3 D
M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

channel 100
56 15 2 without
hole
Lip2d1 108.97 As above 125.3 As above 125.3 As above
250 Lip2b225 123.69 As above 109.8 As above 113.8 As above
Lip2b325 123.23 As above 109.8 As above 113.8 As above
400 Lip2C140 101.87 As above 87.18 As above 93.65 As above
Lip2C240 101.56 As above 87.18 As above 93.65 As above
(continued on next page)
591
Table 3 (continued) 592

Section type Temperature (C) Name of Test results ABAQUS simulation

specimens

Failure load Observed EC3 s Outinen [10] s

(kN) failure mode

Failure load Observed Failure load Observed

(kN) failure mode (kN) failure mode

550 Lip2C355 45.52 As above 55.92 As above 50.66 As above

Lip2a555 43.33 As above 55.92 As above 50.66 As above
Lip2e155 45.03 As above 55.92 As above 50.66 As above
700 Lip2d470 15.77 As above 17.68 As above
Unlipped Ambient Unlipc1 54.5 L,LC 70.64 L 70.64 L
channel 104
63 1.5
250 Unlipc225 49.58 As above 62.74 As above 62.09 As above
Unlipc325 50.77 As above 62.74 As above 62.09 As above
400 Unlipc440 45.7 As above 47.88 As above 51.5 As above
Unlipc540 44.67 As above 47.88 As above 515 As above
550 Unlipd155 27.07 As above 30.83 As above 27.86 As above
Unlipd255 28.38 As above 30.83 As above 27.86 As above
700 Unlipb570 9.21 As above 9.48 As above
Unlipc670 9.28 As above 9.48 As above
M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594
Table 4
Comparison between ABAQUS simulations and test strengths for sections with a hole

Section type Temperature (C) Name of Test results ABAQUS simulation

specimens

Failure load Observed EC3 s Outinen [10] s

(kN) failure mode

Failure load Observed Failure load Observed failure

(kN) failure mode (kN) mode

Lipped Amb Lip12a3 54.86 L 57.14 L 57.14 L

channel 100
54 15 1.2 with
hole
Lip12a4 53.48 As above 57.14 As above 57.14 As above
400 Lp12ch140 39.93 L,B 37.87 L 41.29 L
Lp12ch240 43.02 As above 37.87 As above 41.29 As above
550 Lp12bh155 22.64 L,D,B 24.3 As above 21.86 As above
Lp12bh255 25.17 L,B 24.3 D 21.7 D
Lipped Amb Lip2a3 111.1 L 113.7 L 113.7 L
channel 100
56 15 2 with
hole
Lip2a4 116.94 As above 113.7 As above 113.7 As above
M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

400 Lp2bh140 73.62 D,B 79.18 D 86.88 D

Lp2bh240 83.78 As above 79.18 As above 86.88 As above
550 Lp2ch155 48.01 D 50.9 D 45.88 D
Lp2ch255 47.99 As above 50.9 As above 45.88 As above
593
594 M. Feng et al. / Thin-Walled Structures 41 (2003) 571594

results are beyond the range of application of Lawsons limiting temperature

method, it is not possible at present to completely validate this method.
The FEM program ABAQUS can be used to simulate the behaviour of cold-
formed thin-walled steel structures accurately provided the appropriate boundary
conditions and material properties are adopted.

Acknowledgements

This research is sponsored by the UKs Engineering and Physical Science

Research Council (EPSRC) under grant GR/M56319.

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