Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

2. Understand theories, principles and models of

curriculum design and implementation and their
impact on teaching and learning
2.1 Analyse theories, models and approaches to curriculum design and
their potential influence on outcomes for individual learners and groups

Curriculum development is not carried out in isolation but is part of an planning,

development, implementation and review cycle. It can describe development at
different levels: large-scale curricular reform to changes to individual lessons.
There are various models that can be adopted to form the basis of curriculum
development.

linear product or objectives model. First developed by Tyler (1949: Veness 2010)
and later modified by Taba (1965: Veness 2010). This model proposes that all
learning is defined in terms of what learners should be able to do at the end of
the course. Its focus is on learning outcomes and uses a systematic approach to
planning. It starts with the outcomes of the course and then from there the
course content is developed to enable the achievement of stated outcomes,
which are then evaluated for their effectiveness of achieving the stated
outcomes. The focus is on teaching.

There are 4 steps to curriculum design

Identify the broad aims and specific objectives

Construct the course so objectives can be achieved

test capacity of the course to achieve objectives

explain the curriculum and objectives to teachers

However objectives should not be so specific they limit what the teacher can do
as this may cause valuable learning experiences to be lost. The advantage of this
model is that it enables subject benchmarking and programme specifications. It
is part of Outcomes Based Education (Prideaux, 2000: Multiprofessional faculty
development 2012). This advocates that teachers should contemplate desirable
outcomes and define them clearly and precisely. Then they need to work
backwards to identify appropriate learning experiences to achieve the stated

Page 1 of 9
 Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

outcomes. This methodology forces teachers to focus on what learners will do

and develop the lessons according to this

The cyclical model Similar to the linear model developed by Wheeler (1967:
Veness 2010), it involves identification of aims and objectives based on needs
assessments of professional bodies and students; followed by selection and
content development; selection of learning activities; followed by an
assessment / evaluation. Nicholls (1978) argued changes should be planned and
introduced on a rational and valid basis according to a logical process. (Nicholls
& Nicholls, 1978: Shahazad 2014)

Peyton and Peyton (1998: Multiprofessional faculty development 2012) noted

development starts with needs assessment then moves to design followed by
implementation for an outcome to be achieved, after this point needs to be
reviewed based on the original assessment, and then new needs identified. They
also noted that needs will change dependent on societies expectations, so needs
are very fluid and not fixed over time, and will be specific to the individual
learner. In relation to curriculum design there must be various stages to the
process. These include

Identify the context of what is to be delivered. This will include current

educational or social belief, culture, politics, economy, learners, teachers,
professional bodies, exam boards, funding bodies and past influence.

Identify learners needs and curriculum bodies requirements

Outline aims and outcomes of the sessions

Identify ideas and limitations

Detail the main structure, topics and sequence of the sessions and any
assessments required

Identify and develop each topic based on outcomes required

Develop a programme of teaching including a timetable, teaching that will

be appropriate and assessments and identify resources required

Deliver course

Develop evaluation strategies

Review the course based on feedback and if it met the requirements

Both models adopt an efficient and logical. They are prescriptive with clear
objectives and aligned assessment strategies designed to test how well students

Page 2 of 9
 Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

have achieved the learning outcomes. The advantage of these model is its
logical sequential structure which is easy to follow even for inexperience
teachers. But it requires a lot of time to develop and analyse

The process/ dynamic/ student-centred model was developed in the 1960s in

McMaster University Medical School as a model for active learning. curriculum
design is an ongoing process, and activities have value beyond achievement of
learning objectives such as socialisation, learning through experience, thinking
and problem solving key to the lifelong learning model. It allows the learner to
define their own learning goals. This approach emphasises adult learning
methods and approaches and uses active learning rather than a more teacher-
led approach Models are shaped by beliefs, experiences and current theories/
practices. These models go beyond the linear/ cyclic model, although they still
form part of the process. Problems arise as it is difficult to ensure consistent
content coverage, as it is difficult to standardise, it is hard to measure
performance against stated objective and quality of learning is dependent on the
quality of teaching.

Stenhouse (1975: Veness 2010) stated there were four processes of education

Training or skills acquisition

Instruction or information acquisition

Initiation or socialisation

Induction or problem solving

Behavioural objectives for Stenhouse, are important in the first two processes
and in the last two processes it was not possible to use objectives. Therefore,
behavioural objectives were inappropriate for this model. Objectives should be
clear and specific but not stated in behavioural terms.

According to this model, the best approach to curriculum design is to combine

the best of both approaches based onto student need, teacher experience and
resources. So the the overall shape of the course will be designed including the
main aims and objectives, but the detailed planning and design will be left to the
teachers, enabling ownership of their programme. But organisations still retain
some degree of control through monitoring to ensure stakeholder requirements
are met. This model also enables learners to develop problem solving, critical
thinking and reasoning skills based on real and common problems and enables
self-directed learning.

Page 3 of 9
 Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

2.2 Analyse the appropriateness of a particular curriculum in relation to

individual learners/ a cohort of learners.

Traditional more academic courses would benefit from a mixture of both

objective and process based models. The linear model is appropriate in this
instance especially if there is an exam or test at the end of the course. As for
success/ a pass in the subject then clearly defined objectives have to be
achieved. Accredited courses are also standardised so curriculum design has to
be consistent across institutions. This is also true of assessing more work based
competencies. However a purely outcomes focus even in this situation is not
appropriate, as learning is much more holistic in its process other than purely the
stated objectives. Active learning needs to be incorporated to ensure multi-
sensory learning is achieved, as some learners will require more than the passive
learner approach to achieve the stated outcomes

The purely linear model may however be appropriate for distance learning
courses, where practical application is less important. In this instance learner
interaction is not appropriate, and the course content is delivered in an entire
package.

In relation to more vocational and lifelong learning courses the linear approach,
although needing to be taken into account as the intention is that the learner
achieves some sort of skills at the end of the course. Require more student led
focus. This is especially important in our environment where the aim is to
overcome past negative experiences of the educational system and enable
learners to direct at least to some extent what they will learn.

3. Understand the significance of equality and

diversity for curriculum design, and take
opportunities to promote equality within practice
3.1 Analyse and explain ways in which equality of opportunity and
respect for diversity can be built into curriculum design

There are 10 pedagogy approaches to equality and diversity each can be used to
assist in curriculum design in the following ways

Differentiation this involves assessment of the level that the learners are at,
takes into account diverse backgrounds and individual needs. Materials are used
that factor in all individual needs. An example of this is a learner who was unable
to read traditional weighing scales due to sight and learning difficulties, which
were not picked up during initial assessment. To combat this issue we brought a
pair of digital scales and she is now able to weigh out her own ingredients. Many
of our learners have English as their second language, some cannot speak

Page 4 of 9
 Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

English at all, and some are illiterate. For those learners we provide practical
demonstrations so they can follow if they cannot understand English and verbal
instructions for those that cannot read etc. Recipes also combine both words and
pictures.

Embedding literacy numeracy and language difficulties in these areas cause

significant inequality or create barriers to learning, for this reason we produce
resources in a variety of formats to reduce isolisation within the group. To
develop skills we also run learning through games. Learners develop literacy and
numeracy through various games, and sometimes learners will work in teams to
produce results. As the groups bond well there is a lot of peer support and you
see the more able learners assisting those that struggle. We once had a learner
who had dyslexia and her strategy to play scrabble with the group was to use a
tablet to spell words. She regularly won games, this developed her confidence
and this then encouraged her to progress to a college course to gain a level 2 in
literacy and numeracy

Experiential learning learning from mistakes is an essential part of the learning

process. This is used significantly in the allotment group. Learners are
encouraged to bring their own knowledge and expertise and suggestions are
tried out to see if they are effective. A good example of this was when we were
building the potting shed; the instructions that came on how to build it were very
limited. There were no words, only diagrams. It took us about an hour to work
out how to put the roof support on, everybody took it in turns how to decipher
the picture and work out where they were supposed to go. This resulted in a
process of trial and error, until eventually we worked out how they were
supposed to go. The process also involved lots of discussions on how to do it.
Once we worked out how to do it the sense of shared accomplishment within the
team increased the groups cohesion. We have learners of all ages and they come
and work together as one to create a shared goal.

Modelling this is the tutor embedding equality and diversity into teaching and
promoting inclusivity. The tutor also needs to provide a positive example and
lead through example and communicate using no discriminatory language,
valuing all learners equally. Any discrimination that is displayed by learners is
challenged.

Multi-sensory learning using a wide variety of teaching styles, this has already
been cited in the examples above of how we incorporate this into our practice.

Relating theory and practice This is giving learners time to reflect on their own
learning experience. Simulations, such as role play and asking open questions
and facilitating debate help to overcome barriers. Role plays are an important
way for learners to develop the skills required to deal with situations within
controlled safe conditions, so if they do not perform well there are no adverse
consequences and then discussions can arise on how they could do things
differently which ties in with experiential learning.

Page 5 of 9
 Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

Using e- learning and technology this can ensure that all learners have access to
learning. We use an eLearning platform for basic food hygiene that also reads out
the text so it can be used for people who also have literacy issues. The learners
can stop and have breaks at any time as the programme will pause and save the
place the learner is at. We will be looking into other programmes that do not
necessarily have accreditation in the future to assist with the learners
development. The more that e-learning is used the more ICT skills they develop
by default at the same time.

Co-operative learning and learning conversations this helps learners work as a

team and ensures everyones contribution is valued. This can break down
barriers between learners. By working in groups this can create cross cultural
understanding, and break down previously held views about groups. We have
seen this work in action on how it fosters respect for diversity. One example is of
a group where a Hungarian, in the day centre was ignored and mistrusted, but
when he attended the activities especially during coffee breaks I encouraged
individuals to talk to each other, I started asking the Hungarian questions of his
experience, and slowly the English learners began to listen and themselves ask
questions. Throughout the session barriers were broken down. After a few weeks
the English learners were seen interacting with the Hungarian outside of the
learning environment.

Learners are also encouraged to come up with suggestions and teach the group
relevant skills. So wherever possible the learners become the teacher. This gives
the learner teaching self-confidence and self-esteem and a trusting relationship
develop in the group.

Learners are actively encouraged to share their own experiences and use them
as illustrative examples. By encouraging learners to share their experiences
again barriers are broken down and stereotypes are broken. Everyone is given an
equal chance to speak, so this develops tolerance and listening skills to others.
This produces cohesion within the group. They share experiences and this
creates a bond within the group. They also develop their own shared experiences
in which friendships can be built upon.

Assessment for learning this is generally achieved in our environment through

learner self-assessments that are completed before and after the course and
learners can see their progress. Learners are also offered one to one sessions to
discuss how we see and they see that they have progressed and then less
informal chats of encouragement and praise are conducted throughout the
course which encourage motivation and the willingness to achieve their goals
and overcome previous barriers.

Page 6 of 9
 Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

3.2 Analyse and explain the impact of social, economic and cultural
differences on teaching, learning and achievement in own specialist
area

By default the majority of our learners come from deprived economic

backgrounds, this is because the majority of them are homeless. This does not
necessarily mean that they were always in that situation; one of our learners who
is now homeless currently had a 50,000 salary and lost it all.

Our cookery lessons are cookery on a shoe string and we only cook items that
they can afford, 2 weeks ago we even managed to make an extra dish of soup
out of the by-product of a dish they were cooking so they learnt how to make
an extra meal for free. We also provide budgeting courses to assist them make
their money go further. Our ethos is to be accepting to all and we value each
individual no matter what their position

We also have a lot of eastern Europeans. We do not tend to get many BME
learners but that is due to the demographics of the area, which is predominantly
made up of white British individuals rather than that we do not encourage BME
learners. We have a lot of Eastern Europeans as it is a rural area so they come
over for farming work; the season runs out so they lose their job and their
accommodation. Many of the Eastern Europeans, especially now that legislation
is tightening up, do not have any access to benefits so their economic position is
worse that their English homeless counterparts.

We ensure that the examples we use reflect the social and economic
circumstances of our learners, so we would notice examples of people who are in
work living in a nice house and own a car, as this would just highlight their
differences to traditional society and make them feel isolated. Cultural diversity
is embraced through learners sharing their experiences in the group. Even the
layout of the room encourages learners to see themselves as a group as tables
are put together and that nobody is separate.

On the allotment we are all the same, despite me being classed as the manager,
I still muck in and do all the tasks the other learners do, I probably get muddier
than they do. But this shows them that despite our social and economic
differences we are all the same, and that I am not above them and that we are
all equal. This attitude then hopefully rubs off on them and they use these skills
with others.

Our learning environment is a community. We develop a shared sense of family.

Where else can you wander into a room and say phenomenon and the whole
room will shout back at you do do do do do (please think of the Muppets song
here)

Everybody is listened to and has a voice that is heard and together we break
down some of the barriers that they face in society.

Page 7 of 9
 Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

3.3 Explain ways to challenge discriminatory behaviours where they

occur in the learning environment

Discriminatory behaviour must be challenged to ensure

the learning environment that is free of discrimination

policies and procedures are adhered to
equalities legislation is adhered to

How discriminatory behaviour is challenged will to some extent depend on the

knowledge of what works best with the learner. However, it is important to note
that not challenging is accepting and colluding with discrimination. Any
discriminatory behaviour must be challenged immediately, if it is not then this
will send out a message to other learners that this is acceptable behaviour and
they may in turn become discriminatory. It will also cause the victim of
discrimination further distress and may result in a case being brought against the
organisation re the equalities act. Question the discriminators motivation by
asking questions like: why they would say that, what evidence do you have to
support those claims, what about so and so who you get on with who is like that,
can you name people who are not the same.

If the situation is becoming aggravated remove the perpetrator from the room
and give them time to calm down and to speak to you without an audience, as
much of the time an audience will fuel the aggression. Use de-escalation
techniques and talk to the aggravator in a calm manner. Once they have calmed
down get them to stop and reflect on what they have said, and try and put
themselves in the victims shoes and see how they would feel if it was done to
them, and challenge any stereotypes. If at all possible get someone else to take
the victim away and to speak to them to reassure them that everything is ok.

Question any factual immaculacies and be firm but fair. Challenge their
behaviour. Warn them of their behaviour not being tolerated. If they persist in
our setting they are warned not to continue, if after these techniques are
deployed and they still continue they will be asked to leave either for the rest of
the day for a period of time depending on the frequency of such behaviour or the
severity of the instance.

Excellence gateway (no date) Equality & Diversity toolkit [online]

http://teachingandlearning.qia.org.uk/tlp/pedagogy/equalityand
dive/activity2/index.html (accessed 10/2/15)
MULTIPROFESSIONAL FACULTY DEVELOPMENT (2012)CHALLENGING
DISCRIMINATION IN THE TEACHING CONTEXT [online]
http://www.faculty.londondeanery.ac.uk/e-learning/diversity-equal-

Page 8 of 9
 Melanie Kirk research a range of theories and models of curriculum design

opportunities-and-human-rights/challenging-discrimination-in-the-teaching-
context (accessed 10/2/15)
Equal and divers (2011)six tips on challenging discrimination [online]
http://www.equalanddiverse.co.uk/six-top-tips-on-challenging-discrimination/
(accessed 10/2/15)
McKimm , J. (2007) Curriculum design and development [online]
http://www.faculty.londondeanery.ac.uk/e-learning/setting-learning-
objectives/Curriculum_design_and_development.pdf (accessed 10/2/15)
Laurillard, D. (2010) An Approach to Curriculum Design [online]
http://www.lkl.ac.uk/ltu/files/publications/Laurillard-
An_Approach_to_Curriculum_Design-WIP.pdf (accessed 10/2/15)
Shahzad, M. (2114) Cyclical models of curriculum development [online]
http://www.slideshare.net/mamoonashahzad54/education-ppttemplate030
(accessed 30/5/15)
Veness, D. (2010)Models and theories of curriculum design [online]
http://educational-reflections.blogspot.co.uk/2010/11/when-teachers-are-
asked-to-develop.html (accessed 10/2/15)

Page 9 of 9