Chapter 2

Wheat

Flour plays a major role in our bakery industry. The flour is obtained from
wheat. So it is necessary to learn about wheat. Wheat is the most
important cereal among all grains. We can get quality flour from good
quality wheat. The quality of wheat depends upon the following factors:

1. Soil 2. Quality of seeds

3. Climate 4. Manure

5. Farming techniques

Wheat is classified into its (i) type, (ii) colour, and (iii) hardness.

According to type, there are

1. Triticum aestivum (also called hard wheat)

2. Triticum compectum (also called soft wheat)
3. Triticum durum (also called durum wheat)

The Triticum aestivum wheat flour contains more proteins. This flour is
used for the production of bread. The Triticum compectum wheat flour
contains low protein. So it is used for the production of biscuits, cake and
pastries. The Triticum durum wheat is mainly used to prepare semolina
and macrooni.

According to colour, there are

1. Red wheat
2. White wheat

This colour variation is due to the environmental factors.

According to hardness, wheat is classified into

1. Hard wheat
2. Soft wheat

Hard wheat

Bakery products are made from the hard type of wheat flour because it
has the following characteristics:

1. More protein
2. More water absorption power (WAP)
3. Good mixing capacity, that is, it is easy to mix

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 4. Fermentation tolerance
5. Good gas retention power

Hence it is mainly used for yeast products (e.g.bread).

Examples of hard wheat are: (i) hard red winter, (ii) hard red spring and
(iii) durum.

Soft wheat

Soft wheat flour contains the following characteristics:

1. Less protein
2. Less WAP
3. Poor mixing capacity
4. Poor fermentation tolerance

Hence, it is mainly used to make biscuits, cakes and pastries.

Examples of soft wheat are: (i) soft red winter and (ii) soft red spring.

TABLE 2.1 Major Wheat Growing Countries

Bran

Wheat contains 15% of bran. It is the outer portion of the wheat. It has
several layers:

1. Epidermis 2. Epicarp

3. Endocarp 4. Testa

5. Aleurone layers 6. Skin or aleurone cells

The colour of wheat is due to the testa layer which protects the
endosperm. The aleurone layer has small cells. These cells have enzymes
which convert starch into sugar and give softness to the flour. Bran
contains more nutritional value. It is removed during the milling process as
the sharp edges may cut down the gluten, which reduces the gas retention
power and this, in turn, will reduce the volume of the bread.

During milling, bran is removed and is used as animal feed.

Germ

Wheat contains 2.5% of germ. It is the sprouting section of the seed. During
milling, it is removed because it has fat content which will spoil the flour
quickly.

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Endosperm

Wheat contains 82.5% of endosperm. Although primarily starch, it contains

the following nutrients:

1. Protein
2. Pantothenic acid
3. Riboflavin
4. Niacin
5. Thiamine

During milling, endosperm is separated from bran and germ.

THE MILLING PROCESS

Milling means the conversion of wheat into flour. There are two
methods of milling :

1. Stone or home milling

2. Roller flour milling

Stone Milling

Stone milling is an ordinary method of milling. Here two circular thick

stones with rough surfaces are used, one lying on top of the other. This
rough surface helps crush the wheat. Thus the wheat is converted into flour.
This is known as whole meal flour. It contains bran, germ and endosperm.
The following are the qualities of the whole meal flour:

1. It has more nutritive value.

2. The colour of flour is dark.
3. It has less shelf life.
4. Small stone particles may be present in the flour
5. The bread made from this flour gives delicious flavor. But such
bread has small volume and irregular shape.

Roller Milling

Roller milling is a commercial milling of wheat. Before milling the wheat, the
following steps have to be followed: (i) cleaning and (ii) tempering

Cleaning

The object of cleaning the wheat is to

(i) Obtain pure flour and

(ii) Avoid damaging the milling machineries

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 If the foreign particles like stones, barley, oats and iron are not
removed, the quality of flour will be affected and the iron rods may damage
the machines causing heavy loss. The following are the cleaning stages:

Sieving : This process will remove the larger and smaller particles like
damaged wheat, stone and husk.

Magnetic separator: It removes the iron and steel particles.

Aspirator: The lighter impurities are removed using air currents.

Disc separator: This is used to separate barley, oats and other foreign
material.

Entoleter: It separates the damaged grains and kills any insect eggs.

Tempering

After cleaning, the wheat is sprayed with water. Then the wheat is soaked
for a short or a longer term. It is called tempering. The time varies
according to the hardness of wheat. The following are the merits of
tempering:

1. The moisture content of tempering:

2. The bran becomes elastic and the endosperm becomes soft, so it
makes bran removal easier.
3. The endosperm is made friable which reduces the power required to
grind it.
4. Germ also is rendered tough and flaky for easy removal.

The milling process has two stages:

1. Break milling
2. Reduction milling

Break Milling

Break milling is the first operation in the milling process. After

tempering, the wheat passes through two horizontal steel break rollers. The
rollers rotate in opposite directions. The surface of the rollers is rough. One
roller rotates 3/2 times faster than the other. The break milling is done in the
4th and 5th stages. The first set of roller just cracks the wheat grain. Then
they are passed through the series of break rollers. And from the last series

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of the process, break flour and slooji, rava or semolina are obtained. The
break flour in the first three stages is also known as patent flour.

Reduction Milling

After the break milling process, the rest of the semolina is passed
through the reduction rollers. The surface of these rollers is smooth. They
also rotate in opposite directions but the speed is lesser than the break
rollers.

In the first stage we get some semolina, flattened germ and bran. The
next reduction roller crushes the semolina into fine flour and the bran and
flattened germs are removed. The flour, thus obtained is called straight run
flour.

Bleaching

The flour obtained after the milling process is called green flour. It
contains high moisture and slightly yellowish colour due to xanthophylls.
The fresh flour is not suitable for making bakery products. It has to be
bleached by oxidation. Bleaching agents like chlorine, dioxide and benzyl
peroxide are used to bleach the flour. The bleached flour is creamish white
in colour.

Maturing

The fresh flour has poor water absorption power, poor strength and
poor baking quality. It is improved by the oxidation process known as
maturing. Chemicals like potassium bromated and ascorbic acid are used for
maturing and to improve the above qualities.

CONSTITUENTS OR COMPOSITION OF FLOUR

Flour contains the following ingredients:

Starch 70%
Moisture 14%
Protein 11.5%
Ash 0.4%
Sugar 1%
Fat or lipid 1%
Others (enzymes-alpha and beta amylases) 2.1%

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Starch

Starch is not soluble in water until it is heated to about 140 0F with

water of six times of its weight. Then the starch cells will swell and the cell
wall will burst. Now the starch becomes soluble in water. This process is
called gelatinization. Starch acts as a filler as it gives rigidity to bread
dough. It combines with lipid and gluten to retain the gas during
fermentation. This work is called 3-dimensional network (starch-lipids-
gluten).

During milling 6% of starch cells are crushed and damaged due to the
rollers, type of wheat, moisture, etc. The water absorption power(WAP) of the
flour mainly depends upon the damaged starch. Enzymes(alpha and beta
amylases) act only on damaged starch to produce sugar for the yeast during
fermentation. The damaged starch should not be more than 7-9% for bread
making. The damaged starch is not essential for cake or biscuit making.

Hot bread directly from the oven cannot be sliced immediately because
the starch is not sufficiently stable and must be allowed to retrograde
(slightly harden). When the bread cools down, starch cells shrink and
become rigid so that the bread can be sliced easily.

Moisture

An ideal moisture content of flour is 14%. The source of moisture may be

tempering or the package materials or the humidity. If more moisture is in
the flour it will reduce the storage life, induce insect infestation, may get
fungus and bacteria and also will reduce the WAP of the flour. This will result
in less yield during production.

Protein

Flour contains soluble and insoluble proteins, namely,

1. Albumin
2. Globulin
3. Gliadin
4. Glutenin

The soluble proteins (albumin and globulin) are useful in providing

nourishment to yeast during the fermentation process for its growth and

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reproduction. The insoluble proteins gliadin and glutenin form a rubbery
material when water is added with flour. So when it is kneaded well, the
rubbery material (texture) developed is called gluten. It gives structure to
the baked products. While gliadin gives extensibility, glutenin gives strength
and holds gas during baking. The quality of flour is decided by the gluten
content. If the gluten content is more then flour will be suitable for high
structured products like bread. This bread-making flour should have the
gluten from 10% to 11.5%.

If the flour contains less gluten, then the flour will be suitable for lower
structured products like cakes and biscuits/cookies. This flour requires a low,
that is, 7-10% gluten content.

Ash

The source of ash content in flour is bran. If the flour contains more ash, it
means it has more bran. Too much ash gives dark colour to the flour and
also cuts the gluten. Flour with higher ash content will not retain as much
gas different stages of processing and this affects the volume and gives poor
texture to the products.

Sugar

Naturally, flour contains a small quantity of sugar, namely, sucrose and

maltose. It is used as yeast food to produce CO2 (carbon dioxide gas).

Fat or Lipids

Fat or lipids should not be more than 1% in flour. They contain the
pigment carotene which gives colour to the flour. There is a higher quantity
of oil/fat in the low grade flour than in the high grade ones. The fat or oil
when separated from the flour is a pale yellowish liguid without taste or
smell.

Enzymes

Flour contains diastatic enzymes. They are alpha (a) amylase and beta(B)
amylase. These enzymes hydrolyze starch and convert it into simple sugar.
During fermentation, the simple sugar is used by the yeast to produce
alcohol and carbon dioxide. The gas production depends upon the amount of

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enzymes found in the flour. Indian flours have less alpha amylase. These
enzymes are necessary for producing good quality bread.

In rain-damaged wheat, these enzymes will be available in excess. The

bread made out of this flour will have dark crust colour and sticky crumbs. If
these enzymes are less, the bread will have poor volume and dull crust
colour.

TYPES OF FLOUR

Bakers use two primary of white flours: hard flour or strong flour and
weak flour or soft flour. We get flour from hard wheat. It contains 11.2-
11.8% protein, 0.45-0.50% ash, 1.2% fat and 74-75% starch. The higher
protein found in strong flour indicates a higher level of gluten. This type of
flour is mainly used for high-structured products like yeast products, choux
pastry and puff pastries.

We get soft flour from soft wheat. This type of flour contains 8.4-8.8%
protein, 0.44-0.48% of ash, 1% fat and 76-77% starch. Due to the less
protein content, this flour is mainly used for low-structured products like
biscuits, cakes, sponges, short and sweet paste.

Apart from the above flours, there are other types of flour and they are
classified according to their extraction rate. Some of them are given below.

High-ratio flour

High-ratio flour is also known as special cake flour. This type of flour
absorbs high liquids, fats and sugars than normal flour. It is normally
manufactured for special order and it is used in special recipes. This flour is
normally bleached with chlorine gas.

Whole wheat flour

Whole wheat flour is milled from whole wheat grain and no bran or
germ is removed during milling. When using this flour, it requires more liquid
than mentioned in the recipes.

Whole meal flour (brown flour)

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 The whole meal flour is a mixture of refined flour. In it the content of
bran and wheat germ is more. It can also be made by combining white and
whole flour.

Self-raising flour contains a certain quantity of baking powder. If we use this

flour we should reduce the baking powder quantity from the given formula.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUALITY FLOUR

Bakers need good quality flour for production. A good quality flour
should have the following characteristics:

Colour

The flour should be creamish white in colour. A good quality flour will reflect
the light when it is shown to the light. Bleaching the flour helps to get the
colour.

Strength

There are two types of flour (i) strong and (ii) weak. The strength
depends upon the gluten quantity and quality present in the flour. Strong
flour is preferred for making bread and weak flour is preferred for making
bread and weak flour is preferred for making cakes and confectionery
products.

Tolerance

Tolerance is the ability of the flour to withstand the fermentation and/or

the mixing process in excess of what is normally required to mature its
gluten properly.

High absorption power

High absorption power means the ability of the flour to hold maximum
amount of water. If the flour has less WAP the bread will not be of good
quality and will have fewer yields.

Uniformity

If the flour used is ununiform, the quality of the product will differ. So
constant monitoring and adjustment are required to get a satisfactory result.

FLOUR TEST

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These are the several methods for testing the flour.

Chemical analysis

Moisture test. Flour should have 14% of moisture and more than this
will affect the storing quality of the flour.
Ash test. It helps find the quantity of minerals found in the flour.
Protein test. Quantity and the quality of the protein can be
analysed.
Falling number. It indicates the activity of enzymes.

Physical analysis

Amylograph. For enzymic activity.

Farinograph or alveograph. Tests the strength of the flour and
water absorption.
Extensographs. Tests the dough handling properties.
MacMichal Viscosimeter. Tests the viscosity of a flour solution.

Physical examination

Colour test. Checks if the particles of endosperm are separated.

Baking test. Tests the overall evaluation on the flour quality.

Test for water absorption power (WAP)

Take 100 gms of flour and mix 50 ml of water. Mix it well. If the dough is
stiff, and 1 ml of water at a time and mix until it becomes a pliable dough.
After obtaining this quality, note the quantity of water added. This quantity
will be WAP of the particular flour. More protein flour has more WAP. It will
increase the number of portion (yield).

Test for the quality of gluten in flour

Take some quantity of flour and mix it with enough water. Knead it well to
get a smooth dough. Then put this dough in water for 30 minutes at room
temperature. Then take it out and wash it in the running water till the starch
till the starch is completely removed. Squeeze the dough until it gives no
white streaks and what remains is called gluten. Squeeze out to remove the
excess water and this is known as wet gluten. It can be expressed as a per
cent of the flour sample.

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 Then keep the wet gluten in a cool oven (140 oC) till all the moisture is
evaporated. Now it is called dry gluten. The dry gluten weight should be 1/3
of the wet gluten. For example, if the wet gluten is 30 gms, the weight of dry
gluten should be 10 gms.

It the dough in the oven rises, the flour will be considered to have a
good quality of gluten.

pH value

pH value indicates the acidity or alkalinity. It is measured from 0 to 14.7 is

neutral. When the pH is above 7, it is called alkaline. When it is below 7, it
is acid. The pH value should be 5.5-6.5 for bread making and 4.5-5 for high-
ratio cakes. However, some cakes are in the alkaline side.

FUNCTIONS OF FLOUR AND ITS STORAGE

In bakery products, the flour has the following functions:

1. Acts as the binding agent and an absorbing agent.

2. Important for the flavour of products.
3. Adds the nutritional value to the product.
4. Builds the structure to the product.
5. Holds the other ingredients together and they are distributed evenly
into the dough or mixture.
6. The backbone of the baked products.
7. Affects the shelf quality of products.

For proper storage of the flour the following things should be kept in mind:

1. The storage area should be well ventilated.

2. Flour bags should be piled off the floor on skids to enable free
circulation or air all around the piles.
3. Should be kept away from direct sunlight.
4. Should be stored away from foreign odours because it picks up these
odours easily.
5. Avoid insect infestation.
6. Should be stored in dry clean bins with fitting lids.
7. Temperature of the storage area should be 19-240C.
8. The relative humidity should be 55-65%. Too low or too high relative
humidity is detrimental to flour quality.
9. The containers should be clearly labeled with their content so as to
avoid mistakes when selecting the correct flour for use.

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 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Draw a wheat kernel and explain its parts.

2. List some major wheat-growing countries in the world.
3. Write about the different methods of wheat milling
4. What is tempering of wheat? What are its uses?
5. What are the different constituents of flour?
6. Name the flour enzymes and explain their role in bread making.
7. What is gluten and how is it formed?
8. Write the characteristics of good quality flour.
9. What are the various tests of flour? What are the key concepts?
10. Define whole wheat flour and high-ratio flour.
11. Write briefly on storage of flour.
12. Which flour would you suggest for making bread? Why?
13. Why is the bran removed during milling?
14. Write about the protein present in the flour.
15. Compare the qualities of flour for bread and cakes.

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