Running Head: Early Literacy 1

Early Literacy
Amy Mangan
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Running Head: Early Literacy 2

Introduction

Literacy is one of the most fundamental building blocks in the array of experiences

incorporated into the magnitude of educating a child. This essential literacy curriculum core

could be likened to the blood source that feeds the total educational body. Without a healthy

literacy system in place, all other aspects of the educational system would suffer.

Literacy skills need to be taught to even the youngest children. As newborn babies

emerge into the world, the journey of developing literacy skills begins. The first experiences

after birth of sight and sound expose babies to the beginning sensory skills necessary for

preliteracy awareness. As a baby grows, it begins to vocalize early in life, learning to mimic

human speech patterns, and thus oral language development begins. Integrated into the language

process is the ability to crawl and then walk. Every aspect of early development enhances a

childs perception of the world and the meaning associated with knowledge and understanding of

the young childs universe. The importance of assisting even the youngest child in developing

language skills and comprehension of oral language is recognized as crucial in developing

literacy skills.

There are many components necessary for a quality early literacy program. The

components include: phonemic awareness, phonics, alphabetic knowledge, vocabulary

development, comprehension, fluency, concepts of print, writing, oral language, and assessment

of early literacy skills. The integration of literacy components is vital for the development of

early literacy skills. (Schickedanz & Collins, 2013, pp. 19-40)

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness should be taught in every early literacy program. Phonemic

awareness teaches students to hear and manipulate the sounds in words, giving students an
Running Head: Early Literacy 3

understanding of language. Phonemic awareness is an important skill for students to develop.

Phonemic awareness enhances the development of reading skills and facilitates reading success.

According to the article Effects of Rhyming, Vocabulary, and Phonemic Awareness Instruction

on Phoneme Awareness located in the Journal of Reading Research, explicit instruction

emphasizing phonemic awareness may be more likely to prevent reading difficulties, especially

among disadvantaged children such as those served by Head Start (Yeh & Connell, 2008, p.

254) Benefiting all students, phonemic awareness teaches every student to hear the phonemes of

the language and how phonemes interact and create language. Children from all backgrounds

can learn how to distinguish different phonemes through phonemic awareness instruction.

Another benefit of phonemic awareness is the allowance for a variety of activities that

may be used to teach phonemic awareness skills. Through the use of multiple phonemic

activities, teachers are able to reach all students. Daily phonemic awareness teaching will

improve and build students ability to manipulate and hear the phonemes in words.

During phonemic awareness instruction, students cultivate many skills. Students learn

about letter sounds and how these sounds combine to make words. Rhyming is an important

skill that is taught during phonemic awareness, allowing students to hear words which share

similar ending sounds. Word blending is also developed during phonemic awareness training.

This skill allows students to understand that words consist of different phonemes. In addition,

students are exposed to syllables and segmenting words. Introducing students to syllables and

segmenting words permits students to orally hear the various phonemes which combine to create

a word. When students begin to segment words, they are developing the ability to notice

individual phonemes in words. Phonemic awareness also allows students to play with sounds,

manipulate sounds, and discover how sounds interact and develop into words. This occurs while
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students are learning how to change sounds in words to create new words. Phonemic awareness

should be taught daily in every early literacy program. Phonemic awareness instruction should

be quick and fun, inspiring all students to stay engaged in the lessons.

Phonics

Phonics, another essential component of early literacy, should be explicitly and

systemically taught. Phonics instructions help students learn how to decode words in text.

Learning the phonetic rules will help students learn how to break words apart giving students the

ability to decode word parts. This is essential for reading and comprehension. Students who are

unable to decode words will not have fluent reading skills.

Good readers learn the rules of phonics and how to apply them when exposed to an

unknown word, which is phonetically decodable. When students are taught the rules of phonics,

they become proficient in utilizing these rules while reading. Students who are not taught word

blending rules relay on contextual clues, picture clues, or simply guessing the word. Good

readers with strong decoding skills are thus able to acquire more meaning from written text,

improving comprehension skills. (Perfetti & Hogaboam, 1975)

Word decoding can be taught through a variety of methods. While most words are

phonetically decodable, many words are considered strictly sight words, and must be learned by

repetitious exposure until memorized. Words such as: the, what, was, saw, of, are examples of

words that must simply be learned through rote memorization.

Alphabet Knowledge

Visual recognition of graphemes, the symbols which constitute the English alphabet, are

an integral element of early literacy. Authors Piasta and Wagner in a research article written for

The Florida Center of Reading Research stated, In the field of early literacy, alphabet

knowledge refers to childrens familiarity with letter forms, names, and corresponding sounds, as
Running Head: Early Literacy 5

measured by recognition, production, and writing skills (Piasta & Wagner, 2010, p. 8). Young

children must develop an understanding of the abstract formations that constitute the letters of

the alphabet. As a kindergarten teacher, it is essential to introduce the letters of the alphabet to

students. In an ideal world, exposure to printed materials would begin for all children several

months after birth. Unfortunately, reality shows a different picture. Many students enter school

with a very limited skill base towards literacy. At Hancock Elementary School in Clark County

School District, Las Vegas Neveda, many students enter school at the kindergarten level having

incomplete recognition of alphabet letters.

Students will use their knowledge of letters and sounds to decode words in text. In

addition, students will eventually use their knowledge of letter sounds to express their thoughts

and feelings in writing (Schickedanz & Collins, 2013). Due to the use of letters in words,

students require frequent exposure to letters and sounds. As a kindergarten teacher, it is

beneficial to utilize a wide variety of curriculum strategies and techniques when teaching

alphabet recognition. Alphabet knowledge is more than just being able to sing the alphabet song.

It is about naming letters in isolation and being able to identify and find a target letter among

different letters and symbols. Alphabet cards depicting pictures with a corresponding letter,

provides a comprehension link, to the abstract form of letter identification. The teachers at

Hancock Elementary school have found that having multiple sets of alphabet cards allow for

renewed interest and variety when teaching alphabet recognition and letter sounds. Daily

exposure to alphabet letter calling throughout the year, paired with letter sound practice increases

the alphabet knowledge of students. Coupling letter recognition, phonemic awareness and

phonics will provide the framework for future literacy skills of decoding words, learning to read,

fluency, and comprehension. Alphabet knowledge is crucial to the basis of beginning literacy.
Running Head: Early Literacy 6

Students who are unable to decode the alphabet will struggle to read words in text. Young

children must be exposed to the letters of the alphabet and taught mastery of letters and sounds

as early as feasibly possible.

Writing

Even the youngest students can express their thoughts and feelings through writing.

When a young student writes, it may seem like it is just scribbles, but those scribbles are the

beginning stages of writing. In the article The Essential of Early Literacy Instruction written

by Roskos, Christie, and Richgels, noted professors of early literacy programs, they state,

Children draw and scribble and read their marks by attributing meaning to them through their

talk and actions (Roskos, Christie, & Richgels, 2003, p. 53). Students begin learning to write

by making scribbles on a piece of paper and then verbally telling the story of what their

scribblings represent. This is an important part of prewriting skill development. Young children

need to be encouraged to verbalize and orally tell about what they are writing. Prewriting

verbalizations allow young children to discover the connections between words and a series of

graphemes, which, when written in series, produce words, and therefore meaning.

Young students utilize invented spelling to express their thoughts and feelings. Students

are encouraged to write the sounds they hear in the words. This allows the youngest students the

ability to write.

Children nonconventionally but systematically match sounds in words that they want to

write with letters that they know. Invented spelling begins before childrens phonemic

awareness is completely developed and before they know all the names of the letters of

the alphabet. (Roskos, Christie, & Richgels, 2003, p. 5).

Teacher modeling of writing provides a sample of what good writing looks like. The

kindergarten team at Hancock School utilizes Writers Workshop to teach writing. Through this
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method, the teachers model story development and written story form along with the writing

process. Guiding young children through Writers Workshop allow young children to participate

in the writing process, incorporating their ideas and knowledge in a cooperative environment.

Our team feels this format develops a positive attitude among the children and their ability to be

successful lifelong writers.

Fluency

Fluency is the ability to read printed material at a rate comparable to normal spoken

language with inflection and phrasing as utilized in oral dialogue. It is important to start

introducing fluency during early literacy development. (Pinnell & Foutas, 2011, p. 139)

Young students need to develop fluency to become successful readers. In the

kindergarten classroom, fluency is focused on letter names and sight words. The ability to

fluently read sight words helps with reading decodable text at a later time.

In the primary classroom, the focus of fluency is on oral reading of passages. Students

learn how to read passages with expression and speed. It is important for a child to learn about

phrasing during reading. In addition, children need to understand about different punctuation

marks and how they affect reading. According to Hudson, Lane, and Pullen in an article written

for The Reading Teacher, Reading fluency has long been acknowledge as an essential skill that

proficient readers need to have, and now is the time to focus attention on all areas to be

developed- for truly effective, comprehensive reading instruction for all children (2005, p. 712).

Vocabulary

Building a students vocabulary will allow them to access knowledge and materials

presented in the classroom. Vocabulary can be taught to young students through reading together

daily. Both teachers and parents can read to young children. Every time a child hears a story
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being read, their vocabulary increases. As a childs vocabulary increases, he or she will be better

able to express themselves through oral and written expression.

Daily read alouds should be conducted in the classroom. The daily read alouds should

utilize books two grade levels above the students current grade. Read alouds need to include

both fiction and nonfiction books. Through daily read alouds, new and challenging vocabulary

can be explicitly introduced. Author Lois Bridges, Ph. D, researcher for Scholastics Family and

Community Engagement compendium, states, the more words young children know, the

more sensitive they are to the ways in which words are put together, and the more likely they are

to become successful readers (2013, p. 25)

Teachers should also encourage students to use vocabulary words that have been taught in

the classroom. As students expand their vocabulary, they will inquire about unknown words in

text. Teachers need to model the use of newly learned vocabulary in their daily discussions with

students.

Comprehension

The ability to interpret and understand spoken and written language, is an important skill

to teach all students. Young students beginning to learn to read, need to learn strategies for

reading comprehension. Reading comprehension strategies are modeled by the teacher. After

modeling different strategies, students are able to listen to stories and apply strategies that have

been taught. It is crucial to teach comprehension strategies at all grade levels. Teaching

Expository Comprehension Skills in Early Childhood Classrooms a research study states,

Comprehension of informational texts and content learning are vital to childrens eventual

academic success (Culatta, Hall-Kenyon, & Black, 2010, p. 323) Students must be exposed to

both fiction and nonfiction texts. Students can utilize comprehension strategies specific to
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fiction and nonfiction text. Young students who are learning to read should also be reading to

learn. Comprehension strategies should be explicitly taught with deliberate exposure to text.

Authors Culatta et al., state, Expository skills, like other literacy skills and capabilities, develop

as a result of guided encounters with relevant texts (2010, p. 325).

Concepts of Print

Concepts of print are illustrated during read alouds and shared reading. As teachers read

to students they are modeling concepts of prints. While reading, the reader models how a book

works. Students learn to turn pages one at a time. They learn the correct way to hold a book and

the left to right movement involved in the process of reading. In addition, students are taught

different parts of a book such as: front cover, back cover, and spine. Students learn about author,

illustrator, and that print has meaning. As stated by Make Every Student Count, Children must

also understand that print carries meaning and the illustration in picture books help illuminate the

meaning (Bridges, 2013).

Concepts of print also have an impact on students writing. When students understand

that words are written from left to right, they are able to internalize and utilize this strategy in

their own writing. In addition, students begin to understand conventions of writing and the need

for punctuation. As stated in Examining Phonemic Awareness and Concepts of Print Patterns of

Kindergarten Students from Reading Research and Instruction, In order to be a successful

reader one must also begin to understand the conventions and functions of print (Nichols,

Rupley, Rickelman, & Algozzine, 2004, p. 77).

Oral Language

Language development begins early in life. According to researcher Lois Bridges,

Children begin learning language and about language from the moment of birth (2013, p.
Running Head: Early Literacy 10

14). It is essential for all students to be spoken to daily. Students need the ability to practice oral

language skills in the classroom. Teacher interaction with students allow students to learn

appropriate behavior when interacting with their peers and adults. Young students need to be

able to learn appropriate ways to address their peers and adults. This occurs during classroom

instructional activities and during students free time. Students are constantly interacting with

each other. Appropriate oral language communication skills are crucial as they facilitate

students success daily.

Some students will need more support in developing their language skills. Students will

learn some language through hearing adults and other students use of language, however,

language skills must be explicitly taught. Learning language helps students express themselves.

As stated by Lois Bridges, Oral language development precedes literacy and then parallels it;

both oral and written language are developmental language process that are mutually supportive

and develop over time (2013, p. 16)

Assessment

Many feel assessment is a time-consuming element in classrooms of today. Educators

know that assessment is necessary to ensure that all students are achieving set educational goals.

Teachers need to know that students are progressing, and unfortunately, assessment is the only

method available to make reliable predictions of a students progress. Early literacy is no

exception to this quandary. Assessment skills at the early stages of learning to read are essential

even to the youngest child. This is stated by authors Nichols et al., stating, When teachers use

diagnostic data to aid and guide their instruction of children, they can enhance all childrens

development of phonemic awareness regardless of gender, socioeconomic status, preschool

experiences, and race (2004, p. 78). Although the authors specifically delineate assessment of
Running Head: Early Literacy 11

phonemic awareness, all elements previously discussed regarding early literacy should also be

data driven by assessment results.

The only way to determine if growth has occured is through assessment. Even young

students need to be assessed to determine what support they may need throughout their

educational career.

Assessment allows for teachers to focus more attention on students who are at risk of

failure. Elementary school teachers in the Clark County School District rely on assessment data.

The assessment data is shared among teachers utilizing student literacy plans. These literacy

plans determine if a student is at risk for reading failure. Additionally, assessment allows

instruction to be data driven. With the high number of at risk students in many of the Clark

County Schools, these assessment plans strive to meet all students needs. The goal is to ensure

success for all students.

Early Literacy Conclusion

Early literacy programs should include all the previously discussed components. All

parts work together to prepare students to become successful in literacy. Students need to learn

that reading and writing work together to express meaning. According to the article Essentials

of Early Literacy Instruction, Young children need writing to help them learn about reading,

they need reading to help them learn about writing; and they need oral language to help them

learn about both (Roskos, Christie, & Richgels, 2003, p. 53). An integrated approach of the

early literacy components is necessary to build the foundation for reading success. Developing

students success in early literacy will continue to help them grow as successful students

throughout their educational career. As stated by Haney, Bissonnette, and Behnken in an article

published in Child Study Journal, they state, Reading is a fundamental skill that is an essential
Running Head: Early Literacy 12

prerequisite for future academic success, most areas of employment, and day to day living

(2003, p. 99)

As children learn and grow, they can access the knowledge needed to become fluent

readers. Each component of early literacy has been proven to be effective for all learners. Some

children may need additional support in learning different components of early literacy. These

students should receive the required support in either a small group or an individual setting. It is

crucial that all students are able to access grade level material. Many young students enter

school with a wide variety of experiences. All students can succeed with highly qualified

instruction.

In an effort to prepare students for either college or entry into the workforce, proficiency

in reading is crucial. According to Read All About It! What States Are Doing to Ensure Kids Are

Reading by Third Grade, written by Patrick Riccards, former chief of staff to the National

Reading Panel and current Chief Communications and Strategy Officer at the Woodrow Wilson

National Fellowship Foundation,

The good news is that the majority of children who enter kindergarten and elementary

school at risk for reading failure can learn to read at average or above average level but

only if they are identified early and taught using systemic and intensive instruction in

phonemic awareness, phonics, reading, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension

strategies. (Riccards, 2012, p. 2)

Finally, as stated by Making Every Student Count, it seems evident that involvement in

rich language and literacy experiences at home and in the community, creates tremendous

opportunities for the child (Bridges, 2013, p. 14). As an adult in todays society, I have noticed

that young children, including babies and toddlers, are able to access portable touchscreen

devices with ease. Most young children are able to locate devices, turn them on, and access
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content on the device. It is essential that young children are exposed to multiple types of

literacy. Parents should be speaking and reading to their children daily. As stated by Lois

Bridges, We need to speak directly to our young children every day; researchers suggest that for

optimal development, infants and toddlers should hear 30,000 words per day (2013, p. 19). If a

child, spends most of their time accessing content on handheld devices, are they hearing 30,000

words per day? As a teacher, I tell the parents of my students, the best way to help their child is

to read to them daily, in any language. According to authors Pendergast, Bingham, and Patton-

Terry for Early Education and Development, children may benefit from literacy skills in one

language because they can assess this knowledge for literacy development in another language

(2015, p. 268). Through working together at school, home, and in the community, we can ensure

success for all children.

References
Bridges, L. (2013). Make every student count: How collaboration among families,
schools, and communities ensures student success. Retrieved March 14,
2017, from MAKE EVERY STUDENT CoUNT - Scholastic:
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Running Head: Early Literacy 14

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