DISSERTATION REPORT

On

MATHEMATICAL MODELING AND MANUFACTURING OF HDPE/PP

BRICKS USING DIFFERENT FILLERS BY CONTINUOUS EXTRUSION
PROCESS

For

Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree

Of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

By
EKTA CHATURVEDI
(2014PCH5061)

SUPERVISOR
DR. SUSHANT UPADHYAYA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, JAIPUR
June 2016
Malaviya National Institute of Technology
All rights reserved
 CERTIFICATE

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR

J.L.N MARG, JAIPUR-302017 (RAJASTHAN) INDIA

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this Dissertation entitled
Mathematical Modeling and manufacturing of HDPE/PP bricks using different fillers by
continuous extrusion process in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of Master of Technology in Chemical Engineering submitted to the Department of
Chemical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, is an authentic record
of my own work carried out from July 2015 to June 2016 under the supervision and guidance of
Dr. Sushant Upadhyaya, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering,
M.N.I.T. Jaipur. Information used from literature and other sources in the present Dissertation
has been duly acknowledged by citing references at appropriate places.

The embodied in this Dissertation has not been submitted by me for the award of any other
degree.

Date: Ekta Chaturvedi

(2014PCH5061)

This to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge

Date: (Dr. Sushant Upadhyaya)

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
MNIT JAIPUR

Page i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express a deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Sushant Upadhyaya, Assistant
Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, MNIT Jaipur for his invaluable guidance,
enlightening discussions, continuous encouragement and his guardian like attitude throughout
the course of my M. Tech Dissertation work.

I wish to convey my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Kailash Singh, Associate Professor and Head,
Department of Chemical Engineering, MNIT Jaipur for his kind cooperation throughout this
Dissertation work. I am also grateful to all the faculty members for their timely help and
suggestions.

I would like to convey my sincere thanks to all the academic staff, technical staff and colleagues
of Materials Research Centre, MNIT Jaipur for their kind help in testing of specimens.

I am also thankful to Ms.Ambika Sharma, Technical officer, Testing department, CIPET

Jaipur, for her kind cooperation in testing of specimens.

I am obliged to Mr. Rakesh Baghel for his kind help for experiments, suggestions and
cooperation.

Last but not the least I would like to thank my parents for blessing me this life and all my
colleagues for their relentless help, support and heartily cooperation in the completion of my
work.

Ekta Chaturvedi
(2014PCH5061)

Page ii
 ABSTRACT

Extrusion is a process which combines several unit operations including mixing, kneading,
shearing, shaping and forming. In this research work, the effect of various operating parameters
like screw speed (RPM), barrel temperature were studied on the extrudate mass flow rate. The
mathematical model was also developed in the present study using momentum balance in two
dimensional flows for non-Newtonian fluid. The extruder of variable channel depth and adiabatic
condition were considered in the proposed model. The developed model is compared with the
available model in the literature by many researchers (Y.Li & F. Hseih.et.al, Rauwendaal.et.al,
Rowell n Finlayson et.al.). The developed model was found to be well validated with the
experimental results as compared to the available models.

In other part, bricks have been manufactured using plastic as main constituent by extrusion.
Here, we used different fillers like marble slurry, carbon powder and compared their properties
with conventional concrete bricks. Different additives like binders, plasticizers and lubricants
were also used to enhance the properties of bricks. It is found that extruded plastic bricks have
high compressive strength as compared to conventional casting bricks. This study clearly
demonstrated that the addition of plastic modifies the mechanical properties of the bricks. Effects
of various parameters like screw speed on compressive strength of bricks have also been studied.

Page iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE ................................................................................................................................ i

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Objectives of the work .................................................................................................... 3

2 Literature Review.................................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Polymer ........................................................................................................................... 4

2.1.1 Types of Polymer ...................................................................................................... 4

Natural & synthetic polymers ............................................................................................. 4

Organic & inorganic polymers ........................................................................................... 4

Thermoplastics & thermosetting polymers ......................................................................... 5

Plastics, elastomers, fibers ................................................................................................. 5

2.2 Polymer processing techniques ....................................................................................... 5

2.2.1 Blow molding............................................................................................................ 5

2.2.2 Injection molding ...................................................................................................... 5

2.2.3 Compression molding ............................................................................................... 6

2.2.4 Rotational molding.................................................................................................... 6

2.2.5 Transfer molding....................................................................................................... 6

2.2.6 Extrusion ................................................................................................................... 7

Types of extruders ............................................................................................................... 7

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 Single screw .................................................................................................................... 7

Double screw .................................................................................................................. 8

Components of extruders .................................................................................................... 8

Extruder Barrel ............................................................................................................... 8

Hopper ............................................................................................................................ 8

Screw ............................................................................................................................... 8

Dies ................................................................................................................................. 9

Breaker plate ................................................................................................................. 10

Zones in an extruder ......................................................................................................... 10

Extrusion process parameters........................................................................................... 11

Applications ...................................................................................................................... 11

2.3 Additives used in extrusion........................................................................................... 12

2.3.1 Fillers ...................................................................................................................... 12

2.3.2 Binder/adhesives ..................................................................................................... 12

2.3.3 Plasticizers .............................................................................................................. 13

2.3.4 Lubricants ............................................................................................................... 13

2.3.5 Stabilizers................................................................................................................ 13

2.4 Mechanical Properties of polymers .............................................................................. 14

2.4.1 Tensile strength ....................................................................................................... 14

2.4.2 Elongation to break ................................................................................................. 15

2.4.3 Young modulus ....................................................................................................... 15

2.4.4 Toughness ............................................................................................................... 15

2.5 Models for single screw extrusion ................................................................................ 15

2.6 Bricks ............................................................................................................................ 21

3 Mathematical Modeling ........................................................................................................ 25

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 3.1 Assumptions.................................................................................................................. 25

3.2 Mathematical modeling equations ................................................................................ 26

4 Experimental materials and methods .................................................................................... 30

4.1 Materials ....................................................................................................................... 30

4.1.1 Polymers ................................................................................................................. 30

High density polyethylene (HDPE) ................................................................................... 30

Polypropylene (PP) ........................................................................................................... 31

4.1.2 Fillers ...................................................................................................................... 31

4.1.3 Additives ................................................................................................................. 32

4.2 Experimental setup........................................................................................................ 33

4.3 Experimental procedure ................................................................................................ 34

4.4 Testing of the samples .................................................................................................. 37

4.4.1 Tensile strength test ................................................................................................ 37

4.4.2 Compressive strength test ....................................................................................... 38

4.4.3 Water absorption test .............................................................................................. 38

4.4.4 X-Ray Diffraction ................................................................................................... 38

5 Result and discussions .......................................................................................................... 39

5.1 Effect of operating parameters ...................................................................................... 39

5.1.1 Effect of screw rotational speed on extrudate mass flow rate ................................ 39

5.1.2 Effect of temperature on extrudate mass flow rate at constant screw speed .......... 41

5.1.3 Effect of screw speed on tensile strength................................................................ 41

5.1.4 Effect of temperature on tensile strength at constant screw speed ......................... 42

5.1.5 Effect of screw rotational speed on compressive strength ...................................... 43

5.2 Effect of polymer composition on the compressive strength of bricks ........................ 43

5.2.1 Marble slurry bricks ................................................................................................ 43

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 5.2.2 Carbon and marble slurry as a filler........................................................................ 44

5.3 Water absorption test .................................................................................................... 45

5.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) ............................................................................................. 46

6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 49

7 Future recommendation ........................................................................................................ 50

8 References ............................................................................................................................. 51

9 Publications ........................................................................................................................... 54

Page vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Total MSW generation (by Material), 2013 ................................................................. 2

Figure 2.1: single screw extrusion process ..................................................................................... 7
Figure 2-2: Diagram of screw with barrel....................................................................................... 9
Figure 2-3: Typical die configuration ............................................................................................. 9
Figure 4.1: (a) High density polyethylene and (b) Polypropylene................................................ 30
Figure 4.2: (a) Marble powder and (b) Carbon powder ................................................................ 32
Figure 4.3: Experimental setup of lab extruder ............................................................................ 33
Figure 4.4: Brick mold .................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 4.5: Compressive strength samples ................................................................................... 36
Figure 4.6: Tensile strength samples ............................................................................................ 36
Figure 4.7: Water Absorption Sample .......................................................................................... 37
Figure 4.8: Universal Testing Machine (ASTM D 638) ............................................................... 37
Figure 4.9: X-Ray Diffract meter.................................................................................................. 38
Figure 5.1: effect of screw speed on extrudate mass flow rate ..................................................... 40
Figure 5.2: Effect of temperature on mass flow rate .................................................................... 41
Figure 5.3: Effect of screw speed on tensile strength ................................................................... 42
Figure 5.4: Effect of temperature on Tensile strength .................................................................. 42
Figure 5.5: Effect of screw speed on compressive strength of bricks .......................................... 43
Figure 5.6: Effect of polymer composition on marble slurry bricks............................................. 44
Figure 5.7: Effect of Polymer composition on carbon powder & marble slurry bricks ............... 45
Figure 5.8: Water absorption percentage of brick samples........................................................... 46
Figure 5.9: XRD pattern of marble powder bricks ....................................................................... 47
Figure 5.10: XRD pattern of carbon- marble powder bricks ........................................................ 48
Figure 5.11: XRD pattern of concrete bricks ................................................................................ 48

Page viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1: components of extruder and their functions ................................................................ 10

Table 2-2: Various additives and their functions .......................................................................... 14
Table 2-3: Previous models and their assumptions....................................................................... 20
Table 2-4: Extensive Literature review of bricks ......................................................................... 23
Table 3-1: Various parameters of extruder and their values ......................................................... 29
Table 4-1: Properties of High density polyethylene ..................................................................... 31
Table 4-2: Properties of Polypropylene ........................................................................................ 31
Table 4-3: Constituents of Portland cement.................................................................................. 32
Table 4-4: Additives and their functions ...................................................................................... 33
Table 4-5: Various Extruder parameters and their values ............................................................ 34
Table 4-6: Prepared samples and their composition ..................................................................... 35
Table 5-1: Comparison of predicted mass flow rate with experimental flow rate........................ 40
Table 5-2: Water absorption percentage of brick samples............................................................ 45
Table 5.3: properties of plastic bricks and concrete bricks. .......................................................... 46

Page ix
 CHAPTER1

1 Introduction
Extrusion is a method of processing polymeric materials and is used in the final production of
many polymer based products such as pipes, films, sheets, tubes, rods etc. The characteristic of
the extrudate depends upon the design parameters, raw material and operating conditions
(Abeykoon et al. 2013).

In single screw extruders, material is fed into the extruder via hopper, passed on along the screw
and liquefied by the application of external heat. The pressure generated in the extruder drives
the liquid material through a molded pass on to frame the last item. Properties of the extrudate
depend mainly upon the quality or homogeneity of the melt extruded by the screw. Amid a wide
range of extruders used in industries, single screw extruders are unquestionably a sort that ought
not to be neglected.

In the course of the most recent couple of decades, extrusion innovation has assumed an
undeniably essential part in numerous commercial ventures, for example, polymer, sustenance
and food preparing and its future is still exceptionally compacting. The hypotheses of a single
screw extruder have been fundamentally best in class amid the most recent 40 years. In any case,
the endeavor of applying these speculations to screw outline and reproduction of the extrusion
procedure has not been totally fruitful. To begin with, this is on account of the current
speculations are not sufficiently precise with the end goal of screw outline and extrusion
reenactment. Furthermore, these speculations are frequently twisted to circumstances where their
assumptions are not substantial (Li & Hsieh 1996). An extruder for the most part works at
adiabatic condition, however the greater part of the work on modeling of extruder is finished by
accepting isothermal conditions existing in extruder. Other than the assumption of extruder to be
isothermal, some creators expect the channel depth to be constant. A few scientists likewise
expect the channel depth to be fluctuated over the length of extruder. Hence, the new logical
arrangement is created in this work to show signs of improvement results for the reasons for
screw outline and extrusion simulation.

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Now days, we can use extrusion for the manufacturing of polymer/plastic bricks also. Bricks
have been made from concrete or clay by casting. Here, we are using plastic for the
manufacturing of bricks by extrusion. Various works have been done to compare the extruded
products to the conventional casting products (Shao et al. 2001).

Over the last ten years, we have produced more plastic than during the whole of the last century.
As per EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency) reports, Plastic accounts for around 13% of
the total MSW we generate as shown in Figure 1.1. Disposal of waste plastic is a serious
problem in the present scenario as it is non-biodegradable and can remain on earth for more than
4,000 years.

food
6.20% 13.50% 14.60% 3.30%
other

9% paper
glass
12.80% 27%
metals
9.10% plastics
rubber,leather & textiles
wood
4.50%
yard trimmings

Figure 1.1: Total MSW generation (by Material), 2013

So also there has been an extensive inequity between the accessibility of conventional building
materials and their demand in the recent (Bricks 2014). So by this procedure, we can viably use
the waste plastic to make elective building material by which both the inquiries of an
experimental transfer of waste plastic and lack of customary building materials can be replied.

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1.1 Objectives of the work
1. Development of a mathematical model for actual conditions of Non-Newtonian fluids
working in adiabatic conditions assuming variable channel depth of the extruder.
2. The developed model will be validated from the experimental data and will also be
compared with the existing models.
3. Effect of various parameters on mechanical strength of samples.
4. Bricks will be fabricated using waste plastic material and marble powder waste along
with various properties enhancer additives by continuous extrusion process.
5. The fabricated bricks will be compared from conventional concrete bricks in terms of
mechanical and physical properties.

Page 3
 CHAPTER2

2 Literature Review
This section manages the supporting learning that had created in past for utilizing enough
information for the present work. A careful audit of the accessible literates was additionally done
to comprehend the impact of different parameters that impact the mechanical and thermal
properties of polymer extrudate. The writing review is done on the premise of taking after
focuses-

2.1 Polymer
Macro-molecules or big molecules, formed by the combination of small repeating units or
molecules is called polymer. Small repeating units are called monomer. These monomers can
be of same type or different molecules. As an example, Butadiene having molecular weight of 54
combines approximately 4,000 times to give a polymer Poly butadiene having molecular
weight 200,000.

2.1.1 Types of Polymer

Polymers can be classified in various categories as per their source, configuration and various
other factors as discussed below-

Natural & synthetic polymers

Polymers, found in plants and animals or derived from natural materials are called natural
polymers. Examples are proteins, cellulose, starch, resins, wool, cotton etc. Man made
polymers or polymers prepared in lab are called synthetic polymers. A polymer derived from
natural polymers by some chemical modifications also comes in the category of synthetic
polymers. Examples are polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, nylon, cellulose acetate (rayon) etc.

Organic & inorganic polymers

Polymers containing carbon as the main constituent are known as organic polymers. Most of
the synthetic polymers are organic in nature. Inorganic polymers are those who dont have any
carbon atom in their structure. Examples are glass & silicones etc.

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Thermoplastics & thermosetting polymers
A few polymers softens on heating and can be changed over into any shape that they can hold on
cooling. Such polymers, that mollify on heating and harden on cooling, are termed as
'thermoplastics'. These polymers have intermolecular forces of attraction transitional amongst
elastomers and fibers. Illustrations are- polyethylene, PVC, Nylon and so forth. A few polymers
experience synthetic changes on heating and changes over into an infusible mass. These
polymers are cross connected or vigorously stretched particles, which on heating experience
broad cross connecting in molds. These can't be reused. Cases are Bakelite, urea-formaldehyde
saps, and so on.

Plastics, elastomers, fibers

Polymers, formed into hard and extreme utility materials by the use of heat and pressure, utilized
as plastic. Illustrations are polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, poly methyl methacrylate. At the
point when vulcanized into rubbery items showing great quality and prolongation, polymers are
utilized as elastomers and so forth if drawn into fiber like materials, whose length is at least 100
times its diameter, polymers are said to have been changed over into fibers. Nylon and Terylene
are run of the mill examples.

2.2 Polymer processing techniques

2.2.1 Blow molding

Blow molding is an embellishment procedure in which pneumatic stress is utilized to fill delicate
plastic into a mold hole (Franz Gittner, Arnaldo Glaser 1979). It is a critical mechanical
procedure for making one-piece empty plastic parts with meager dividers, for example, bottles
and comparable parts. Blow embellishment is restricted to thermoplastics. Polyethylene is the
polymer most generally utilized for blow forming. Other blow moldings are made of
polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

2.2.2 Injection molding

Procedure in which the melted polymer is introduced into a mold opening, the state of which is
just about the same as the last item, and is cooled down to alter the state of the material. In this
procedure, since the polymer melt viscosity of which is very vast is injected into a mold cavity at
high flow rate, injection pressure turns out to be entirely high, e.g. up to a few hundred MPa, and
Page 5
along these lines huge cramping power of the mold parts is required for the development of
outsized items. Notwithstanding this, by this procedure, set number of items can be gotten
through one shot of the trim. This implies the procedure ought to be speeded up in the event that
one needs to create the items at high profitability (M Heckele & Schomburg 2003).

2.2.3 Compression molding

Compression molding is one of the first handling techniques for assembling plastic parts created
at the absolute starting point of the plastics business (Ingram 1997). Indeed, it was generally
utilized as a part of the bakery industry for cookie or cake shaping before plastic materials
existed. In spite of the fact that it is likewise appropriate to thermoplastics, compression molding
is generally used as a part of assembling thermosetting plastic parts.

The crude materials for compression molding are usually as granules, putty-like masses, or
preforms. They are initially put in an open, heated mold depression. The mold is then shut and
weight is connected to constrain the material to top off the cavity. A hydraulic ram is frequently
used to create adequate power amid the trim procedure. The heat and pressure are kept up until
the plastic material is cured.

2.2.4 Rotational molding

Rotational molding, known also as roto-molding or roto-casting, is a procedure for
manufacturing hollow plastic products. Illustrations are polyethylene, polycarbonate, acetate
butyrate, polyamide, elastomers, polyurethane, polypropylene, ethylene vinyl acetate and
fluorocarbons.

Steps involved are mold charging, mold heating, mold cooling and unloading/demolding
respectively (Naonori Shiina 1975).

2.2.5 Transfer molding

Transfer molding process combines the principle of compression and transfer of the polymer
charge (Carl F. Johnson 1991). In the transfer molding, polymer charge is moved from the
transfer vessel to the mold. The mold is cooled and shaped portion is removed from the mold.
Thermoset plastics such as epoxy, polyester, phenol-formaldehyde, vinyl ester etc. can be treated
by this process.

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2.2.6 Extrusion
Extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process. The plastic material is melted with the
application of heat and extruded through die into a desired shape (Abeykoon 2016). A cylindrical
rotating screw as shown in Figure 2.1 is placed inside the barrel which forces out molten plastic
material through a die. The extruded material takes shape according to the cross-section of die.

Figure 2.1: single screw extrusion process

Types of extruders
There are two types of common extruders used in the polymeric industry-

1. Single screw
2. Twin screw

Single screw
This is the common type of screw used in the polymer processing, it works as to produce
homogeneous melt of the supplied polymer pellets and compress them and melt through the die.
This is happened in the following steps:

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 1. Transfer the polymer pellets from hopper to the feed zone of the screw channel.
2. Compacts the polymer pellets and transfer them down to the channel.
3. Melt the polymer pellets.
4. Mix the polymeric material in to homogenous melt.
5. Pumping the melt through the shaping die.

Double screw
These are of two types co-rotating and counter-rotating. The co-rotating screw are most
commonly used for efficient continuous mixing, also have high pumping efficiency because of
double transport mechanism of two screws. This type arrangement is suitable for the heat
sensitive materials. Another advantage is short residence time helpful for heat sensitive
materials.

Components of extruders
Main components of the extruder are- hopper, barrel, screw, breaker plate, die etc. and their
functions are explained in Table 2.1.

Extruder Barrel
Barrel is the covering in which screw is rotated and above the barrel, heaters are attached for
heating the material, the diameter of barrel is generally in the range of 20-150 mm, the length to
diameter ratio (L/D) is in the range of 5-34. Shorter machines (L/D<20) are generally used for
processing elastomers, longer machines for thermoplastics.

Hopper
All the extruders have an opening in the barrel wall at the driven end, through which the plastic
granules enter the extruder. The hopper, a simple sheet - metal enclosure, is mounted above that
opening and holds about an hour's capacity material. Hopper is provided with heating system, if
the material has to be preheated before entering the extruder.

Screw
This is the heart of the extruder. Screw carries the melted thermoplastics to the opening of the die
after properly homogenizing the melted polymer. Typical configuration of screw is shown in
Figure 2.2.

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 Figure 2-2: Diagram of screw with barrel

Dies
Dies are installed at the end of extruder; different types of dies are used as shown in Figure 2.3.
For processing the polymers they may be of either annular die, flat die or any desired profile
shape. The output coming from the die is known as extrudate in the extrusion process.

Figure 2-3: Typical die configuration

Page 9
Breaker plate
Breakers plate is fixed in an adapter at the end of extruder and before die. This system works as:

1. Capture the spiral flow of the melt by converting it in to axial flow.

2. By recombining and splitting the flow, enhance the melt homogeneity.
3. By increasing the back pressure improve the mixing.
4. Removes the un-melt and contaminates if any present.

Table 2-1: components of extruder and their functions

S.No. Component Function

1. Screw pump Combination of screw & barrel.
2. Hopper Funnel like device, mounted on hopper throat. Holds a constant
reserve of material.
3. Barrel Cylindrical housing in which screw rotates.
4. Hopper throat Circular opening at the feed end through which material enters.
5. Screw Heart of the extruder.
6. Breaker plate Converts the spiral flow of melt into axial flow.
7. Motor Rotates the screw and provides power for the operation of the
extruder.

Zones in an extruder
There are three zones exists in an extruder as explained below-

Feed zone
Compression zone
Melting zone
Channel depth decreases from feed end to die end. Decrease in channel depth results in
increasing pressure along the extruder.

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Feed zone: In the feed zone the polymer pellets are preheated and then convey to the
compression zone, in feed zone the screw depth is constant and supply the optimum material for
the metering zone.

Compression zone: In this zone the polymeric material is compacted by the screw, screw depth
is decreases here gradually, compaction plays here two roles of squeezing trapped air back in to
feed section and improving heat transfer.

Metering Zone: In the metering zone screw depth is constant but less than the feed section this
is the most important zone of any extruder because here the melt is homogenized so as to supply
at constant rate, material of consistent pressure and temperature to the die.

Extrusion process parameters

There are five important process parameters to be considered before extrusion process-
Melting temperature of plastic
Speed of the screw
Extrusion pressure required
Types of die used
Cooling medium

Applications
The extrusion process has following applications.

Most widely used processing of thermoplastic materials.

In the wire coating process.
Manufacturing of the PVC pipes, tubes, films, sheets.
Any desired profile can also be formed by using suitable die.
In producing wood plastic composites, etc.

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2.3 Additives used in extrusion
Additives are the compound which are mixed in little amount in a polymer for altering the
properties of the polymer to achieve a desired property as shown in Table 2.2.e.g.-fillers,
plasticizer, coupling agent, lubricants etc. Additives should have the following properties-

1. Work efficiently their function.

2. Show a good stability under processing condition.
3. Stable in service conditions.
4. Low cost.
5. They should be nontoxic in nature.
6. They should not affect the polymeric properties on mixing.

2.3.1 Fillers
Fillers are characterized as materials that are added to a polymer definition to bring down the
compound cost or to enhance properties. Such materials can be as strong, fluid or gas. By the
suitable determination of these materials, the financial aspects as well as alternate properties, for
example, preparing and mechanical conduct can be made strides. Accordingly, once the essential
property prerequisites are built up, the ideal filler type and the stacking level for expense and
performance parity must be resolved.

Some filler, for example, short fibers or flakes of inorganic materials, enhance the mechanical
properties of a plastic. Others, called extenders, allow a huge volume of a plastic to be created
with relatively minimal actual resin. Calcium carbonate, silica and mud are often used extenders.

2.3.2 Binder/adhesives
A binder is any material or substance that holds or attracts diverse materials together to shape a
firm intact mechanically, artificially, or as adhesive. As often as possible materials named as
binders in different extents or utilizations can have their parts exchanged with what they are
binding. A case is straw serving to mechanically entwine earth as in the building material cob,
and clay as adhesive confining straw together as in a trademark assurance. In an all the more
tight sense, binders are substances that move from blend like to stone-like state and, along these
lines, tie filler power/particles included into it. The move/limiting property is used extensively to
arrange formed articles (e.g. pots and vases) or to tie solid pieces (e.g. blocks).
Page 12
Liquid binders are added to a dry substance in order to draw it together in such a way that it
maintains a uniform consistency. For example, in the Classical World, painters used materials
like egg, wax, honey, or bitumen as binders to mix with pigment in order to hold the pigment
particles together in the formation of paint.

2.3.3 Plasticizers
Plasticizers are low molecular weight materials which adjust the properties and shaping attributes
of the plastic. Plasticizers are added substances that build the versatility or ease of material.
Plasticizers are characterized as materials that, when added to a polymer, cause an expansion in
adaptability and workability. Plasticizers diminish interactions between portions of polymer
chains, diminishing melt consistency, and flexible modulus. The properties of different materials
are likewise enhanced when mixed with plasticizers including concrete, clay and related items.
Plasticizers work by implanting themselves between the chains of polymers, separating them
separated (expanding the "free volume"), and therefore fundamentally bringing down the glass
transition temperature for the plastic and making it gentler. Plasticizers make it conceivable to
accomplish enhanced compound handling qualities, while likewise giving adaptability at last
utilize product.

2.3.4 Lubricants
A lubricant is a constituent introduced to diminish friction amid surfaces in mutual contact,
which eventually decreases the heat produced when the surfaces move. It may also have the
function of transmitting forces, transferring foreign particles, or heating or cooling the surfaces.
Lubricants such as wax or calcium stearate diminish the viscosity of the melted plastic and
enhance forming characteristics.

2.3.5 Stabilizers
Stabilizers avert deterioration of the polymer owing to environmental aspects. Stabilizers also
avoid deterioration due to ultra-violet radiation.

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 Table 2-2: Various additives and their functions

S.No. Additive Function Effect

1. Binders Binds the constituents together. 1. Better mechanical and chemical
properties.
2. Better dispersion.
3. Lower water absorption.
2. Lubricants Lubricates the material internally 1. Lower viscosity and better flowing
and externally. properties.
2. Higher output.
3. Plasticizers Increases the plasticity or 1. Lower viscosity and elastic modulus.
fluidity of material. 2. Better mechanical properties.
4. Fillers Enhances properties and reduces 1. Better mechanical properties.
cost. 2. Reduced cost.
5. Stabilizers Prevents or decelerates the 1. prevents embrittlement and
decomposition of polymers due discoloration.
to environmental factors.

2.4 Mechanical Properties of polymers

The mechanical properties of a polymer include its conduct under stress. The mechanical
properties of polymers are one of the elements that recognize them from little atoms. These
properties tell a polymer researcher or specialist a hefty portion of the things he or she needs to
know while considering how a polymer can be utilized.

2.4.1 Tensile strength

Tensile strength is the stress required to break the sample. It is expressed in Pascal or psi (pounds
per square inch). The tensile strength is a significant property for polymers that are going to be
strained. Fibers, for instance, must have good tensile strength.

Page 14
2.4.2 Elongation to break
The elongation-to-break is the strain on a sample when it breaks. This usually is expressed as a
percent. The elongation-to-break sometimes is called the ultimate elongation. Fibers have a low
elongation-to-break and elastomers have a high elongation-to-break.

2.4.3 Young modulus

Young's modulus is the ratio of stress to strain. It also is termed as the modulus of elasticity or
the tensile modulus. Young's modulus is the slope of a stress-strain curve. Stress-strain curves
often are not straight-line plots, demonstrating that the modulus is varying with the amount of
strain. In this case the initial slope is frequently used as the modulus.

Rigid materials, such as metals, have a high Young's modulus. In general, fibers have high
Young's modulus values, elastomers have low values, and plastics lie somewhere in between.

2.4.4 Toughness
The toughness of a material is the area under a stress-strain curve. The stress is proportional to
the tensile force on the material and the strain is proportional to its length. The area under the
curve then is proportional to the integral of the force over the distance the polymer expands
before breaking.

Area F ( L )dL

This integral is the work needed to break the sample. The toughness is a amount of the energy a
sample can absorb before it breaks. There is a difference amid toughness and strength. A
material that is strong but not tough is said to be brittle. Brittle materials are strong, but cannot
distort very much. Polystyrene (PS) is brittle, for example.

2.5 Models for single screw extrusion

Screw extrusion is an entrenched innovation broadly utilized in regions, for example, polymer
processing, food production and ceaseless feed handling. As indicated by Power et al. (1988) and
Li and Hsieh (1996), the hydrodynamic hypothesis of screw extruders started with Rowell and
Finlayson (1922). The hypotheses of a single screw extruder have been fundamentally best in
class amid the most recent 40 years. In any case, the endeavor of applying these hypotheses to

Page 15
screw design and simulation of the extrusion procedure has not been totally fruitful
(Rauwendaal, 1989). To begin with, this is on account of the current speculations are not
sufficiently exact with the end goal of screw outline and expulsion recreation. Furthermore, these
hypotheses are frequently twisted to circumstances where their presumptions are not substantial.

Utilizing the simplified flow theory as a case, it is substantial just for screws with an infinite
channel. Despite the fact that this hypothesis depends on incorrect boundary conditions, the
forecasts of the volumetric stream rate will even now be sensibly precise in the event that it is
just connected to screws with a channel profundity to range proportion, H/R, under 0.05 (Li and
Hsieh 1996). Because of its effortlessness, this hypothesis is ordinarily utilized as a part of
extrusion analysis, and is regularly utilized for screws with a limited channel width where its
presumptions are violated strictly (Squires, 1958).

As the design and procedures of extruders continue to change, commercial extruders, particularly
for those that are used in food and feed processing industries, are no longer limited to screws
with a very small channel depth to width ratio which are preferred by the simplified theory. The
flow theory useful for screws with a finite channel width is immediately required. The first such
flow theory was issued by Rowell and Finlayson (1922). Many other methodologies were
endeavored later on, but all proved to be almost equivalent to that by Rowell and Finlayson
(Rauwendaal, 1986).

A detailed analysis of the boundary conditions used by Rowell and Finlayson (1922) tells that
their solution is not a complete one. Two significant moving boundaries, the screw flights, were
assumed to be stationary. Therefore, their explanation does not reflect the outcome of the screw
flights. Also, like the simplified theory, the moving surface which signifies the barrel is
presumed to have the velocity of the screw tip. Plenty of experimental results (Choo et al., 1980;
McCarthy et al., 1992) have revealed that this statement is wrong. The real velocity of this
moving surface is the screw root velocity.

Campbell & Spalding (2013) presented experimental evidence that the standard approach of
Rowell and Finlayson (1922) was effective only for very large values of the screw channel
aspect ratio. Campbell & Spalding (2013) concluded that the screw flights play the most
significant part in defining the screw throughput and recommended that the approximation of
Page 16
Rowell and Finlayson- by then employed in several important studies such as those by Griffith
(1962), Fenner (1977) and Tadmor (1966) - should be left aside for screws with large aspect
ratios, and that an upgraded approach should be used.

The set of boundary conditions, used in models are only valid for model extruders with
stationary screw and rotating barrel, not applicable for real extruders that are always operated
with a rotating screw and stationary barrel. Experimental results obtained using extruders with a
rotating screw have clearly shown the error predicted by this existing solution The set of
boundary conditions, utilized as a part of models are substantial for model extruders with
"stationary" screw and moving barrel, not relevant for genuine extruders that are constantly
worked with a moving screw and stationary barrel. Test results got utilizing extruders with a
moving screw have strictly demonstrated the mistake anticipated by this current arrangement
(Rowell and Finlayson, 1928; Campbell & Spalding, 2013).

The cause of the error was explained by Li & Hsieh (1996) and a new approach for pure drag
flow in extruders with a rotating screw and stationary barrel was provided. Li and Hsieh (1996)
built up a physically reliable model which considered the impact of the movement of the screw
flights on the limit conditions for the down channel speed. This new systematic approach is
observed to be more precise than the existing arrangements utilizing the trial results from
available literature The equations involved in this model are as follows:-

Equations of motion for constant density and constant viscosity in the x, y and z directions
are as follows-

u x u x u x p 2u x 2u x 2u x
ux + uy + uz = + 2 + 2 + 2 ... (2.1)
x y z x x y z

u y u y u y p 2u y 2u y 2u y
ux + uy + uz = + 2 + 2 + 2 ..(2.2)
x y z y
x y z

u z u u p 2u z 2u z 2u z
ux + u y z + uz z =
+ 2 + 2 + 2 ....(2.3)
x y z z x y z

Page 17
The x component of velocity is supposed to be function of only y coordinate, while the z
component is assumed to be function of only x and y coordinates. Assuming y component of
velocity to be zero (for screws with small channel depth to width ratio) and neglecting the
inertial terms gives-

p 2u
+ 2x =0 (2.4)
x y

p
=0 ..(2.5)
y

p 2u z 2u z
+ 2 + 2 = 0 ..(2.6)
z x y

The above equations can also be found in Tadmor and Gogos (1979) and (Power et al. 1988).
Applying the following boundary conditions on x equation of motion:-

ux = 0 at y = 0 ...(2.7)

u x = U x at y = B ...(2.8)

Again, screw geometry is constant in the z direction that u z is not a function of z. Thus,

p p
= ..(2.9)
z z

Here, the net flow of material is in the z direction or we can assume that there is no net flow in x
direction means

u dy = 0
o
x (2.10)

Again, we are assuming that all the output passes through the die. For Newtonian fluids, most
dies behave in such a way that

Page 18
 k
Q= p .(2.11)

Where, k is related to the die geometry and above equation is known as die- characteristic
equation.

Screw is single- flighted which means that one channel is wrapped helically down the extruder
axis means W and D are independent. Thus

W = D sin (2.12)

Using the axial component of velocity i.e. u z , the volumetric flow rate is given by-

BW
Q = u z ( x, y )dxdy ..(2.13)
0 0

This solution is accomplished by considering isothermal conditions which is not genuine. An

extruder works at adiabatic conditions, however the majority of the work on displaying of
extruder is finished by accepting isothermal conditions existing in extruder. Other than the
supposition of extruder to be isothermal, some creators accept the channel depth to be constant.
A few specialists precluded the steady channel depth presumption and they proposed the model
in light of more practical supposition of variable channel depth.

If the channel depth is a function of z;

Bz B0
B ( z=
) B0 + z ...(2.14)
Z

The assumptions of various models are explained in Table 2.3 as shown below-

Page 19
 Table 2-3: Previous models and their assumptions

Newtonian- Newtonian-Isothermal Newtonian Adiabatic

Isothermal constant variable depth constant depth
depth
Assumptions 1. Barrel is 1. Barrel is assumed to be 1. Barrel is assumed to be
assumed to be rotating with respect to rotating with respect to
rotating with respect screw at an angle to the screw at an angle to the
to screw at an angle helical axis. helical axis.
to the helical axis. 2. Helical screw is un- 2. Helical screw is un-
2. Helical screw is winded. winded.
un-winded. 3. U is not a function of Z. 3.U is not a function of Z.
3. U is not a function 4. Aspect Ratio (W/B) is 4. Aspect Ratio (W/B) is
of Z. very large; Hence U is not a very large; Hence U is
4. Aspect Ratio function of X. not a function of X.
(W/B) is very large; 5. Lubrication 5. Lubrication
Hence U is not a approximation. approximation.
function of X. 6. Channel depth is assumed 6. Viscosity decreases
5. Lubrication to decrease linearly over Exponentially with
approximation. length. temperature.
Merits/Deme 1. This model gives 1. This model is found to be 1. This model is found to
rits good fit to low more accurate as compared be more accurate as
processing
to previous constant depth compared to others
temperature.
2. In this model the model. models.
variable depth of 2. Adiabatic conditions were 2. Effect of variable
screw was not
not considered. depth of screw was not
concluded.
3. Adiabatic concluded.
conditions were not 3. Effects of flights were
considered. not concluded.

References (Tadmor 1966) (Cruz & Pinho 2012) (Gocek & Adanur 2012)
(Li & Hsieh 1996) (Vera-Sorroche et al. 2014) (Abeykoon et al. 2013)

Page 20
 (Ghoreishy et al. 2005) (Tadmor 1966)

2.6 Bricks
The issue of reusing waste materials will stay one of the issues which will keep on plaguing the
general public sooner rather than later. With the less accessible space for area filling and because
of regularly expanding value, the center is towards reuse of waste as opposed to its disposal.
India roughly creates 40 million tons of waste of which 12.3% is plastic. Among plastic,
polyethylene shapes the biggest part took after by post ethylene terephthalate (Chowdhury et al.
2013). Rahmani et al. (2013) explored the impacts of waste PET containers on properties of
cement and it was watched that waste plastic can diminish the heaviness of ordinary cement by
2-6%. In any case, compressive quality was decreased by 33% to that of typical cement.
Marzouk et al. (2007) concentrated on the impacts of plastic wastes on the density and
compressive strength of cement. Studies have additionally demonstrated that it is conceivable to
utilize plastic fibers in mortars and concrete as binder therefore substituting cement with
different sorts of glycols and metal acetic acid derivations to be utilized as catalysts. Ibrahim et
al. (2014) utilized waste plastic as partial substitution of sand and it gives great methodology in
diminishing expense. The value of modulus of elasticity diminished with an increase in plastic
content. Furthermore, the water absorption limit of stone (1%) is more prominent than that of
plastic (0%). This element likewise added to the higher quality in the examples.

The expansion in the attention to waste administration and environment related issues has
prompted considerable advancement in the use of waste like plastics (Safiuddin et al. 2010).
Post-consumer plastic totals can be effectively and adequately used to displace traditional
aggregates. Concrete containing plastic wastes showed more ductile behavior than cement made
with conventional aggregates (Taaffe et al. 2014).

Bricks are generally utilized development and building material around the globe. Conventional
bricks are manufactured from clay with high temperature kiln firing or from conventional
Portland bond cement, and in this manner contain high epitomized energy and have huge carbon
content. Clay bricks, overall, have an exemplified energy of roughly 2.0 kWh of vitality and
discharges around 0.41 kg of CO 2 for every brick. Manufacturing of 1 kg of ordinary Portland
cement consumes roughly 1.5 kWh of energy and discharges around 1 kg of CO 2 to the climate

Page 21
(Shakir et al. 2013). In numerous areas of the world, there is a deficiency of conventional
construction material for generation of the routine bricks. For ecological generation and
reasonable advancement, broad examination has been led on manufacturing of bricks from waste
materials (Zhang 2013). The diverse techniques contemplated for bricks from waste materials
can be separated into three general classes: firing, cementing and Geopolymerization (Siddique
et al. 2008). The firing and cementing techniques for delivering blocks from waste materials still
have the downsides of high energy utilization and extensive carbon waste as the conventional
methods. The technique for manufacturing bricks from waste materials through
Geopolymerization is by all accounts the pattern to follow regarding energy and natural
concerns.

An endeavor has been made by Mallikarjun et al.(2014) to produce the blocks by utilizing waste
plastics as a part of range of 60 to 80% by weight of laterite quarry waste and 60/70 grade
bitumen was included range of 2 to 5% by weight of soil in molten form and this bitumen-plastic
resin was blended with laterite quarry waste to fabricate the bricks. The bricks made have the
properties, for example, neat and uniform finishing , with insignificant water absorption and
acceptable compressive strength in analysis with laterite stone to fulfill the expanding interest of
traditional building materials (Bricks 2014). The proficient utilization of waste plastic in plastic
soil bricks has brought about compelling use of plastic waste and in this way can take care of the
issue of safe removal of plastics.

In other work, Shiri et al. (2015) used waste plastics to convert them into building materials with
the help of an extruder. After conducting several trials with the variety of plastic wastes
processed into composite brick, it was observed that the maximum compressive load sustained
by the PP/rubber composite brick is 17.05 tons followed by LDPE/rubber composite brick with
16.55 tons which is much higher than the clay brick which sustained only 9.03 tons (Shiri et al.
2015).

With a specific end goal to diminish the weight of bricks, light Weight plastic material has been
utilized as filler as a part of the concrete composition used to shape the bricks. The development
identifies with a brick involving a thermoplastic material, for example, high density polyethylene
(HDPE), and a cement containing material and, all the more especially, to a technique for setting

Page 22
up a remarkable type of brick including a thermoplastic material and a concrete containing
material (Lengsfeld & Shoureshi 2008). The development identifies with a plastic-containing
brick and a technique for its production. As noted out of sight area above, postconsumer plastics,
not constrained to HDPE, have been mixed with cement and Water and used to make shaped
articles. No melt or hot press is utilized. The hot press strategy for making bricks makes
utilization of a bigger rate of light Weight plastic material to be blended with a cement
containing material. Conventional bricks without plastic material and manufactured from a
concrete containing material have a tendency to be heavy. The plastic-containing bricks of the
present invention have light Weight. These plastic-containing blocks are less dense than blocks
made of 100% cement. The plastic-containing blocks of the present innovation are intense. These
plastic-containing blocks, particularly those made with HDPE, might be less brittle than blocks
made of 100% cement. These plastic containing blocks have a tendency to have less thermal
conductivity than bricks made of 100% cement (Lengsfeld & Shoureshi 2008). Past works
identified with utilization of plastic in construction materials is shown in Table 2.4 below-

Table 2-4: Extensive Literature review of bricks

S.N Research area Materials used Reference

o.
1. Micro-structure of extruded cement PET fiber, alkali resistant (Shao et al. 2001)
bonded fiberboard & comparison of its glass fiber, poly olefin fiber,
properties with casting fiberboard. poly vinyl alcohol fiber.
2. Use of recycled plastic in construction PET, PP (Siddique et al.
materials. 2008)
3. Utilization of marble & granite waste Marble & granite powders of (Hamza et al. 2011)
in concrete bricks. different sizes.
4. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Virgin & recycled PET (Chowdhury et al.
waste as building solution. 2013)
5. Physical & mechanical properties of PET waste, river sand & (Ge et al. 2015)
mortar using PET bottles. limestone powder.
6. Composite mixtures suitable for - (Zare 2015)

Page 23
 manufacturing bricks.
7. Building bricks including plastic. HDPE, cement, sand, gravel. (Sadek 2012)
8. Utilization of waste plastic in PET, laterite stone waste, (Bricks 2014)
manufacturing of plastic- soil bricks. bitumen.
9. Processing of waste plastics into LDPE, PP, CaCO 3 , rubber (Shiri et al. 2015)
building materials using plastic powder.
extruder and compression testing of
plastic bricks.

Page 24
 CHAPTER3

3 Mathematical Modeling
Models describe our beliefs about how the world functions. In mathematical modeling, those
beliefs are translated into the language of mathematics. Mathematical modeling is a fundamental
and quantitative way to understand complex systems or phenomena is complementary to the
traditional approaches of theory and experiment and deepens our knowledge about the world.
Modeling is concerned with powerful methods of analysis designed to exploit high performance
computing. The main purpose of the proposed model is to determine the effect of various
operating and geometrical parameter on extrudate flow rate.

3.1 Assumptions
Following are the assumptions of our proposed model:

1) Fluid is Non Newtonian.

2) Variable channel depth.
3) Barrel is assumed to be stationary and screw to be rotating.
4) Adiabatic and steady state conditions exist in extruder.
5) Inertial terms are unimportant.
6) Helical screw is un-winded.
7) Lubrication approximation is taken in account.
8) Viscosity decreases exponentially with temperature.
9) The solid plug closely contacts with the six surfaces: the screw channel bottom, the active
and trailing flight of the screw, the barrel channel bottom, and the active and trailing
flight of barrel channel.
10) In the barrel channel, in each screw pitch distance, the pressure gradient is ignored.
11) Screw curvature is small and the curved surfaces of screw are assumed to be flat surfaces.

Page 25
3.2 Mathematical modeling equations
On the basis of assumptions, the equation of motion in x, y and z directions are as follows:

u x u u p yx zx
ux + u y x + uz x = xx + +
x y z x x y z
(3.1)

u y u y u y p xy yy zy
ux + uy + uz = + +
x y z y x y z
....(3.2)

u z u u p yz zz
ux + u y z + uz z = xz + +
x y z z x y z
....(3.3)

Where,

u
xx = 2 x
x ..(3.4)

u y
yy = 2
y ..(3.5)

u
zz = 2 z
z ..(3.6)

u u
xy =
yx =
x +
y

y x
.(3.7)

u u
xz =
zx =
x + z
z x .(3.8)

u u
yz =
zy =

y
+ z
z y
..(3.9)

Which gives,

Page 26
 u x u u p 2u 2u 2u
ux + 2x + 2x + 2x
+ u y x + uz x = ..(3.10)
x y z x x y z

u y u y u y p 2u y 2u y 2u y
ux + uy + uz = + 2 + 2 + 2 ..(3.11)
x y z y
x y z

u z u u p 2u 2u 2u
ux + 2z + 2z + 2z ..(3.12)
+ u y z + uz z =
x y z z x y z

The x component of velocity is assumed to be function of only y coordinate, while the z

component is assumed to be function of only x and y coordinates. Assuming y component of
velocity to be zero (for screws with small channel depth to width ratio) and neglecting the
inertial terms gives-

p 2u
+ 2x =0
x y (3.13)

p
=0
y ....(3.14)

p 2u z 2u z
+ 2 + 2 = 0 .(3.15)
z x y

The fluid is non-Newtonian and it is assumed to follow power law model-

= K n 1 ......(3.16)

Where,

K= flow consistency index,

= shear rate,

n = flow behavior index

Page 27
 Since the system is assumed to be adiabatic, assuming power law model, K is given by the
following relation as function of temperature-

K = K 0 e bT .(3.17)

Again, screw geometry is uniform in the z direction that u z is not a function of z. Thus,

p p
= .(3.18)
z z

The set of boundary conditions which take into account the motion of screw flights are:

Barrel: u z ( x, H ) = 0

Screw root: u z ( x, 0 ) = Rs cos

Screw flights: u z ( 0, =
y) ( Rs + y ) cos

u z ( W, =
y) ( Rs + y ) cos

For an input of energy dw , applying the energy balance in the extruder, we get,

dw dT
= =C pQ EN 2
dz dz ....(3.19)

Where,

3 D 3 sin
=E
B
(
1 + 3sin 2 )

Introducing a variable ( t ) as

( t ) =ebT
...(3.20)

The flow rate can be obtained by the general equation of continuity

Page 28
 BW
Q = u z ( x, y )dxdy ..(3.21)
0 0

Above equations include several extruder machine parameters which need to be known. The
parameters of lab scale extruder used for this study are as shown in Table 3.1-

Table 3-1: Various parameters of extruder and their values

S.No. Parameter values

1. Screw root diameter 22 mm
2. Barrel outside diameter 35 mm
3. Screw outside diameter 34.6 mm
4. Screw length 700 mm
5. Helix angle 20
6. L/D ratio 20
7. Die outside diameter 9 mm
8. Die inner diameter 7 mm
9. Die length 2 cm

Page 29
 CHAPTER4

4 Experimental materials and methods

This chapter contains the detailed information about the materials used and the method adopted
for the manufacturing of polymer bricks. It also explains the procedure followed for the testing
of fabricated samples.

4.1 Materials
Various materials used for this work can be explained under the following categories-

4.1.1 Polymers
High density polyethylene and polypropylene are the main polymers used in the process. They
are used in the virgin form.

High density polyethylene (HDPE)

A linear polymer, High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) as shown in Figure 4.1, is purchased from
the local market. HDPE is being processed in the temperature range of 150 to 200C. Main
characteristics of the HDPE are explained in the Table 4.1 as shown below-

(a) (b)

Figure 4.1: (a) High density polyethylene and (b) Polypropylene

Page 30
 Table 4-1: Properties of High density polyethylene

S.No. Properties Virgin HDPE Recycled HDPE

1. Density 952 kg/m3 925-960 kg/m3
2. Grade Sheet grade (003DB52) Mixed grade
3. MFI 0.01 g/10 min at 190C 0.0572 g/10 min
4. Processing temperature 150-200C 150-200C

Polypropylene (PP)
Polypropylene of grade 1030RG is used for this process supplied by Gail India Ltd. Its properties
are shown in the Table 4.2 below-

Table 4-2: Properties of Polypropylene

S.No. Properties Virgin PP

1. Density 960 kg/m3
2. Grade Sheet grade (1030RG)
3. MFI 3 g/10 min
4. Processing temperature 130-170C

4.1.2 Fillers
Here, marble slurry and carbon powder are used as fillers. Marble slurry of 100 and 200 mesh
size is purchased from the local industrial market. Carbon powder with different properties is
also used for better mechanical properties.

Page 31
 (a) (b)

Figure 4.2: (a) Marble powder and (b) Carbon powder

4.1.3 Additives
There are various additives like binders, lubricants and plasticizers are used to modify the
mechanical properties of bricks. Here, Portland cement and hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose are
mainly used as binder whereas glycols and stearic acid as plasticizers and lubricants respectively.
Typical constituents of Portland cement are shown in Table 4.3.

Table 4-3: Constituents of Portland cement

Cement Formula Mass %

Calcium oxide CaO 61-67%
Silicon dioxide SiO 2 19-23%
Aluminum oxide Al 2 O 3 2.5-6%
Ferric oxide Fe 2 O 3 0-6%
Sulfate 1.5-4.5%

Page 32
Various additives and their functions are shown in Table 4.4 below-

Table 4-4: Additives and their functions

S.No. Material Purpose

1. Portland cement Binder
2. HPMC Binder
3. Ethylene glycol plasticizer
4. Stearic acid Lubricant

4.2 Experimental setup

The lab scale extrusion machine used for experimentation is shown in Figure 4.3 along with
machine specification in Table 4.5. The procedure adopted for running the setup is as follows:

Figure 4.3: Experimental setup of lab extruder

Page 33
 Table 4-5: Various Extruder parameters and their values

S.No. Parameter Values

1. D C Motor 1440 RPM (2hp)
2. Thermocouple 3
3. Screw root diameter 22 mm
4. Screw external diameter 35 mm
5. Screw length 700 mm
6. Number of flights 18
7. Helix angle 20
8. Length of feed zone 315 mm
9. Length of compression zone 210 mm

4.3 Experimental procedure

1) Premixing- Firstly the required proportion of different polymers, fillers and additives have
been mixed.

2) Heating- Then temperature of the heaters has been set in the increasing range of 160-240C
and waits for half an hour till the set temperature has attained by the heaters.

3) Feeding- When the set temperature was attained, the material has been fed to the hopper of
the extruder.

4) Melting- After the feeding, melting of the material takes place in three zones of the extruder
and continuous extrudate has been obtained at the end of the die.

5) Molding- Continuous extrudate has been taken into the mold to give shape to the brick
samples. Mold used in this process is shown in Figure 4.4 below.

6) Cooling- Water cooling has been used for the fabricated samples.

7) Demolding- After the cooling, samples have been removed from the mold which is called
demolding process.

Page 34
 Figure 4.4: Brick mold

Various samples prepared with their code and composition (in Percentage) are explained in the
Table 4.6 below-

Table 4-6: Prepared samples and their composition

S.No. Sample code Polymer Filler type Polymer Filler Additives

type content content content
1. P60/F30/A10 HDPE/PP Marble slurry 60 30 10
2. P65/F25/A10 HDPE/PP Marble slurry 65 25 10
3. P70/F20/A10 HDPE/PP Marble slurry 70 20 10
4. P75/F15/A10 HDPE/PP Marble slurry 75 15 10
5. P60/F30/A10 HDPE/PP Marble slurry & 60 30 10
carbon powder
6. P65/F25/A10 HDPE/PP Marble slurry & 65 25 10
carbon powder
7. P70/F20/A10 HDPE/PP Marble slurry & 70 20 10
carbon powder
8. P75/F15/A10 HDPE/PP Marble slurry & 75 15 10
carbon powder

Page 35
Samples used for the testing of compressive strength, tensile strength and water absorption are
shown in Figure 4.5, Figure 4.6 and in Figure 4.7 below-

Figure 4.5: Compressive strength samples

Figure 4.6: Tensile strength samples

Page 36
 Figure 4.7: Water Absorption Sample

4.4 Testing of the samples

To test the properties of the fabricated samples, various tests were done at CIPET Jaipur. Tests
performed are explained below-

4.4.1 Tensile strength test

Test for tensile strength was conducted as per ASTM D638 at CIPET Jaipur. Machine used for
the tensile testing is shown below in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8: Universal Testing Machine (ASTM D 638)

Page 37
4.4.2 Compressive strength test
Fabricated brick samples were tested for the compressive strength at various operating
conditions. These samples were compared to the compressive strength of concrete bricks.

4.4.3 Water absorption test

Water absorption test is performed to check the amount of water absorbed by the samples.
Samples were immersed into the water for 24 hours at 241C and increase in weight is checked
at 2 and 24 hours respectively.

4.4.4 X-Ray Diffraction

It basically defines the structural properties of the sample like crystalline and amorphous
behavior as per their Inter atomic distance, that depends on atomic packing. Strong atomic
packing shows the higher degree of crystallinity. Machine used for XRD is shown in Figure 4.9
below-

Figure 4.9: X-Ray Diffract meter

Page 38
 CHAPTER5

5 Result and discussions

A detailed description of results obtained out of experimental investigation and its comparison
with previous models and subsequent discussion of these parameters on mechanical properties.
Further effect of polymer composition on brick properties is also discussed in this chapter.

5.1 Effect of operating parameters

To study the effect of various operating parameters like temperature and screw speed,
experiments have been carried out at different RPM and temperature ranges between 160 to
240C. The proposed model and available model were validated with experimental data.

5.1.1 Effect of screw rotational speed on extrudate mass flow rate

The mass flow rate of the HDPE extrudate is found to increase with increase in screw rotational
speed from 8 to 14 RPM as shown in Figure 5.1. The same trend is also observed by many
authors (Li & Hsieh 1996; Power et al. 1988). Being the R2 value same for previous models and
proposed model, but the proposed model is more superior as compared to other three since the
MAPE value of proposed model is 18.53 which are far less than other as shown in Table 5.1 (Al-
Shammari et al. 2011). This superiority of proposed model is due to the reason that in the
proposed model Non-Newtonian Adiabatic conditions with variable channel depth were assumed
while other model had neglected these considerations (Cruz & Pinho 2012).

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 130
Experimental data
120 Non-Newtonian Isothermal
Constant depth
mass flow rate (gm/min)
110 Non-Newtonian Isothermal
Variable depth
100 Non-Newtonian Adiabatic
Constant depth
90 proposed model

80

70

60

50

40
7 9 11 13 15
Screw speed (rpm)

Figure 5.1: effect of screw speed on extrudate mass flow rate

Table 5-1: Comparison of predicted mass flow rate with experimental flow rate

Screw Experimental Predicted mass flow rate (gm/min)

rotational mass flow rate
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
speed (RPM) (gm/min)
8 40.21 70 52.56 64.23 48.18

10 50.25 87.6 65.7 80.29 60.22

12 61.3 105.12 78.84 96.35 72.26

15 72.3 122.64 91.98 112.41 84.31

R2 0.999452 0.999503 0.999503 0.999508

MAPE 72.3814 29.3233 58.0431 18.5381

Model 1- by Al-Zahrani (1990)

Model 2- by AL-Fariss and Al-Zahrani (1993)

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Model 3- by Diego et al. (2006)

Model 4- Proposed model

5.1.2 Effect of temperature on extrudate mass flow rate at constant screw speed
Various studies have been done to understand the effect of temperature on extrudate mass flow
rate. It was found that on increasing temperature, mass flow rate increases as shown in Figure
5.2. This may be due to the fact that an increase in temperature results a decrease in viscosity
(Al-Shammari et al. 2011) which in turn increases flow rate.

60
8 RPM
Mass Flow Rate (gm/min)

50 10 RPM
12 RPM
40

30

20

10

0
175 180 185 190 195 200 205
Temperature (C)

Figure 5.2: Effect of temperature on mass flow rate

5.1.3 Effect of screw speed on tensile strength

Effect of screw speed on the tensile strength of various HDPE samples is shown in Figure 5.3
below. It can be conclude from the figure that on increasing screw speed, tensile strength of
samples increases. This type of trend is also observed by various authors before (Gocek &
Adanur 2012; Das 2008) . This is due to the fact that an increase in screw speed increases the
shear rate, which increases the shear stress. This increased shear stress results in better molecular
orientation in samples which in turn increases tensile strength.

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 25

24.5

Tensile Strength (MPa)

Tensile

24

23.5

23

22.5

22
5 7 9 11 13
Screw speed (RPM)

Figure 5.3: Effect of screw speed on tensile strength

5.1.4 Effect of temperature on tensile strength at constant screw speed

Tensile strength of various HDPE samples decreases with an increase in temperature as shown in
Figure 5.4 below. This type of trend is also observed by (Salleh et al. 2014; Hashemi 2010).

25
8 RPM
24
10 RPM
Tensile Strength (MPa)

23 12 RPM
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
175 180 185 190 195 200 205
Temperature (C)

Figure 5.4: Effect of temperature on Tensile strength

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5.1.5 Effect of screw rotational speed on compressive strength
Compressive strength of bricks increases with increase in screw rotational speed as shown in
Figure 5.5. The reason for this increment of strength with speed is due to the homogeneity of
mixture because an increase in speed reduces the viscosity and results in better mixing and
melting of the mixture which in turn increases the compressive strength of the samples.

35
A (60 %)
30 B (65%)
Compressive strength (MPa)

C (70%)
25 D (75%)

20

15

10

0
5 7 9 11 13
Screw speed (RPM)

Figure 5.5: Effect of screw speed on compressive strength of bricks

5.2 Effect of polymer composition on the compressive strength of bricks

5.2.1 Marble slurry bricks

The effect of plastic composition on the compressive strength of bricks has been studied.
The study shows that the compressive strength of marble slurry bricks is found to
decrease up to a certain limit and then increases with increase in the polymer
concentration as shown in Figure 5.6. It can be concluded that contribution of marble
slurry alone as filler is not contributing effectively. This may be because of
nonhomogeneous mixing between polymer and marble slurry. Thus a binder can be used
for better mixing and compressive strength.

Page 43
 35
10 RPM

30 12 RPM

Compressive strength (MPa)

25

20

15

10

0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
polymer composition (%)

Figure 5.6: Effect of polymer composition on marble slurry bricks

5.2.2 Carbon and marble slurry as a filler

The effect of carbon as filler with marble slurry has been studied for varying percentage of
polymer as shown in Figure 5.7. Figure shows that compressive strength increases with an
increase in the percentage of polymer up to a maximum and then decreases with further increase
in polymer percentage. Maximum strength is obtained at polymer composition of 65% at 10
RPM and 12 RPM respectively. This type of trend has also been observed by many authors
(Bricks 2014) in past. Carbon acts as a binder and gives homogeneous mixing between marble
slurry and polymer which results in an increase in compressive strength.

Page 44
 35
10 RPM

compressive strength (MPa)

30 12 RPM

25

20

15

10
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
polymer composition (%)

Figure 5.7: Effect of Polymer composition on carbon powder & marble slurry bricks

5.3 Water absorption test

Water absorption test for various brick samples is conducted on the basis of weight analysis.
Results obtained at the intervals of 2 hours and 24 hours are shown in Table 5.2 and compared
with concrete bricks as shown in Figure 5.8 -

Table 5-2: Water absorption percentage of brick samples

S.No. Sample Sample code Water absorption (%)

2 hours 24 hours
1. Marble slurry bricks MS 0.1594 0.5749
2. Carbon Marble CMS 0.4861 1.5025
powder bricks
3. Concrete bricks Concrete 10.4012 12.5816

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 14

12

Water Absorption (%)

10

6 2 hours
24 hours
4

0
MS CMS Concrete
Brick Samples

Figure 5.8: Water absorption percentage of brick samples

So in the end, comparison of properties of plastic bricks and conventional concrete bricks is
shown in Table 5.3 below-

Table 5.3: properties of plastic bricks and concrete bricks.

S.No. Type of brick Compressive strength Water absorption

(MPa) (%)
1. Plastic Marble powder 15-30 0.05-2
bricks
2. Plastic Carbon-marble 20-35 0.15-3
powder bricks
3. Concrete bricks 2-20 10-26

5.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

X-Ray Diffraction test is carried out to get the structural information about the brick samples.
This test basically tells us about the crystalline and amorphous nature of materials. The XRD
patterns of various samples are shown in Figure 5.9, 5.10 and 5.11 below. High peaks in the
pattern show high crystalline nature of the samples. For polymers, there is an increase in physical

Page 46
and mechanical properties with increase in crystallinity. So we can conclude that high peaks in
XRD pattern means better mechanical properties of samples.

Figure 5.9: XRD pattern of marble powder bricks

Page 47
Figure 5.10: XRD pattern of carbon- marble powder bricks

Figure 5.11: XRD pattern of concrete bricks

Page 48
 CHAPTER6

6 Conclusion
On the basis of the work done, we can finally draw the following conclusions-

1. Operating parameters affects the mechanical properties. For example, flow rate, tensile
strength and compressive strength increases with an increase in the screw rotational speed
at constant temperature.
2. Similarly, temperature affects the extrudate flow rate in proportional manner i.e. higher
temperature signifies higher flow rate.
3. Proposed model gives accurate results as compared to the previous models given by
various researches.
4. Plastic bricks give better strength and water absorption properties as compared to
conventional concrete bricks.

Page 49
 CHAPTER7

7 Future recommendation
1. Plastic can be used for the manufacturing of conventional concrete bricks.
2. Effect of binders and other additives can be studied to get the enhanced mechanical
properties like compressive strength and elastic modulus.
3. Factors like variable channel depth, adiabatic conditions should be given importance to
get the more accurate results as compared to previous models.
4. Effect of flights should be considered while developing the equations of models for
accurate results.

Page 50
 CHAPTER8

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 CHAPTER9

9 Publications
Ekta Chaturvedi, Shushant Upadhyaya, Pankaj K. Pandey, Nitesh Rajput, Experimental study
and mathematical modeling for extrusion using high density polyethylene, Materials Today:
Proceedings, 2016.

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