BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Biodiversity: Concept

Human society depends on biological resources, their

diversity and the ecosystems that sustain them to provide
essential goods and services.
Concept of Biodiversity:
It has been estimated that more than 50 million species of
plants, animals and micro-organisms are existing in the
world. Out of these, about 1.4 million species have been
identified so far.

DEFINITION:

Biodiversity or biological diversity," generally refers to the

variety and variability of life on earth. One of the most
widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability
within species, between species and between
ecosystems.
Biodiversity refers to the variabilitys among species of
plants, animals and microorganisms; ecosystems;
ecosystem including terrestrial, aerial, marine and other
aquatic system and ecological complexes of which they
are part. In simpler terms, biodiversity is the assemblage
of different life forms.

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Though the study of environment and ecology is quite old,
the term biodiversity has been introduced by Walter
Rosen in 1986. Thus, biodiversity is sum of all the genes,
varieties, species, populations in different ecosystems and
their relative abundance.

Types of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is of three types:
1. Genetic diversity

2. Species diversity

3. Ecological diversity

1. Genetic Diversity:
Each individual has specific characters, which is due to
the genetic makeup or code. The term gene pool has
been used to indicate the genetic diversity in the different
species. This also includes the diversity in the wild
species, which through intermixing in nature over millions
of years have given rise to newer varieties. In the recent
decades, a new science named biotechnology has
emerged which studies the genes of species.

2. Species Diversity:

Species diversity refers to biodiversity at the most basic

level and is the variety and abundance of different types
of individuals of a species in a given area. It includes all
the species on Earth, ranging from plants such as

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bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, etc. Certain regions support
a more diverse populations than others. The regions that
are rich in species diversity are called hotspots of
biodiversity.

3. Ecological/Ecosystem Diversity:
Ecological diversity refers to the variability among the
species of plants and animals living together and
connected by flow of energy and cycling of nutrients in
different ecosystems or ecological complexes. The
richness of the biosphere in terms of varied life forms is
due to the variations in the ecosystems. The earth has a
number of ecosystems like grasslands, forests, semi arid
deserts, marine, freshwater, wetland, swamp, marshlands
etc. each one having its distinct floral, faunal and microbial
assemblages.

Measuring Biodiversity:
There are various mathematical ways of measuring
biodiversity, which calculate the number of species
diversity in different regions. The measure of diversity of
species is also known as species richness.

These are as follows:

Alpha diversity:
This is the diversity in species, i.e. the number of species
within a community. This depends on the interaction

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between the biotic and abiotic factors and also takes into
account immigration from other locations.

Beta diversity:
The term beta diversity was introduced by R.H. Whittaker
in 1960. He defined it as the extent of change in
community composition, or degree of community
differentiation, in relation to a complex-gradient of
environment, or a pattern of environments.
Gamma diversity:
This refers to the overall diversity and is applied to larger
areas in which both alpha and beta diversity are
measured.

BIODIVERSITY LOSS- CAUSES

Biodiversity change is caused by a range of drivers. A driver is
any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly
causes a change in an ecosystem.
A direct driver is a driver that unequivocally influences
ecosystem processes and can therefore be identified and
measured to differing degrees of accuracy. [Important direct
drivers include habitat change, climate change,invasive alien
species, overexploitation, and pollution.]
An indirect driver is a driver that operates by altering the level
or rate of change of one or more direct drivers. [Important
indirect drivers include changes in population, economic
activity, and technology, as well as socio-political and cultural

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factors.]
A direct driver unequivocally influences ecosystem processes.
An indirect driver operates more diffusely, by altering one or
more direct drivers. Important direct drivers affecting
biodiversity are habitat change, climate change, invasive
species, overexploitation, and pollution. There are multiple
drivers of biodiversity loss.

Habitat loss and degradation

Habitat loss and degradation create the biggest single source of

pressure on biodiversity worldwide. For terrestrial ecosystems,
habitat loss is largely accounted for by conversion of wild lands
to agriculture, which now accounts for some 30% of land
globally. In some areas, it has recently been partly driven by the
demand for biofuels.

The IUCN Red List assessments show habitat loss driven by

agriculture and unsustainable forest management to be the
greatest cause of species moving closer towards extinction. For
example, in one recent study the conversion of forest to oil
palm plantations was shown to lead to the loss of 73- 83% of
the bird and butterfly species of the ecosystem.

Infrastructure developments, such as housing, industrial

developments, mines and transport networks, are also an
important contributor to conversion of terrestrial habitats, as is
afforestation of non-forested lands. With more than half of the

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world's population now living in urban areas, urban sprawl has
also led to the disappearance of many habitats, although the
higher population density of cities can also reduce the negative
impacts on biodiversity by requiring the direct conversion of
less land for human habitation than more dispersed
settlements.

Climate Change

Climate change is already having an impact on biodiversity, and

is projected to become a progressively more significant threat in
the coming decades. Loss of Arctic sea ice threatens
biodiversity across an entire biome and beyond. The related
pressure of ocean acidification, resulting from higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, is also
already being observed.

Ecosystems are already showing negative impacts under

current levels of climate change (an increase of 0.74C in
global mean surface temperature relative to pre-industrial
levels), which is modest compared to future projected changes
(2.4-6.4 C by 2100 without aggressive mitigation actions). In
addition to warming temperatures, more frequent extreme
weather events and changing patterns of rainfall and drought
can be expected to have significant impacts on biodiversity.

Impacts of climate change on biodiversity vary widely in

different regions of the world. For example, the highest rates of
warming have been observed in high latitudes, around the

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Antarctic peninsula and in the Arctic, and this trend is projected
to continue.

Already, changes to the timing of flowering and migration

patterns as well as to the distribution of species have been
observed worldwide. In Europe, over the last forty years, the
beginning of the growing season has advanced by 10 days on
average. These types of changes can alter food chains and
create mismatches within ecosystems where different species
have evolved synchronized inter-dependence, for example
between nesting and food availability, pollinators and
fertilization.

Climate change is also projected to shift the ranges of disease-

carrying organisms, bringing them into contact with potential
hosts that have not developed immunity. Freshwater habitats
and wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, Arctic and alpine
ecosystems, dry and subhumid lands and cloud forests are
particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

Some species will benefit from climate change. However, an

assessment looking at European birds found that of 122
widespread species assessed, about three times as many were
losing population as a result of climate change as those that
were gaining numbers.

The specific impacts of climate change on biodiversity will

largely depend on the ability of species to migrate and cope
with more extreme climatic conditions.

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Over the past 200 years, the oceans have absorbed
approximately a quarter of the carbon dioxide produced from
human activities, which would otherwise have accumulated in
the atmosphere. This has caused the oceans (which on
average are slightly alkaline) to become more acidic, lowering
the average pH value of surface seawater by 0.1 units.
Because pH values are on a logarithmic scale, this means that
water is 30 per cent more acidic.

Pollution and nutrient load

Pollution from nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) and other

sources is a continuing and growing threat to biodiversity in
terrestrial, inland water and coastal ecosystems.

Modern industrial processes such as the burning of fossil fuels

and agricultural practices, in particular the use of fertilizers,
have more than doubled the quantity of reactive nitrogen -
nitrogen in the form that is available to stimulate plant growth -
in the environment compared with pre-industrial times. Put
another way, humans now add more reactive nitrogen to the
environment than all natural processes, such as nitrogen-fixing
plants, fires and lightning.

In terrestrial ecosystems, the largest impact is in nutrient-poor

environments, where some plants that benefit from the added
nutrients out-compete many other species and cause significant
changes in plant composition. Typically, plants such as grasses

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and sedges will benefit at the expense of species such as dwarf
shrubs, mosses and lichens.

Nitrogen deposition is already observed to be the major driver

of species change in a range of temperate ecosystems,
especially grasslands across Europe and North America, and
high levels of nitrogen have also been recorded in southern
China and parts of South and Southeast Asia. Biodiversity loss
from this source may be more serious than first thought in other
ecosystems including high-latitude boreal forests,
Mediterranean systems, some tropical savannas and montane
forests. Nitrogen has also been observed to be building up at
significant levels in biodiversity hotspots, with potentially
serious future impacts on a wide variety of plant species.

Large parts of Latin America and Africa, as well as Asia, are

projected to experience elevated levels of nitrogen deposition in
the next two decades. Although the impacts have mainly been
studied in plants, nitrogen deposition may also affect animal
biodiversity by changing the composition of available food. The
number of reported dead zones has been roughly doubling
every ten years since the 1960s, and by 2007 had reached
around 500.

While the increase in nutrient load is among the most significant

changes humans are making to ecosystems, policies in some
regions are showing that this pressure can be controlled and, in
time, reversed. Among the most comprehensive measures to

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combat nutrient pollution is the European Union's Nitrates
Directive .

Overexploitation and unsustainable use

Overexploitation and destructive harvesting practices are at the

heart of the threats being imposed on the world's biodiversity
and ecosystems, and there has not been significant reduction in
this pressure. Changes to fisheries management in some areas
are leading to more sustainable practices, but most stocks still
require reduced pressure in order to rebuild. Bushmeat hunting,
which provides a significant proportion of protein for many rural
households, appears to be taking place at unsustainable levels.

Overexploitation is the major pressure being exerted on marine

ecosystems, with marine capture fisheries having quadrupled in
size from the early 1950s to the mid 1990s. Total catches have
fallen since then despite increased fishing effort, an indication
that many stocks have been pushed beyond their capacity to
replenish.

Invasive alien species

Invasive alien species continue to be a major threat to all types

of ecosystems and species. There are no signs of a significant
reduction of this pressure on biodiversity, and some indications
that it is increasing. Intervention to control alien invasive
species has been successful in particular cases, but it is
outweighed by the threat to biodiversity from new invasions.

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In a sample of 57 countries, more than 542 alien species,
including vascular plants, marine and freshwater fish,
mammals, birds and amphibians, with a demonstrated impact
on biodiversity have been found, with an average of over 50
such species per country (and a range from nine to over 220).
This is most certainly an underestimate, as it excludes many
alien species whose impact has not yet been examined, and
includes countries known to lack data on alien species.

Overall, birds, mammals and amphibian species have on

average become more threatened due to invasive alien
species. While other groups have not been fully assessed, it is
known that invasive species are the second leading cause for
extinction for freshwater mussels and more generally among
endemic species.

Combined pressures and underlying causes of biodiversity

loss

The direct drivers of biodiversity loss act together to create

multiple pressures on biodiversity and ecosystems. Efforts to
reduce direct pressures are challenged by the deep-rooted
underlying causes or indirect drivers that determine the demand
for natural resources and are much more difficult to control. The
ecological footprint of humanity exceeds the biological capacity
of the Earth by a wider margin than at the time the 2010 target
was agreed.

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TRENDS IN BIODIVERSITY LOSS:

Contemporary examples of indices now in used in analyzing

biodiversity loss include the Living Planet Index (LPI), the IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species, and indicators that show us
the state of specific habitats such as forests or the state of
natural capital.

Virtually all of Earths ecosystems have now been dramatically

transformed through human actions. More land was converted
to cropland in the 30 years after 1950 than in the 150 years
between 1700 and 1850 . Between 1960 and 2000, reservoir
storage capacity quadrupled and, as a result, the amount of
water stored behind large dams is estimated to be three to six
times the amount held by rivers . Some 35%
of mangroves have been lost in the last two decades in
countries where adequate data are available (encompassing
about half of the total mangrove area). Roughly 20% of the
worlds coral reefs have been destroyed and an additional 20%
have been degraded. Although the most rapid changes in
ecosystems are now taking place in developing countries,
industrial countries historically experienced comparable
changes.

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The biomes with the highest rates of conversion in the last half
of the 20th century were temperate, tropical, and flooded
grasslands and tropical dry forests (more than 14% lost
between 1950 and 1990). Areas of particularly rapid change in
terrestrial ecosystems over the past two decades include the
Amazon basin and Southeast Asia (deforestation and
expansion of croplands); Asia (land degradation in drylands);
and Bangladesh, Indus Valley, parts of Middle East and Central
Asia, and the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa.

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o Across the range of biodiversity measures, current rates of
loss exceed those of the historical past by several orders of
magnitude and show no indication of slowing. Trends in some
3,000 wild populations of species show a consistent decline in
average species abundance of about 40% between 1970 and
2000; inland water species declined by 50%, while marine
and terrestrial species both declined by around 30%.

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o

o Biodiversity is declining rapidly due to land use

change, climate change, invasive species, overexploitation,
and pollution. These result from demographic, economic,
sociopolitical, cultural, technological, and other indirect
drivers.
o While these drivers vary in their importance
among ecosystems and regions, current trends indicate a
continuing loss of biodiversity.

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CONSEQUENCES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

The loss of biodiversity has many consequences that we

understand, and many that we do not. The particular species
making up an ecosystem determine its productivity, they affect
nutrient cycles and soil contents, and they influence
environmental conditions such as water cycles, weather
patterns, climate and other no-biotic aspects.

Problems in adaptation: Fragmentation of habitats

reduces the capacity of species to adapt to climate
change, by limiting the possibilities of migration to areas
with more suitable conditions.
Weakening of ecosystems: Pollution, overfishing, climate
change and ocean acidification all combine to weaken the
resilience of coral reefs and increase the tendency for
them to shift to algae-dominated states with massive loss
of biodiversity. Increased levels of nutrients combined with
the presence of invasive alien species can promote the
growth of hardy plants at the expense of native species.
Climate change can further exacerbate the problem by
making more habitats suitable for invasive species. Sea
level rise caused by climate change combines with
physical alteration of coastal habitats, accelerating change
to coastal biodiversity and associated loss of ecosystem
services.
Ecosystem functioning and human well being:

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 Ecosystems, whose functioning depends on biodiversity,
provide the basic necessities of life (e.g., food, clean
water and air), offer protection from natural disasters and
disease (e.g., by regulating climate, floods and pests), and
shape human cultures and spiritual beliefs. Besides
those provisioning, regulating and cultural services they
provide, ecosystems also support and maintain life
processes such as biomass production and nutrient
cycling (supporting services) which are essential to
human well-being.
Decline in the quality of living environment: Out of the
24 ecosystem services that make direct contributions to
human well-being, 15 are in decline. An indication of the
magnitude of the combined pressures we are placing on
biodiversity and ecosystems is provided by humanity's
ecological footprint, a calculation of the area of
biologically-productive land and water needed to provide
the resources we use and to absorb our waste. The
ecological footprint for 2006, the latest year for which the
figure is available, was estimated to exceed the Earth's
biological capacity by 40 per cent.
ORIGINAL CORAL AND BLEACHED CORAL AN
EXAMPLE

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Biodiversity loss disrupts the functioning of ecosystems, making
them more vulnerable to perturbations and less able to supply
humans with needed services. The consequences are often
harshest on the rural poor, who depend most immediately upon
local ecosystem services for their livelihoods. This will, in turn,
affect the following:

Demographic change

Economic activity

Levels of international trade

Per capita consumption patterns, linked to individual wealth

Cultural and religious factors

Scientific and technological change

The loss of traditional knowledge can be particularly detrimental

in this regard, as for many local and indigenous communities
biodiversity is a central component of belief systems,
worldviews and identity.

The impact of humans on the natural environment is significant

and growing, causing changes in biodiversity that have been
more rapid in the past 50 years than at any time before in
human history. As demographic pressures and consumption
levels increase, biodiversity decreases, and the ability of the
natural world to continue delivering the goods and services on
which humanity ultimately depends may be undermined.

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The richness and diversity of life on Earth is fundamental to the
complex life systems that underpin it. Life supports life itself.
We are part of the same equation. Lose biodiversity and the
natural world and the life support systems, as we know them
today, will collapse. We completely depend on nature, for the
quality of the air we breathe, water we drink, climate stability,
the food and materials we use and the economy we rely on,
and not least, for our health, inspiration and happiness.
By tracking the number of threatened species, the RLI
quantifies overall risk of extinction and how it is changing over
time. The RLI is based on IUCN Red List assessments that
classify species into one of seven categories (Extinct, Critically
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least
Concern or Data Deficient).
Entering the sixth mass extinction? Palaeontologists
characterize mass extinctions as biological or biotic crises
defined by the loss of a vast amount of species in a relatively
short geological time period. A mass extinction has occurred
only five times in the past ~ 540 million years. Mass extinctions
have occurred in response to changes in key environmental
systems, for example in response to changes in climate or
atmospheric composition, the availability of land at different
latitudes or sea at different depths, or combinations of these.
But in the last few centuries the Earth has experienced
exceptionally high and increasing rates of species loss. Recent
studies suggest probable extinction rates at present are up to

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100-1,000 extinctions per 10,000 species per 100 years, which
is much higher than the long-term rate of extinction.

PRESERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: The need of

preserving biodiversity is as follows:

Because everything connects. The fate and prosperity of

humanity is inextricably connected to the health and balance of
the natural world. Every single organism plays a role in its
ecosystem that contributes to the overall stability and health of
that ecosystem. We depend on countless species directly for
basic needs such as food, shelter, medicine, pollination and
clothing, and on the complex network of all species which is
necessary to support those species that we depend on directly.
Science is only just beginning to understand the complex and
subtle ways that species depend on each other for survival that
leads to the intricate interdependency of ecosystems.
Maintaining biologically diverse ecosystems will help secure
the indispensable ecosystem services that are often taken for
granted. These include climate regulation, mitigation of floods,
food, fresh water, carbon sequestration, purification of water
and air, poverty alleviation, nutrient cycling in the soil, wood and
fiber, pollination of crops and natural vegetation, fuel, disease
management, seed dispersal, aesthetics and spirituality, and
prevention of soil erosion. These essential services, effectively
provided by healthy ecosystems, are what make our lives
possible.

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Significance of Biodiversity:
Values related to biodiversity can be grouped into three
categories as below:
Productive use:
Biodiversity provides us many products, such as fuel, timber,
fish, fodder, skin, fruits, cereals and medicines

Consumptive use:
Consumption value is related to natural products that are
consumed directly, i.e., the goods which do not come under
normal circulation of trade. Humans use at least 40,000 species
of plants and animals on a daily basis. Many people around the
world still depend on wild species for most of their needs like
food, shelter and clothing. For e.g. the tribal people are
completely dependent on the forests for their daily needs.

Indirect use:
They may provide us indirect benefits as non-consumptive
values. Maintenance of ecological balance, conservation of
natural resources and prevention of soil erosion may be
considered as the examples of indirect use of biodiversity.

Environmental Value:
Healthy ecosystems are vital to life. The natural environment is
responsible for the production of oxygen, maintenance of water-
cycle and other biogeochemical cycles.

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The more a region is rich in terms of biodiversity, the better are
the different cycles regulated. For example, forests regulate the
amount of carbon dioxide in the air by releasing oxygen as a
by-product during photosynthesis, and control rainfall and soil
erosion.

Productive Use Value:

Through scientific breeding techniques animals giving better
yield of milk, meat, etc. are being developed. The commonly
used animal products used by the modem society come from
the advances made in the fields of poultry farming, pisciculture,
silviculture, dairy farming, etc. Even the fossil fuels like coal and
petroleum are the products of biodiversity from the geological
past. Most of the drugs and medicines used in the present
times are extracted from different plant parts.

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Social Value:
Due to modernisation, their habitats are being encroached upon
and their very survival is at stake. It is ironic that the societies,
whose whole life is intricately associated with the forests, are
now not able to use the natural resources for their sustenance.

The biodiversity in different parts of the world has been largely

preserved by the traditional societies. Since the indigenous
people always protect the forests for their own benefit, the
Government should formulate plans to involve such people for
environmental protection.

In ancient times, especially in India, the environment in totality

i.e. flora, fauna, etc. were held in high esteem. Trees like
Peepal, Banyan and Tulsi are still worshipped.

Ethical and Moral Values:

It is based on the principle of live and let others live. Morality
and ethics teach us to preserve all forms of life and not to harm
any organism unnecessarily. Some people take pleasure in the
hunting of animals. People also sometimes degrade and pollute
the environment by their unethical actions.

Aesthetic Value:
The beauty of our planet is because of biodiversity, which
otherwise would have resembled other barren planets dotted
around the universe. Biological diversity adds to the quality of

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life and provides some of the most beautiful aspects of our
existence.

Optional Value:
This refers to the value of biodiversity that is yet unknown, but
needs to be explored for future possibilities and use. Scientists
have discovered and named about 1.75 million species, which
is of utmost importance. We should preserve all the worlds
biodiversity that can be used by the future generations.

METHODS OF PRESERVATION AND CONESRVATION OF

BIODIVERSITY:
There are a number of conferences, treaties and individual
efforts that can be are and can be attempted to preserve the
worlds biodiversity. In this category, the Convention on
Biodiversity (CBD) can be highlighted as the most dominant
one.The Convention was opened for signature on 5 June 1992
at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (the Rio "Earth Summit"). It remained open for
signature until 4 June 1993, by which time it had received 168
signatures. The first session of the Conference of the Parties
was scheduled for 28 November 9 December 1994 in the
Bahamas. National parks and wildlife sanctuaries are some
practical examples. Besides this, there are a number of national
and international efforts to preserve and conserve biodiversity
but there are a lot of clear efforts required by different countries
of the world.

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