Biblical Magi
Three Kings and Three Wise Men redirect here. For
other uses, see Three Kings (disambiguation) and Wise
men (disambiguation).
Los Reyes Magos redirects here. For the 2003 Spanish
animated lm, see Los Reyes Magos (lm).
The Magi (/mda/[1] or /meda/; singular: magus;
The Three Magi, Byzantine mosaic c. 565, Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy (restored during the 18th
century). As here Byzantine art usually depicts the Magi in
Persian clothing which includes breeches, capes, and Phrygian
caps.
Greek: , magoi), also referred to as the (Three)
Wise Men or (Three) Kings, were, in the Gospel of
Matthew and Christian tradition, a group of distinguished
foreigners who visited Jesus after his birth, bearing gifts
of gold, frankincense and myrrh. They are regular g-
ures in traditional accounts of the nativity celebrations of
Christmas and are an important part of Christian tradi-
tion.
According to Matthew, the only one of the four Canonical
gospels to mention the Magi, they came from the east
to worship the king of the Jews.[2] Although the ac-
count does not mention the number of Magi, the three
gifts has led to the widespread assumption that there
were three men.[3] In Eastern Christianity, especially the
Syriac churches, the Magi often number twelve.[4] Their
identication as kings in later Christian writings is prob-
ably linked to Psalms 72:11, May all kings fall down be-
fore him.[5][6]
1 Biblical account
Traditional nativity scenes depict three kings visiting
the infant Jesus on the night of his birth, in a manger ac-
companied by the shepherds and angels, but this should
be understood as an artistic convention allowing the two
separate scenes of the Adoration of the Shepherds on
the birth night and the later Adoration of the Magi to
be combined for convenience.[7] The single biblical ac-
count in Matthew simply presents an event at an unspec-
ied point after Christs birth in which an unnumbered
party of unnamed wise men ("") visits him in a
house (""),[8] not a stable, with only his mother
mentioned as present. The New Revised Standard Ver-
sion of Matthew 2:112 describes the visit of the Magi in
this manner:
In the time of King Herod, after Jesus was
born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from
the East came to Jerusalem, asking, Where
is the child who has been born king of the
Jews? For we observed his star at its rising,
and have come to pay him homage. When
King Herod heard this, he was frightened and
all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all
the chief priests and scribes of the people, he
inquired of them where the Messiah was to be
born. They told him, In Bethlehem of Judea;
for so it has been written by the prophet: 'And
you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by
no means least among the rulers of Judah; for
from you shall come a ruler who is to shepherd
my people Israel.'" Then Herod secretly called
for the wise men and learned from them the
exact time when the star had appeared. Then
he sent them to Bethlehem, saying, Go and
search diligently for the child; and when you
have found him, bring me word so that I may
also go and pay him homage. When they had
heard the king, they set out; and there, ahead
of them, went the star that they had seen at
its rising, until it stopped over the place where
the child was. When they saw that the star
had stopped, they were overwhelmed with joy.
On entering the house, they saw the child with
Mary his mother; and they knelt down and
paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure
chests, they oered him gifts of gold, frankin-
cense, and myrrh. And having been warned in
a dream not to return to Herod, they left for
1
2 3 NAMES

their own country by another path. speed); and The Living Bible (K. Taylor, 1962-New Tes-
tament).
The Bible species no interval between the birth and the Although the Magi are commonly referred to as kings,
visit, and artistic depictions and the closeness of the tradi-
there is nothing in the account from the Gospel of
tional dates of December 25 and January 6 encourage the Matthew that implies that they were rulers of any kind.
popular assumption that the visit took place the same win-The identication of the Magi as kings is linked to Old
ter as the birth, but later traditions varied, with the visit
Testament prophesies that describe the Messiah being
taken as occurring up to two winters later. This maximum worshipped by kings in Isaiah 60:3, Psalm 68:29, and
interval explained Herods command at Matthew 2:1618 Psalm 72:10, which reads, Yea, all kings shall fall down
that the Massacre of the Innocents included boys up to before him: all nations serve him.[12][13][14] Early read-
two years old. More recent commentators, not tied to the ers reinterpreted Matthew in light of these prophecies and
traditional feast days, may suggest a variety of intervals.[9]
elevated the Magi to kings. By AD 500 all commenta-
One indication of the timing is also that Luke 2:22 men- tors adopted the prevalent tradition that the three were
tions Joseph and Mary visiting the temple in Jerusalem kings.[15] Later Christian interpretation stressed the Ado-
when Jesus was 40 days old (this was required by the law).rations of the Magi and shepherds as the rst recognition
As soon as the kings had left, Joseph had a dream to by the people of the earth of Christ as the Redeemer. The
warn him about Herods planned massacre of innocents, reformer John Calvin was vehemently opposed to people
and immediately departed to Egypt. This indicates that who referred to the Magi as kings. He once wrote: But
the visit by the kings occurred at least later than 40 days
the most ridiculous contrivance of the Papists on this sub-
after Jesus birth. ject is, that those men were kings... Beyond all doubt,
The wise men are mentioned twice shortly thereafter in they have been stupeed by a righteous judgment of God,
[16][17]
verse 16, in reference to their avoidance of Herod after that all might laugh at [their] gross ignorance.
seeing Jesus, and what Herod had learned from their ear-
lier meeting. The star which they followed has tradition-
ally become known as the Star of Bethlehem. 3 Names
The New Testament does not give the names of the Magi.
2 Description However, traditions and legends identify a variety of
dierent names for them.[18] In the Western Christian
church, they have been all regarded as saints and are com-
The Magi are popularly referred to as wise men and
monly known as:
kings. The word magi is the plural of Latin magus, bor-
[10]
rowed from Greek magos, as used in the orig-
inal Greek text of the Gospel of Matthew (""). Melchior (/mlkir/;[19] also Melichior[20] ), a Per-
Greek magos itself is derived from Old Persian magu sian scholar;
from the Avestan magun, i.e., the religious caste into
Caspar (/kspr/ or /kspr/;[21] also Gaspar, Jas-
which Zoroaster was born (see Yasna 33.7: " sruy par
par, Jaspas, Gathaspa,[20][22] and other variations),
magun" = so I can be heard beyond Magi). The term
an Indian scholar;
refers to the Persian priestly caste of Zoroastrianism.[11]
As part of their religion, these priests paid particular at- Balthazar (/blzr/ or /blzr/;[23] also
tention to the stars and gained an international reputa- Balthasar, Balthassar, and Bithisarea[20] ), a
tion for astrology, which was at that time highly regarded Babylonian scholar.
as a science. Their religious practices and use of astrol-
ogy caused derivatives of the term Magi to be applied to [24]
the occult in general and led to the English term magic, Encyclopdia Britannica states: according to West-
although Zoroastrianism was in fact strongly opposed to ern church tradition, Balthasar is often represented as a
sorcery. The King James Version translates the term as king of Arabia, Melchior as a king of Persia, and Gaspar
wise men; the same translation is applied to the wise men as a king of India. These names apparently derive from
led by Daniel of earlier Hebrew Scriptures (Daniel 2:48). a Greek manuscript probably composed in Alexandria
The same word is given as sorcerer and sorcery when around 500, and which has been translated into Latin with
[20]
describing "Elymas the sorcerer in Acts 13:611, and the title Excerpta Latina Barbari. Another Greek doc-
Simon Magus, considered a heretic by the early Church, ument from the 8th century, of presumed Irish origin and
in Acts 8:913. Several translations refer to the men translated into Latin with the title Collectanea et Flores,
outright as astrologers at Matthew Chapter 2, including continues the tradition of three kings and their names and
[25][26]
New English Bible (1961); Phillips New Testament in Mod- gives additional details.
ern English (J.B.Phillips, 1972); Twentieth Century New One candidate for the origin of the name Caspar appears
Testament (1904 revised edition); Amplied Bible (1958- in the Acts of Thomas as Gondophares (21 c. AD 47),
New Testament); An American Translation (1935, Good- i.e., Gudapharasa (from which Caspar might derive as
 3

tifying the Magi of Bethlehem as Balthasar of Arabia,

Melchior of Persia, and Gaspar of India.[32] Evangelical
Bible teacher Chuck Missler has also written about this
tradition.[33] Historian John of Hildesheim relates a tradi-
tion in the ancient silk road city of Taxila (near Islamabad
in Pakistan) that one of the Magi passed through the city
on the way to Bethlehem.[34]

James Tissot: The Magi Journeying (c. 1890), Brooklyn Mu-

seum, New York City

After the visit, the Magi leave the narrative by returning

Herrad of Landsberg: The three Magi (named as Patisar, Cas-another way so as to avoid Herod, and do not reappear.
para and Melchior), illustration from the Hortus deliciarumThere are many traditional stories about what happened to
(12th century)
the Magi after this, with one having them baptised by St.
Thomas on his way to India. Another has their remains
found by Saint Helena and brought to Constantinople, and
corruption of Gaspar). This Gondophares declared in-
eventually making their way to Germany and the Shrine
dependence from the Arsacids to become the rst Indo-
of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral.
Parthian king, and he was allegedly visited by Thomas the
Apostle. According to Ernst Herzfeld, his name is perpet- Sebastian Brock, a historian of Christianity, has said: It
uated in the name of the Afghan city Kandahar, which he was no doubt among converts from Zoroastrianism that
is said to have founded under the name Gundopharron.[27] certain legends were developed around the Magi of the
Gospels.[35][36] And Anders Hultgrd concluded that the
In contrast, many Syrian Christians name the Magi
Gospel story of the Magi was inuenced by an Iranian
Larvandad, Gushnasaph, and Hormisdas.[28] These
legend concerning magi and a star, which was connected
names have a far greater likelihood of being originally
with Persian beliefs in the rise of a star predicting the birth
Persian, though that does not, of course, guarantee their
of a ruler and with myths describing the manifestation of
authenticity.
a divine gure in re and light.[37]
In the Eastern churches, Ethiopian Christianity, for
A model for the homage of the Magi might have been
instance, has Hor, Karsudan, and Basanater, while
provided, it has been suggested, by the journey to Rome
the Armenians have Kagpha, Badadakharida and
[29][30] of King Tiridates I of Armenia, with his magi, to pay
Badadilma. Many Chinese Christians believe that
[31] homage to the Emperor Nero, which took place in 66 AD,
one of the magi came from China.
a few years before the date assigned to the composition of
the Gospel of Matthew.[38][39]
There was a tradition that the Central Asian Naimans and
4 Country of origin and journey their Christian relatives, the Keraites, were descended
from the Biblical Magi.[40] This heritage passed to the
The phrase from the east ( ), more liter- Mongol dynasty of Genghis Khan when Sorghaghtani,
ally from the rising [of the sun], is the only informa- niece of the Keraite ruler Toghrul, married Tolui the
tion Matthew provides about the region from which they youngest son of Genghis and became the mother of
came. Traditionally the view developed that they were Mngke Khan and his younger brother and succes-
Babylonians, Persians, or Jews from Yemen as the kings sor, Kublai Khan. Toghrul became identied with the
of Yemen then were Jews, a view held for example by legendary Central Asian Christian king, Prester John,
John Chrysostom. There is an Armenian tradition iden- whose Mongol descendants were sought as allies against
4 7 GIFTS

the Muslims by contemporary European monarchs and

popes.[41] Sempad the Constable, elder brother of King
Hetoum I of Cilician Armenia, visited the Mongol court
in Karakorum in 12471250 and in 1254. He wrote a
letter to Henry I King of Cyprus and Queen Stephanie
(Sempads sister) from Samarkand in 1243, in which he
said: Tanchat [Tangut, or Western Xia], which is the
land from whence came the Three Kings to Bethlehem
to worship the Lord Jesus which was born. And know
that the power of Christ has been, and is, so great, that
the people of that land are Christians; and the whole land
of Chata [Khitai, or Kara-Khitai] believes those Three
Kings. I have myself been in their churches and have seen
pictures of Jesus Christ and the Three Kings, one oer-
ing gold, the second frankincense, and the third myrrh.
And it is through those Three Kings that they believe
in Christ, and that the Chan and his people have now
become Christians.[42] The legendary Christian ruler of
Central Asia, Prester John was reportedly a descendant
of one of the Magi.[43]
Long before the time of Christ, India had trade rela-
tions with Palestine; much of the commerce between
the Orient and the Mediterranean civilizations (including
Egypt, Greece, and Rome) passed through Jerusalem, Adorazione dei Magi by Bartolom Esteban Murillo, c. 1655
so it is very likely that Wise Men could have been great (Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio
sages of India, as Paramahansa Yogananda wrote in his
The Second Coming of Christ The Resurrection of the
Tarsus, land of merchants on the Mediterranean coast of
Christ Within You (2004, pp. 5659).
modern Turkey, and is rst in line to kneel to Christ. Mel-
chior is middle-aged, giving frankincense from his native
Arabia, and Balthazar is a young man, very often and in-
5 Gestures of respect creasingly black-skinned, with myrrh from Saba (mod-
ern south Yemen). Their ages were often given as 60, 40
The Magi are described as falling down, kneeling or and 20 respectively, and their geographical origins were
bowing in the worship of Jesus.[44] This gesture, to- rather variable, with Balthazar increasingly coming from
gether with Lukes birth narrative, had an important eect Ethiopia or other parts of Africa, and being represented
[45]
on Christian religious practices. They were indicative of accordingly. Balthazars blackness has been the sub-
great respect, and typically used when venerating a king. ject of considerable recent scholarly attention; in art it
Inspired by these verses, kneeling and prostration were is found mostly in northern Europe, beginning from the
adopted in the early Church. While prostration is now 12th century, and becoming very common in the north by
[46]
rarely practised in the West it is still relatively common in the 15th.
the Eastern Churches, especially during Lent. Kneeling
has remained an important element of Christian worship
to this day. 7 Gifts
Three gifts are explicitly identied in Matthew: gold,
6 Traditional identities and sym- frankincense, and myrrh, in Koine Greek: chryss
(), lbanos () and smrna ().
bolism Many dierent theories of the meaning and symbolism
of the gifts have been brought forward. While gold is
Apart from their names, the three Magi developed dis- fairly obviously explained, frankincense, and particularly
tinct characteristics in Christian tradition, so that be- myrrh, are much more obscure. See the previous section
tween them they represented the three ages of (adult) for who gave which.
man, three geographical and cultural areas, and some-
times other things. In the normal Western account, re- The theories generally break down into two groups:
ected in art by the 14th century (for example in the
Arena Chapel by Giotto in 1305) Caspar is old, normally 1. All three gifts are ordinary oerings and gifts given
with a white beard, and gives the gold; he is King of to a king. Myrrh being commonly used as an anoint-
 5

items) to Apollo in his temple at Miletus in 243 BC,

and this may have been the precedent for the mention
of these three gifts in Gospel of Matthew (2:11). It was
these three gifts, it is thought, which were the chief cause
for the number of the Magi becoming xed eventually at
three.[52]
This episode can be linked to Isaiah 60 and to Psalm
72 which report gifts being given by kings, and this has
played a central role in the perception of the Magi as
kings, rather than as astronomer-priests. In a hymn of
the late 4th-century hispanic poet Prudentius, the three
gifts have already gained their medieval interpretation as
prophetic emblems of Jesus identity, familiar in the carol
"We Three Kings" by John Henry Hopkins, Jr., 1857.
One of the earliest known depictions from a third-century sar-
cophagus (Vatican Museums) John Chrysostom suggested that the gifts were t to be
given not just to a king but to God, and contrasted them
with the Jews traditional oerings of sheep and calves,
ing oil, frankincense as a perfume, and gold as a
and accordingly Chrysostom asserts that the Magi wor-
valuable.
shiped Jesus as God.
2. The three gifts had a spiritual meaning: gold as
a symbol of kingship on earth, frankincense (an
incense) as a symbol of deity, and myrrh (an em-
balming oil) as a symbol of death.
This dates back to Origen in Contra
Celsum: gold, as to a king; myrrh,
as to one who was mortal; and in-
cense, as to a God.[47]
These interpretations are alluded to
in the verses of the popular carol
"We Three Kings" in which the
magi describe their gifts. The last
verse includes a summary of the in-
terpretation: Glorious now behold
Him arise/King and God and sacri-
ce.
Adoracin de los Reyes Magos by El Greco, 1568 (Museo
Sometimes this is described more
Soumaya, Mexico City)
generally as gold symbolizing
virtue, frankincense symbolizing What subsequently happened to these gifts is never
prayer, and myrrh symbolizing mentioned in the scripture, but several traditions have
suering. developed.[53] One story has the gold being stolen by the
two thieves who were later crucied alongside Jesus. An-
Myrrh was used as an embalming ointment and as a pen-
other tale has it being entrusted to and then misappro-
itential incense in funerals and cremations until the 15th priated by Judas. One tradition suggests that Joseph and
century. The holy oil traditionally used by the Eastern Mary used the gold to nance their travels when they ed
Orthodox Church for performing the sacraments of chris- Bethlehem after an angel had warned, in a dream, about
mation and unction is traditionally scented with myrrh, King Herods plan to kill Jesus. And another story pro-
and receiving either of these sacraments is commonly re- poses the theory that the myrrh given to them at Jesus
ferred to as receiving the myrrh. The picture of the birth was used to anoint Jesus body after his crucixion.
Magi on the 7th century Franks Casket shows the third
visitor he who brings myrrh with a valknut over his There was a 15th-century golden case purportedly con-
back, a pagan symbol referring to Death.[48] taining the Gift of the Magi housed in the Monastery
of St. Paul of Mount Athos. It was donated to the
It has been suggested by scholars that the gifts monastery in the 15th century by Mara Brankovi, daugh-
were medicinal rather than precious material for ter of the King of Serbia ura Brankovi, wife to the
tribute.[49][50][51] Ottoman Sultan Murat II and godmother to Mehmet II the
The Syrian King Seleucus II Callinicus is recorded to Conqueror (of Constantinople). They were apparently
have oered gold, frankincense and myrrh (among other part of the relics of the Holy Palace of Constantinople
6 9
and it is claimed they were displayed there since the 4th
century. After the Athens earthquake of September 9,
1999 they were temporarily displayed in Athens in order
to strengthen faith and raise money for earthquake vic-
tims. The relics were displayed in Ukraine and Belarus
in Christmas of 2014, and thus left Greece for the rst
time since the 15th century.[54]
8 Martyrdom traditions
The Three Wise Kings, Catalan Atlas, 1375, fol. V: This
province is called Tarshish, from which came the Three Wise
Kings, and they came to Bethlehem in Judaea with their gifts and
worshipped Jesus Christ, and they are entombed in the city of
Cologne two days journey from Bruges.
Christian Scriptures record nothing about the Biblical
Magi after reporting their going back to their own coun-
tries. Two separate traditions have surfaced claiming that
they were so moved by their encounter with Jesus that
they either became Christians on their own or were quick
to convert fully upon later encountering an Apostle of Je-
sus. The traditions claim that they were so strong in their
beliefs that they willingly embraced martyrdom.
8.1 Chronicon of Dexter
One tradition gained popularity in Spain during the 17th
century; it was found in a work called the Chronicon of
Dexter. The work was ascribed to Flavius Lucius Dex-
ter the bishop of Barcelona, under Theodosius the Great.
The tradition appears in the form of a simple marty-
rology reading, In Arabia Felix, in the city of Sessa-
nia of the Adrumeti, the martyrdom of the holy kings,
the three Magi, Gaspar, Balthassar, and Melchior who
adored Christ.[55] First appearing in 1610, the Chroni-
con of Dexter was immensely popular along with the tra-
ditions it contained throughout the 17th century. Later,
this was all brought into question when historians and the
Catholic hierarchy in Rome declared the work a pious
forgery.[56]
TOMBS
8.2 Relics at Cologne
A competing tradition asserts that the Biblical Magi
were martyred for the faith, and that their bodies were
rst venerated at Constantinople; thence they were trans-
ferred to Milan in 344. It is certain that when Frederick I,
Holy Roman Emperor (Barbarossa) imposed his author-
ity on Milan, the relics there were transferred to Cologne
Cathedral, housed in the Shrine of the Three Kings, and
are venerated there today.[55] The Milanese treated the
fragments of masonry from their now-empty tomb as sec-
ondary relics and these were widely distributed around the
region, including southern France, accounting for the fre-
quency with which the Magi appear on chasse reliquaries
in Limoges enamel.[57]
9 Tombs
There are several traditions on where the remains of the
Magi are located, although none of the traditions is con-
sidered as an established fact or even as particularly likely
by secular history. Marco Polo claimed that he was shown
the three tombs of the Magi at Saveh south of Tehran in
the 1270s:
In Persia is the city of Saba, from which
the Three Magi set out and in this city they
are buried, in three very large and beautiful
monuments, side by side. And above them
there is a square building, beautifully kept.
The bodies are still entire, with hair and beard
remaining.
Marco Polo, Polo, Marco, The Book of the
Million, book i.
The Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral, Germany,
c. 1200.
A Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral, ac-
cording to tradition, contains the bones of the Three Wise
Men. Reputedly they were rst discovered by Saint He-
lena on her famous pilgrimage to Palestine and the Holy

Lands. She took the remains to the church of Hagia symbolism of the gifts of the Magi. Al-Tabari gave his
Sophia in Constantinople; they were later moved to Milan source for the information to be the later 7th century
(some sources say by the citys bishop, Eustorgius I[58] ), writer Wahb ibn Munabbih.[59]
before being sent to their current resting place by the Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick I in 1164. The Milanese cel-
ebrate their part in the tradition by holding a medieval
costume parade every 6 January.
A version of the detailed elaboration familiar to us is laid
out by the 14th century cleric John of Hildesheim's His-
toria Trium Regum (History of the Three Kings). In
accounting for the presence in Cologne of their mummi-
ed relics, he begins with the journey of Helena, mother
of Constantine I to Jerusalem, where she recovered the
True Cross and other relics:
Journey of the Magi (top) and Adoration of the Magi (side) on
a Limoges champlev chasse, c. 1200 (Muse de Cluny, Paris)
Queen Helen began to think greatly of
the bodies of these three kings, and she arrayed
herself, and accompanied by many attendants,
went into the Land of Ind after she had found
the bodies of Melchior, Balthazar, and Gaspar,
Queen Helen put them into one chest and or-
namented it with great riches, and she brought
them into Constantinople... and laid them in a
church that is called Saint Sophia.
10 Religious signicance
The visit of the Magi is commemorated in most Western
Christian churches by the observance of Epiphany, 6 Jan-
uary, which also serves as the feast of the three as saints.
The Eastern Orthodox celebrate the visit of the Magi on
25 December.
Though the Qur'an omits Matthews episode of the Magi,
it was well known in Arabia. The Muslim encyclopaedist
al-Tabari, writing in the 9th century, gives the familiar
7
11 Traditions
See also: Mystery Play of the Three Magic Kings
Holidays celebrating the arrival of the Magi traditionally
recognise a distinction between the date of their arrival
and the date of Jesus birth. The account given in the
Gospel of Matthew does not state that they were present
on the night of the birth; in the Gospel of Luke, Joseph
and Mary remain in Bethlehem until it is time for Jesus
dedication, in Jerusalem, and then return to their home in
Nazareth.
11.1 Spanish customs
The Three Wise Men receiving children at a shopping centre in
Spain. Letters with gift requests are left in the letterbox on the
left-hand side.
Western Christianity celebrates the Magi on the day of
Epiphany, January 6, the day immediately following the
twelve days of Christmas, particularly in the Spanish-
speaking parts of the world. In these areas, the Three
Kings ("los Reyes Magos de Oriente", also "Los Tres Reyes
Magos" and "Los Reyes Magos") receive letters from chil-
dren and so bring them gifts on the night before Epiphany.
In Spain, each one of the Magi is supposed to represent
one dierent continent, Europe (Melchior), Asia (Cas-
par) and Africa (Balthasar). According to the tradition,
the Magi come from the Orient on their camels to visit
the houses of all the children, much like Sinterklaas and
Santa Claus with his reindeer elsewhere, they visit every-
one in one night. In some areas, children prepare a drink
for each of the Magi. It is also traditional to prepare food
and drink for the camels, because this is the only night of
the year when they eat.
8 11 TRADITIONS

In Spain, Argentina, Mexico, Paraguay and Uruguay,

there is a long tradition for having the children receive
presents by the three "Reyes Magos" on the night of Jan-
uary 5 (Epiphany Eve) or morning of January 6. Al-
most every Spanish city or town organises cabalgatas in
the evening, in which the kings and their servants parade
and throw sweets to the children (and parents) in atten-
dance. The cavalcade of the three kings in Alcoy claims
to be the oldest in the world, having started in 1886. The
Mystery Play of the Three Magic Kings is also presented
on Epiphany Eve. There is also a Roscn (Spain) or
Rosca de Reyes (Mexico) as explained below.
In the Philippines, beliefs concerning the Three Kings
(Filipino: Tatlng Haring Mago, lit. Three Magi Kings";
shortened to Tatlng Har or Spanish Tres Reyes) fol- Sternsinger in Vienna, Austria.
lows Hispanic inuence, with the Feast of the Epiphany
considered by many Filipinos as the traditional end of
their Christmas season. The tradition of the Three Kings
cabalgada is today done only in some areas, such as
the old city of Intramuros in Manila, and the island of
Marinduque. Another dying custom is children leaving
shoes out on Epiphany Eve, so that they may receive
sweets and money from the Three Kings. With the ar-
rival of American culture in the early 20th century, the
Three Kings as gift-givers have been largely replaced in
urban areas by Santa Claus, and they only survive in the
greeting Happy Three Kings!" and the surname Tatlng-
har. The Three Kings are especially revered in Gapan,
Nueva Ecija, where they are the towns joint patron saints.
In Paraguay, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic,
children cut grass or greenery on January 5 and put it in Sternsinger Christmas carolers in Sanok, Poland.
a box under their bed for the Kings camels. Children re-
ceive gifts on January 6, which is called Da de Reyes, and
is traditionally the day in which the Magi arrived bearing town, this will be happen sometime between Christmas
gifts for the Christ child. Christmas starts in December and the Epiphany, with most municipalities celebrating
and ends in January after Epiphany, although in Puerto closer to the Epiphany. Also in Catholic parts of the
Rico there are eight more days of celebration (las octavi- German-speaking world, these markings are made by the
tas). "Sternsinger" (literally, star singers) a group of three
elementary school children dressed up as the magi.[63]
The Sternsinger carry a star representing the one followed
11.1.1 Campaign for a real black Balthazar in by the biblical magi and sing Christmas carols as they go
Spain door to door. An adult chaperones the group but stays in
the background of the performance. After singing, the
In 2009 a campaign started in Spain over the fact that children write the three kings initials on the door frame
Balthazar is commonly played by a white person in in exchange for charitable donations. Each year, German
blackface.[60][61] and Austrian dioceses pick one charity towards which
all Sternsinger donations nationwide will be contributed.
Traditionally, one child in the Sternsinger group is said
11.2 Central Europe to represent Baltasar from Africa and so, that child typ-
ically wears blackface makeup.[64][65][66] Many Germans
A tradition in Poland and German-speaking Catholic ar- do not consider this to be racist because it is not intended
eas is the writing of the three kings initials (C+M+B to be a negative portrayal of a black person, but rather,
or C M B, or K+M+B in those areas where Caspar a realistic or traditional portrayal of one.[67] The di-
is spelled Kaspar) above the main door of Catholic alogue surrounding the politics of traditions involving
homes in chalk. This is a new years blessing for blackface is not as developed as in Spain or the Nether-
the occupants and the initials also are believed to also lands. In the past, photographs of German politicians
stand for "Christus mansionem benedicat" (May/Let together with children in blackface have caused a stir in
Christ Bless This House).[62] Depending on the city or English-language press.[68][69] Moreover, Afro-Germans

have written that this use of blackface is a missed oppor- 12 In art
tunity to be truly inclusive of Afro-Germans in German-
speaking communities and contribute to the equation of Main article: Adoration of the Magi
blackness with foreignness and otherness in Ger- The Magi most frequently appear in European art in the
man culture.[70]
In 2010 the day of Epiphany, January 6, was made a holi-
day in Poland and thus a pre-war tradition was revived.[71]
Since 2011, celebrations with biblical costuming have
taken place throughout the country. For example, in
Warsaw there are processions from Plac Zamkowy down
Krakowskie Przedmiecie to Plac Pisudskiego.[72]
11.3 Roscn de Reyes
Main article: Roscn de Reyes
In Spain and in Portugal (where it is called Bolo-rei[73] ),
the cake, which is ring-shaped, is most commonly bought,
not baked, and it contains both a small gurine of one of
the Magi (or another surprise depending on the region)
and an actual dry broad bean. The one who gets the g-
urine is crowned (with a crown made of cardboard or
paper), but whoever gets the bean has to pay the value of
the cake to the person who originally bought it. In Mexico
they also have the same ring-shaped cake Rosca de Reyes
(Kings Bagel or Thread) with gurines inside it. Whoever
gets a gurine is supposed to organize and be the host of
the family celebration for the Candelaria feast on Febru-
ary 2.
In France and Belgium, a cake containing a small gure
of the baby Jesus, known as the broad bean, is shared
within the family. Whoever gets the bean is crowned
king for the remainder of the holiday and wears a card-
board crown purchased with the cake. A similar practice
is common in many areas of Switzerland, but the gurine
is a miniature king. The practice is known as tirer les Rois
(Drawing the Kings). A queen is sometimes also chosen.
In New Orleans, Louisiana, parts of southern Texas, and
surrounding regions, a similar ring-shaped cake known
as a "King Cake" traditionally becomes available in bak-
eries from Epiphany to Mardi Gras. The baby Jesus g-
urine is inserted into the cake from underneath, and the
person who gets the slice with the gurine is expected to
buy or bake the next King Cake. There is wide varia-
tion among the types of pastry that may be called a King
Cake, but most are a baked cinnamon-avoured twisted
dough with thin frosting and additional sugar on top in the
traditional Mardi Gras colours of gold, green and purple.
To prevent accidental injury or choking, the baby Jesus
gurine is frequently not inserted into the cake at the bak-
ery, but included in the packaging for optional use by the
buyer to insert it themselves. Mardi Gras-style beads and
doubloons may be included as well.
9
Adoration of the Magi, tondo by Fra Angelico and Filippo Lippi,
c. 1450 (NGA, Washington)
Adoration of the Magi; less often The Journey of the Magi
has been a popular subject in art, and topos, and other
scenes such as the Magi before Herod and the Dream of
the Magi also appear in the Middle Ages. In Byzantine
art they are depicted as Persians, wearing trousers and
phrygian caps. Crowns appear from the 10th century.
Despite being saints, they are very often shown without
halos, perhaps to avoid distracting attention from either
their crowns or the halos of the Holy Family. Sometimes
only the lead king, kneeling to Christ, has a halo the two
others lack, probably indicating that the two behind had
not yet performed the act of worship that would ensure
their status as saints. Medieval artists also allegorised
the theme to represent the three ages of man. Begin-
ning in the 12th century, and very often by the 15th, the
Kings also represent the three parts of the known (pre-
Columbian) world in Western art, especially in North-
ern Europe. Balthasar is thus represented as a young
African or Moor and Caspar may be depicted with dis-
tinctly Oriental features.
An early Anglo-Saxon depiction survives on the Franks
Casket (early 7th century, whalebone carving), the only
Christian scene, which is combined with pagan and clas-
sical imagery. In its composition it follows the oriental
style, which renders a courtly scene, with the Virgin and
Christ facing the spectator, while the Magi devoutly ap-
proach from the (left) side. Even amongst non-Christians
who had heard of the Christian story of the Magi, the mo-
tif was quite popular, since the Magi had endured a long
journey and were generous. Instead of an angel, the pic-
ture places a swan-like bird, perhaps interpretable as the
heros fylgja (a protecting spirit, and shapeshifter).
10
Austrian artist Gottfried Helnwein depicted a more con- [12] Psalm 72:11 (King James Version) https:
troversial tableau in his painting, Epiphany I: Adoration
of the Magi (1996). Intended to represent the many
connections between the Third Reich and the Christian
[13] Magi. Encyclopedia Britannica.
churches in Austria and Germany,[74] Nazi ocers in
uniform stand around an Aryan woman, a Madonna. The [14] s.v. magi. Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed.). April
Christ toddler who stands on Marys lap resembles Adolf
Hitler.[75]
More generally they appear in popular Nativity scenes
and other Christmas decorations that have their origins
in the Neapolitan variety of the Italian presepio or Nativ-
ity crche.
13 See also
Astronomy
Christian views on astrology
List of names for the biblical nameless
Mystery play
Saint Caspar
Saint Nicholas
14 Notes
[1] Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Nashville, Ten-
nessee: Holman Bible Publishers. 2003. p. 1066. ISBN
0-8054-2836-4.
[2] Matthew 2:1-2
[3] Geza Vermes, The Nativity: History and Legend, London,
Penguin, 2006, p. 22
[4] Metzger, 24 [80]
[5] Magi. Encyclopedia Britannica.
[6] s.v. magi. Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed.). April
1910.
[7] Schiller, 114
[8] Matthew 2. Bible Gateway.
[9] Schiller, I, 96; The New Testament by Bart D. Ehrman
1999 ISBN 0-19-512639-4 p. 109
[10] Oxford English Dictionary, Third edition, April 2010, s.v.
magus
[11] Mary Boyce, A History of Zoroastrianism: The Early Pe-
riod (Brill, 1989, 2nd ed.), vol. 1, pp. 1011 online; Mary
Boyce, Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices
(Routledge, 2001, 2nd ed.), p. 48 online; Linda Mur-
ray, The Oxford companion to Christian art and archi-
tecture (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 293; Stephen
Mitchell, A history of the later Roman Empire, AD 284
641: the transformation of the ancient world (Wiley
Blackwell, 2007), p. 387 online.
14 NOTES
//www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm+
72%3A11&version=KJV
1910.
[15] Drum, Walter. Magi. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol.
9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 24 Dec.
2016 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09527a.htm>.
[16] Ashby, Chad. Magi, Wise Men, or Kings? Its Compli-
cated. Christianity Today, December 16, 2016. http://
www.christianitytoday.com/history/holidays/christmas/
magi-wise-men-or-kings-its-complicated.html.
[17] Calvin, John. Calvins Commentaries, Vol. 31: Matthew,
Mark and Luke, Part I, tr. by John King. Retrieved 2010-
05-15. Quote from Commentary on Matthew 2:16
[18] See Metzger, 2329 for a lengthy account
[19] Melchior. Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 25
September 2014.
[20] Excerpta Latina Barbari, page 51B: At that time in the
reign of Augustus, on 1st January the Magi brought him
gifts and worshipped him. The names of the Magi were
Bithisarea, Melichior and Gathaspa..
[21] Caspar or Gaspar. Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved
25 September 2014.
[22] Hugo Kehrer (1908), Vol. I, p. 70 Online version Kehrers
commentary: Die Form Jaspar stammt aus Frankre-
ich. Sie ndet sich im niederrheinisch-klnischen Di-
alekt und im Englischen. Note: O. Baist page 455;
J.P.Migne; Dictionnaire des apocryphes, Paris 1856, vol
I, p. 1023. ... So in La Vie de St. Gilles; Li Roumans
de Berte: Melcior, Jaspar, Baltazar; Rymbybel des Jakob
von Mrlant: Balthasar, Melchyor, Jaspas; ein altenglis-
ches Gedicht des dreizehnten oder vierzehnten Jahrhun-
derts (13th century!!) Note: C.Horstmann, Altenglische
Legenden, Paderborn 1875, p. 95; ... La Vie des trois
Roys Jaspar Melchior et Balthasar, Paris 1498"-->]
[23] Balthazar. Collins Dictionary. n.d. Retrieved 25
September 2014.
[24] Magi (biblical gures) Encyclopedia Britannica. Bri-
tannica.com. Retrieved 2013-07-04.
[25] Hugo Kehrer (1908), Die Heiligen Drei Knige in Lit-
eratur und Kunst (reprinted in 1976). Vol. I, p. 66.
Online version. Quote from the Latin chronicle: primus
fuisse dicitur Melchior, senex et canus, barba prolixa et
capillis, tunica hyacinthina, sagoque mileno, et calceamen-
tis hyacinthino et albo mixto opere, pro mitrario variae
compositionis indutus: aurum obtulit regi Domino. (the
rst [magus], named Melchior, was an old white-haired
man, with a full beard and hair, [...]: the king gave gold
to our Lord.) Secundum, nomine Caspar, juvenis imber-
bis, rubicundus, mylenica tunica, sago rubeo, calceamen-
tis hyacinthinis vestitus: thure quasi Deo oblatione digna,
Deum honorabat. (The second, with name Caspar, a

beardless boy, [... gave incense].) Tertius, fuscus, inte-
gre barbatus, Balthasar nomine, habens tunicam rubeam,
albo vario, calceamentis inimicis amicus: per myrrham l-
ium hominis moriturum professus est. (The third one,
dark-haired, with a full beard, named Balthasar, [... gave
myrhh].) Omnia autem vestimenta eorum Syriaca sunt.
(The clothes of all [three] were Syrian-style.)
[26] Collectanea et Flores in Patrologia Latina. XCIV, page
541(D) Online version
[27] Ernst Herzfeld, Archaeological History of Iran, London,
Oxford University Press for the British Academy, 1935,
p. 63.
[28] Witold Witakowski, The Magi in Syriac Tradition, in
George A. Kiraz (ed.), Malphono w-Rabo d-Malphone :
Studies in Honor of Sebastian P. Brock, Piscataway (NJ),
Gorgias Press, 2008, pp. 809844.
[29] Acta Sanctorum, May, I, 1780.
[30] Concerning The Magi And Their Names.
[31] Hattaway, Paul; Brother Yun; Yongze, Peter Xu; and
Wang, Enoch. Back to Jerusalem. (Authentic Publishing,
2003). retrieved May 2007
[32] Nersessian, Vrej (2001). The Bible in the Armenian Tra-
dition. Getty. ISBN 978-0-89236-640-8.
[33] Missler, Chuck (November 2007). Who Were the Magi?
We Three Kings?". Koinonia House. Retrieved 2012-01-
12.
[34] Historia Trium Regum (History of the Three Kings) by John
of Hildesheim (13641375)
[35] Brock, Sebastian (1982). Christians in the Sasanian Em-
pire: A Case of Divided Loyalties. In Mews, Stuart. Re-
ligion and National Identity. Studies in Church History,
18. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 119. ISBN 978-0-631-
18060-9.
[36] Ugo Monneret de Villard, Le Leggende orientali sui Magi
evangelici, Citta del Vaticano, Biblioteca apostolica vati-
cana, 1952.
[37] Hultgrd, Anders (1998). The Magi and the Star
the Persian Background in Texts and Iconography. In
Schalk, Peter; Stausberg, Michael. 'Being Religious and
Living through the Eyes: Studies in Religious Iconography
and Iconology: A Celebratory Publication in Honour of
Professor Jan Bergman. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis:
Historia Religionum, 14. Uppsala, Almqvist & Wiksell
International. pp. 21525. ISBN 978-91-554-4199-9.
[38] A. Dietrich, Die Weisen aus dem Morgenlande,
Zeitschrift fr die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, Bd. III,
1902, p. 1 14; cited in J. Duchesne-Guillemin, Die Drei
Weisen aus dem Morgenlande und die Anbetung der Zeit,
Antaios, Vol. VII, 1965, pp. 234252, 245; cited in
Mary Boyce and Frantz Genet, A History of Zoroastrian-
ism, Leiden, Brill, 1991, p. 453, n. 449.
[39] Herzfeld, Ernst (1935). Archaeological History of Iran.
Schweich Lectures of the British Academy. London: Ox-
ford University Press. pp. 656. OCLC 651983281.
11
[40] In regno Tarsae sunt tres provinciae, quarum dominatores
se reges faciunt appellari. Homines illius patriae nominant
Iogour. Semper idola coluerunt, et adhuc colunt omnes,
praeter decem cognationes illorum regum, qui per demon-
strationum stellae venerunt adorare nativitatem in Beth-
lehem Judae. Et adhuc multi magni et nobiles inveniunt
inter Tartaros de cognatione illa, qui tenent rmiter -
dem Christi. (In the kingdom of Tarsis there are three
provinces, whose rulers have called themselves kings. the
men of that country are called Uighours. They always
worshipped idols, and they all still worship them except for
the ten families of those Kings who from the appearance
of the Star came to adore the Nativity in Bethlehem of
Judah. And there are still many of the great and noble of
those families found among the Tartars who hold rmly to
the faith of Christ): Wesley Roberton Long (ed.), La or
de las ystorias de Orient by Hethum prince of Khorghos,
Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1934, pp. 53,
111, 115; cited in Ugo Monneret de Villard, Le Leggende
orientali sui Magi evangelici, Citta del Vaticano, Biblioteca
apostolica vaticana, 1952, p. 161. Hayton, Haithoni Ar-
meni ordinis Praemonstratenis de Tartaris liber, Simon
Grynaeus Johannes Huttichius, Novus orbis regionum ac
insularum veteribus incognitarum, Basel, 1532, caput ii,
De Regno Tarsae, p. 420 The people of these coun-
trees be named Iobgontans [Uighurs], and at all tymes they
haue been idolaters, and so they contynue to this present
day, save the nacion or kynred of those thre kynges which
came to worshyp Our Lorde Ihesu Chryst at his natiuyte
by demonstracyon of the sterre. And the linage of the
same thre kynges be yet vnto this day great lordes about
the lande of Tartary, which ferme and stedfastly beleue in
the fayth of Christ: Hetoum, A Lytell Cronycle: Richard
Pynsons Translation (c. 1520) of La Fleur des Histoires de
la Terre d'Orient, edited by Glenn Burger, Toronto, Uni-
versity of Toronto Press, 1988, Of the realme of Tharsey,
p. 8, lines 2938.
[41] Friedrich Zarncke, Der Priester Johannes, Abhandlun-
gen der philologisch-historischen Classe der Koeniglichen
Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Leipzig,
Band VII, Heft 8, 1879, S.8261028; Band I, Heft 8,
1883, S. 1186), re-published in one volume by G. Olms,
Hildesheim, 1980.
[42] Letter of Sempad the Constable to the King and Queen of
Cyprus, 1243, in Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither,
Oxford, Hakluyt society, 1866, Vol.I, pp.cxxvii, 262-3.
[43] Fertur enim iste de antiqua progenie illorum, quorum in
Evangelio mentio t, esse Magorum, eisdemque, quibus et
isti, gentibus imperans, tanta gloria et habundancia frui, ut
non nisi sceptro smaragdino uti dicatur (It is reported that
he is the descendant of those Magi of old who are men-
tioned in the Gospel, and to rule over the same nations as
they did, enjoying such glory and prosperity that he uses
no sceptre but one of emerald). Otto von Freising, His-
toria de Duabus Civitatibus, 1146, in Friedrich Zarncke,
Der Priester Johannes, Leipzig, Hirzel, 1879 (repr. Georg
Olms Verlag, Hildesheim and New York, 1980, p. 848;
Adolf Hofmeister, Ottonis Episcopi Frisingensis Chronica;
sive, Historia de Duabus Civitatibus, Hannover. 1912, p.
366.
12
[44] Matthew 2; Passage Lookup New International Ver-
sion UK. BibleGateway.com. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[45] Penny, 401
[46] Schiller, I, 113
[47] Origen, Contra Celsum I.60.
[48] Franks Casket - F - panel (Front) - Pictures: The Magi.
[49] Page, Sophie,Magic In Medieval Manuscripts". Univer-
sity of Toronto Press, 2004. 64 pages. ISBN 0-8020-
3797-6, p. 18.
[50] Gustav-Adolf Schoener and Shane Denson [Translator],
"Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical".
[51] "Frankincense: festive pharmacognosy". Pharmaceutical
journal. Vol 271, 2003. pharmj.com.
[52] August Friedrich von Pauly et al., Realencyclopdie der
Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Vol. XVI, 1, Stuttgart,
1933, col.1145; Leonardo Olschki, The Wise Men of the
East in Oriental Traditions, Semitic and Oriental Studies,
University of California Publications in Semitic Philol-
ogy, Vol.11, 1951, pp. 375 395, p. 380, n. 46; cited
in Mary Boyce and Frantz Genet, A History of Zoroastri-
anism, Leiden, Brill, 1991, p. 450, n. 438.
[53] Lambert, John Chisholm, in James Hastings (ed.) A Dic-
tionary of Christ and the Gospels. Page 100.
[54] Gifts of the Magi delivered to Minsk for worship.
ITAR-TASS. 17 January 2014. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
[55] Andrew Edward Breen (February 1, 1908). A Har-
monized Exposition of the Four Gospels, Volume 1.
Rochester, New York.
[56] R. R. Madden, M.D (1864). On certain Literary Frauds
and Forgeries in Spain And Italy. Proceedings of the
Royal Irish Academy, Vol 8. Dublin.
[57] Gauthier M-M. and Franois G., maux mridionaux:
Catalogue international de l'oeuvre de Limoges Tome I:
Epoque romane, p. 11, Paris 1987
[58] Sant' Eustorgio I di Milano. Santiebeati.it. 2001-09-09.
Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[59] We, three kings of Orient were. Saudiaram-
coworld.com. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
[60] News about blackface Balthazars (Spanish)
[61] Vdeo demanding true black Baltazars (Spanish)
[62] Christus Mansionem Benedicat Catholic Sensibility.
Catholicsensibility.wordpress.com. 2006-01-05. Re-
trieved 2012-01-12.
[63] Duden | Sternsingen | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Def-
inition (in German). Duden.de. 2012-10-30. Retrieved
2013-12-16.
[64] Name bedeutet: Gott schtze sein Leben (babylon.-hebr.)
(2007-03-25). Balthasar kumenisches Heiligen-
lexikon. Heiligenlexikon.de. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
15 REFERENCES
[65] Catholic Encyclopedia: Baltasar. Newadvent.org. Re-
trieved 2013-12-16.
[66] Blackface! Around the World. Black-face.com. Re-
trieved 2013-12-16.
[67] User-Kommentar von Dieter Schmeer. Und die
Sternsinger? Leser-Kommentar FOCUS Online (in
German). Focus.de. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
[68] German Chancellor Angela Merkel poses with children
in blackface for Three Kings Day celebration. NY Daily
News. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
[69] 04 Jan 2013 (2013-01-04). Angela Merkel pictured with
blacked-up children. Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
[70] Ogdan cgr (2012-01-06). Sternsinger: Schwarzes
Gesicht und weisse Hnde. M-Media. Retrieved 2013-
12-16.
[71] http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114873,
8686262,Trzech_Kroli_juz_swietem_panstwowym.
html
[72] Orszak Trzech Krli | Warszawa. Orszak.org. 2013-01-
01. Retrieved 2013-07-04.
[73] mesa com o tradicional Bolo-rei Uma instituio na-
cional Matosinhos Hoje, 6 January 2010.
[74] Baker, Kenneth (9 August 2004). Dark and detached,
the art of Gottfried Helnwein demands a response.. San
Francisco Chronicle. accessed with EBSCOHost.
[75] Denver Art Museum, Radar, Selections from the Collection
of Vicki and Kent Logan, Gwen F. Chanzit, 2006
15 References
Giords, Gloria Fraser, Sanctuaries of Earth, Stone,
and Light: The Churches of Northern New Spain,
15301821, 2007, University of Arizona Press,
ISBN 0816525897, 9780816525898, google books
Metzger, Bruce, New Testament Studies: Philolog-
ical, Versional, and Patristic, Volume 10, 1980,
BRILL, ISBN 9004061630, 9789004061637,
google books
Penny, Nicholas, National Gallery Catalogues (new
series): The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings, Vol-
ume II, Venice 15401600, 2008, National Gallery
Publications Ltd, ISBN 1857099133
Schiller, Gertud, Iconography of Christian Art,
Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund
Humphries, London, ISBN 0853312702
 13

16 Further reading 17 External links

Albright, W. F. and C. S. Mann. Matthew. The
Anchor Bible Series. New York: Doubleday & Com-
pany, 1971.
Becker, Alfred: Franks Casket. Zu den Bildern und
Inschriften des Runenkstchens von Auzon (Regens-
burg, 1973) pp. 125142, Ikonographie der Magier-
bilder, Inschriften.
Benecke, P. V. M. (1900). Magi. In James Hast-
ings. A Dictionary of the Bible. III. pp. 203206.
Mark Rose, The Three Kings & the Star: the
Cologne reliquary and the BBC popular documen-
tary
Alfred Becker, Franks Casket
Caroline Stone, We Three Kings of Orient Were
Magi Catholic Encyclopedia
Procession of the Three Kings in Valencia

Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah: A

Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew
and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977.
Clarke, Howard W. The Gospel of Matthew and
its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First
Gospel. Bloomington.
Chrysostom, John Homilies on Matthew: Homily
VI. c. 4th century.
France, R. T. The Gospel According to Matthew:
an Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-
Varsity, 1985.
Gundry, Robert H. Matthew a Commentary on
his Literary and Theological Art. Grand Rapids:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.
Hill, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1981
Lambert, John Chisholm, A Dictionary of Christ and
the Gospels. Page 97 101.
Levine, Amy-Jill. Matthew. Womens Bible Com-
mentary. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe,
eds. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press,
1998.
Molnar, Michael R., The Star of Bethlehem: The
Legacy of the Magi. Rutgers University Press, 1999.
187 pages. ISBN 0-8135-2701-5
Powell, Mark Allan. The Magi as Wise Men:
Re-examining a Basic Supposition. New Testament
Studies. Vol. 46, 2000.
Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to
Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975.
Trexler, Richard C. Journey of the Magi: Meanings
in History of a Christian Story. Princeton University
Press, 1997.
Watson, Richard, A Biblical and Theological Dictio-
nary, Page 608611.
Hegedus, Tim (2003). The Magi and the Star in the
Gospel of Matthew and Early Christian Tradition.
Laval thologique et philosophique. 59 (1): 8195.
doi:10.7202/000790ar.
14 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

18 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

18.1 Text
Biblical Magi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Magi?oldid=757506933 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Wesley, SimonP, KF, Le-
androd, AntonioMartin, Kchishol1970, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Dominus, IZAK, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Zannah, Randywombat, An-
drewa, Julesd, Error, Kimiko, Llull, Evercat, Vargenau, JASpencer, Dwo, Jengod, Uriber, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Reddi, Ike9898,
Greenrd, Furrykef, LMB, Raul654, AnonMoos, Wetman, Chl, Hajor, JorgeGG, Robbot, Jmabel, Wjhonson, Rursus, Geogre, Timrollpick-
ering, UtherSRG, Wereon, Mandel, JamesMLane, SilentMan, Timpo, Patrick-br, Jorge Stol, Macrakis, Dainamo, Wiki Wikardo, Wma-
han, Robsteadman, Andycjp, Kjetil r, Kaldari, Cape cod naturalist, CitoJam, JimWae, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Oknazevad, AlexChurchill,
Jayjg, CALR, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Narsil, Dbachmann, Bender235, Aranel, Kwamikagami, Remember, Bill Thayer, Viridi-
tas, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Rockhopper10r, Rje, Helix84, Polylerus, Signor Giuseppe, Ranveig, Alansohn, Gero~enwiki, Sherurcij, Walter
Grlitz, CheeseDreams, Dgsinclair, Apoc2400, Toon81, ProhibitOnions, Jon Cates, Mikeo, Dave.Dunford, BDD, Ghirlandajo, Dan East,
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