Algebra
1. Laws of Exponents
n m
a m a n a mn, (ab)m a m b m, (a m)n a mn, a m/n a
If a 0,
am 1
a mn, a0 1, a m .
an am
2. Zero Division by zero is not defined.
0
If a 0: a 0, a0 1, 0a 0
For instance,
a 2 b 2 (a b)(a b),
a 3 b 3 (a b)(a 2 ab b 2),
a 4 b 4 (a b)(a 3 a 2b ab 2 b 3).
6. Completing the Square If a 0,
b
ax 2 bx c a x 2 a x c
a x a x
2
b b b2
2
2
c
4a 4a 2
b b2 b2
a x2 a x 2 a 2 c
4a 4a
b b2
a x2 a x 2
4a c
b2
4a
au 2 C (u x (b/2a))
7. The Quadratic Formula If a 0,
ax2 bx c 0
b b 2 4ac
x .
2a
Geometry
c c' a' a c
b
h b'
b b a
b' c'
a'
1 a b c a 2 b2 c2
A bh
2
h
h
r A r 2,
b C 2 r
b
A bh 1
A (a b) h
2
h
h
h
V Bh
V r 2h, S 2 rh
h h
h
s
1
1
V Bh V r 2h, S rs V _4 r 3, S 4 r 2
3 3 3
Conic Sections
A circle is the set of points in a plane whose distance from a fixed point in the plane is constant. The fixed point is the center of the circle; the
constant distance is the radius. An ellipse is the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points in the plane have a constant sum.
A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points in the plane have a constant difference. In each case, the fixed
points are the foci of the conic section. A parabola is the set of points in a plane equidistant from a given fixed point and a given fixed line in the
plane. The fixed point is the focus of the parabola; the line is the directrix.
y y y
x2 + y2 = 1, a > b > 0
x2 + y2
a
b2 a2 x2 + y2 = 1
= 1, a > b > 0 a a2 a2
b a2 b2 or
Vertex Vertex F2(0, c)
x2 + y2 = a2
Center Foci together
at center
Focus Focus
x
a a x a a x
F1(c, 0) F2(c, 0) b b
Parabolas in Standard Position
Focal axis
b F1(0, c) y
a
For both ellipses:
a = semimajor axis a
b = semiminor axis Degenerate case: 2
circle of radius a y= x
c = a2 b2 = center-to-focus distance 4p
Eccentricity: e = c/a, 0 < e < 1
F (0, p)
Focus
Directrix Vertex y = p
p
y
Hyperbolas in Standard Position
2
x y= x
x2 y2 = 1 y2 x2 4p
y a2 b2 y =1
a2 b2
A y = ab x
sy
m
pt A F2(0, c)
ot sy
e m
e
Center y
ot
pt
pt
ot
m
e
sy
Focus Focus a
A
x
x
F1(c, 0) F2(c, 0) y2
x x=
Vertex a 4p
y= ax y2 a x
e
ot
b b
pt
y = ab x
m
F1(c, 0)
sy
A
y
c = center-to-focus distance = a2 + b2
Eccentricity: e = c/a > 1 c = center-to-focus distance = a2 + b2
Asymptotes: y = (b/a)x Eccentricity: e = c/a > 1
Asymptotes: y = (a/b)x y2
x x=
4p
Vector Operator Formulas in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical Coordinates; Vector Identities
]f ]f ]f ]f 1 ]f ]f ]f 1 ]f 1 ]f
Gradient f i j k f u u k f u u u
]x ]y ]z ]r r r ]u ]z ]r
r ]f r sin f ]u
1 1 ur uf uu
i j k r ur uu rk r 2 sin f r sin f r
] ] ]
Curl F F ] ] ] F ] ] ]
]x ]y ]z ]r ]u ]z ]r ]u
]f
Fx Fy Fz Fr rFf r sin f Fu
Fr Fu Fz
]2 f ]2 f ]2 f 1 ] ]f 2 2
1 ] f ] f 1 ] ]f
Laplacian 2 f 2 f r r 2 2 2 2 f r2
]x 2
]y 2
]z 2 ]r ]r r ]u ]z r 2 ]r ]r
sin f ]f
sin f
2
1 ] ]f 1 ] f
r 2 ]r r 2
sin2 f ]u 2
Vector Triple Products Vector Identities for the Cartesian Form of the Operator
(u v) w (v w) u (w u) v In the identities listed here, f(x, y, z) and g(x, y, z) are differentiable scalar functions and
u (v w) (u w)v (u v)w u(x, y, z) and v(x, y, z) are differentiable vector functions.
fv f v v f f v (v ) f
fv f v f v
( v) 0
(f ) 0
( fg) f g g f
(u v) (u )v (v )u u ( v) v ( u)
(u v) v ( u) u ( v)
(u v) (v )u (u )v u( v) v( u)
( v) ( v) ( )v ( v) 2v
1
( v) v (v )v (v v)
2
x 1
r
y p2 cos A,
sin A
cos A
p
2
sin A
Cosine: cos u r O x
x
sin A cos A,
sec u p p
cos A sin A
2 2
y 1
Tangent: tan u x
cot u
1 1
sin A sin B cos (A B) cos (A B)
2 2
2. Identities
1 1
sin ( ) sin , cos ( ) cos cos A cos B cos (A B) cos (A B)
2 2
sin2 cos2 1, sec2 1 tan2 , csc2 1 cot2 1 1
sin A cos B sin (A B) sin (A B)
sin 2 2 sin cos , cos 2 cos sin 2 2 2 2
1 1
1 cos 2u 1 cos 2u sin A sin B 2 sin (A B) cos (A B)
cos 2 u , sin2 u 2 2
2 2
1 1
sin A sin B 2 cos (A B) sin (A B)
sin (A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B 2 2
y y
Trigonometric Functions y sin x y cos x
Radian Measure
0
2
3
x
0
2
3
x
2 2 2 2 2 2