Chapter 1: A Slave among Slaves

The opening chapter deals primarily with Booker T. Washington's childhood and
his impressions of slavery. He sets the tone for his memoir with vivid descriptions of
the conditions of his domestic life, his duties and the conditions under which he lived
from the time of his birth to the end of the civil war.
Washington was born in a log cabin on a plantation in Virginia. He knew almost
nothing of his ancestry, including the name of his father. His mother was the
plantation cook and their living cabin doubled as a kitchen for the plantation. The
cabin was small and uncomfortable, with an earthen floor, many holes to let in the
cold, and an open fireplace for cooking which gave off a nearly unbearable heat in
the summer. His mother had little time to care for her children during the day and
sometimes had to steal food to feed them.

Washington had a burning desire for education and describes the schoolhouse as a
paradise. He also notes, however, that despite their illiteracy, the slaves of the time
were well informed as to what was going on in the rest of the country, especially
regarding the state of the Civil War. They did so by means of the "grape-vine"
telegraph, in which the slave who was sent to the post office to collect the mail
would linger long enough to overhear the conversations of the whites receiving their
mail and share it with the other slaves.

The children on the plantation were fed much as animals were, with scraps given
here and there. When Washington saw some white women eating ginger-cakes, he
felt he would be successful if someday he could eat ginger-cakes as these women
did. As the war went on, however, the whites found it hard to procure food.
Washington reasons that they may have felt the deprivation more than the slaves,
as the slaves were used to eating foods that could be raised on the plantation while
the whites had grown accustomed to things from elsewhere.

Washington's clothing also caused him some hardship. His first shoes were quite
uncomfortable and made of wood. Even worse was the scratchy flax shirt he was
forced to wear.

Despite these hardships, Washington notes that the slaves of the time did not
harbor feelings of animosity toward the whites, but rather tenderness and sympathy.
The slaves would defend the white women and children with their lives and were
eager to nurse their wounded masters. Once free, many even cared for former
masters and mistresses who had become poor after the war. They were also unlikely
to betray the trust given to them. In one instance, a man made a contract with his
master to purchase himself and to raise the money for his freedom through labor.
After emancipation, he continued to pay off the debt even though it was not
required, as he had given his word to his master.

Washington avoids placing blame about the institution of slavery, even going to far
as to state that the former slaves are in a better position than black people in any
other part of the world. He does not justify the institution, but still claims that the
black man got nearly as much out of slavery as the white man. Whereas whites
became less self-reliant, learning to see labor as something to be ashamed of,
blacks often mastered a handicraft and learned to work hard.

There was much elation when freedom came. After a few hours, however, the
rejoicing ceased, as the former slaves realized the great responsibilities that had
suddenly been put on them. Older slaves especially had little strength or desire to
earn a living in a new place, and they also fostered an attachment to their masters.
Many therefore chose to stay at the plantation.

Analysis
This first chapter introduces a number of themes, such as responsibility, the power
of hard work, and the importance of education. Recalling that at no point in his
childhood did he have the time to play, Washington begins to lay the groundwork for
one of the book's primary messages - that industrial labor and education are the
best means to advancement. Emphasizing the relative poverty of his young life
enhances the power of his rags-to-riches story, in which education and rigorous
manual labor eventually lead to great success.

It is likely that Washington was influenced by Frederick Douglass's

autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass , an American
Slave, as there are many similarities between the opening paragraphs of both texts.
Douglass, an abolitionist leader, was arguably the most famous African-American at
the time. Washington may have drawn from Douglass's work as a way to emulate a
role model or, perhaps, to draw parallels between himself and the famous leader for
readers familiar with both of their books.
This chapter also introduces Washington's accommodationist tone, used to make
crucial overtures to his white audience. While he condemns the institution of
slavery, he also makes it clear that none of his race hold any animus towards their
former masters and even goes so far as to suggest that blacks benefited nearly as
much from slavery as whites. He shares specific examples of slaves or former slaves
taking care of their former masters and making good on debts far beyond the
ordinary, implying that integrating the former slave into American society will surely
yield a stronger union. Conspicuously absent are any scenes which might indicate
potential trouble between the races, such as a whipping scene he included in an
earlier autobiography distributed primarily among less literate readers.

It is likely that Washington uses this rhetorical technique to assuage feelings of guilt
among whites who might support his cause. Some critics have even argued that
Washington's memoir is more fiction than autobiography, with his primary purpose
to inspire white support and philanthropy. Keenly aware of the realities of race
relations in a time of upheaval and social change, Washington may also be
appealing to the better nature of his audience in the hopes that writing something
can in some way make it true.

Chapter 2: Boyhood Days

The chapter opens with the preoccupation of former slaves with finding their own
names and places in the world. One of the first signs of freedom was taking on a
new surname, distinct from that of their former owners. Similarly, most left the
plantation for at least some time to "try on" their freedom, although many of the
older slaves ended up returning to their old homes.

Washington's family joined his stepfather in West Virginia, where he had secured
work at a salt-furnace and a cabin for the family. The neighborhood was dirty and
poor, with no sanitary regulations and frequent drinking, gambling, and fights.
Washington and his brother were also forced to work in the salt furnaces. It was at
this job where he learned his first symbols, the number "18," which signified his
stepfather's salt barrels.

Washington's mother provided his first book, a copy of Webster's "blue-back"

spelling book, from which he learned the alphabet. He so envied a young colored
boy who would read the newspaper to the community each day! Many others shared
his desire for education, and students of all ages clamored to attend a newly opened
school. Washington was unable to attend the school at first, as his stepfather
preferred for him to make money in the salt mines. For a time he convinced the
teacher to give him lessons at night, giving him faith in the night-schools he would
later establish at Hampton and Tuskegee. Eventually he gained permission to attend
the day school, provided that he worked in the salt mines both before and
afterwards. Since the school was some distance from the furnace, he used to change
the time on the office clock each day to give him enough time to arrive at school on
time.
Washington faced two other difficulties at school. First, all the other children wore
hats or caps, but Washington's family had no money to buy one. Instead, his mother
sewed one for him using two pieces of homespun cloth. He felt proud that his
mother refused to go into debt for the hat, instead solving the problem by making
one herself. Secondly, he realized that all of the other children had two or three
names, while he had only one. When called upon, he gave himself a new name:
Booker Washington. Later, he found his name at birth had been "Booker Taliaferro,"
and he expanded his name to "Booker Taliaferro Washington."
His mother showed her generosity of spirit once again by adopting an orphan boy,
whom they called James B. Washington, and who has ever since been a part of the
family.

Washington attended the day school for only a short time. He did most of his studies
at night, and often had trouble finding a suitable teacher. However, he never gave
up his goal of receiving an education. Instead of going to school during the day,
Washington labored in a coal mine that provided fuel for the furnaces. He disliked
this work immensely, as it was dirty, hard, and dangerous.

In addition to telling the story of his boyhood, Washington also shares his feelings
about race and ancestry. In his view, a white boy, realizing that he will disgrace his
entire family if he fails, may be more highly motivated to overcome obstacles and
achieve success. On the other hand, being born with fewer advantages makes black
people have to work harder in order to advance, and such hard work can give them
a strength and confidence that those born with more advantages lack. Washington
later adds that being a member of a "superior race" has no meaning unless a person
also has individual worth, and that one's race cannot hold an individual back if he
possesses individual merit.

Analysis
In this chapter, Washington shows how thin the line was between ignorance and
education for so many former slaves. His vivid descriptions of life in the salt furnaces
and coal mines show the reality faced by so many of his race, and the challenges he
faced in attending school illustrate that a desire for education was typically not
enough to receive one when faced with the necessity of making a living. Without his
mother's support and gift of a spelling book combined with his unquenchable thirst
for knowledge, it is possible that Washington himself would have grown up to be
nothing more than another salt miner instead of the powerful force for progress that
he became.

The act of naming oneself is a powerful metaphor. In order to assert their new
identity as free men and women, most former slaves gave themselves a new
surname, distinct from that of their former masters. Washington, too, named
himself, taking on the surname of "Washington" when he realized that the other
children at school each had two or three names. Interestingly, "Washington" was the
given name of his stepfather, who was unsupportive of his aspirations to better
himself. Just ten years old and still uneducated, Washington most likely did not know
much about our first president and instead gave the first surname that came to
mind. It may be that he leaves his stepfather's first name out of the narrative so that
readers will make the link between Washington and the well-known American hero
on their own, thus increasing his stature in their minds.

The coal mine, while a reality in Washington's life, can serve as a metaphor as well.
Washington notes that the mine was extremely dark, stating, "I do not believe that
one ever experiences anywhere else such darkness as he does in a coal-mine" (14).
As such, it can be seen as an Underworld of sorts, the darkest place from which he
will eventually rise through hard work and education.

Washington introduces several more themes in this chapter, such as the importance
of perseverance and the belief that individual merit trumps race in achieving
success. A prime example of perseverance, Washington never gave up trying to get
an education, even going so far as to alter the time displayed on the clock in the salt
mines to make it to school on time. His preoccupation with cleanliness is apparent
with his description of the coal mines, as he listed being unclean as the very first
reason he disliked the job so much. He also introduces through the story of the
"homespun hat" the idea that making something oneself is vastly preferable to
purchasing things that one cannot afford, an idea which influences his policy of
having the first students at Tuskegee build their own structures and furniture.

Chapter 3: The Struggle for an Education

While Washington was working in the coal mines, he overheard two miners talking
about a school for people of all races somewhere in Virginia. Poor but worthy
students could work in exchange for board, while also learning a trade. Washington
was filled with a burning desire to attend this school, the Hampton Normal and
Agricultural Institute. Despite not knowing where it was or how he would get there,
he was determined to make his dream reality.

Soon afterwards, Washington had the opportunity to work in the home of the owner
of the salt furnace, Mrs. Viola Ruffner. While she had a reputation for being
unusually strict with her workers, Washington understood her needs and appreciated
her lessons on keeping a house. Ruffner allowed Washington to go to school for an
hour a day during some of the winter months, and it was with her that he began
collecting his first "library."
Despite making progress at gaining an education, Washington was still consumed
with desire to attend Hampton. In the fall of 1872 he set out with very little money,
donated by his brother John and some older colored people who were inspired by his
dream. He traveled over 500 miles, traveling by stagecoach when he could afford
the ticket and otherwise begging rides in wagons and cars. He also experienced for
the first time the hindrance his skin color could cause when a hotelkeeper refused to
even consider giving him food or lodging. By the time he reached Richmond, VA, he
was completely out of money. Hungry and exhausted, he slept under the sidewalk
for the night.

Once at Hampton, Washington earned his place at the institution by passing a test of
cleaning skills, for which he had been well-prepared by Mrs. Ruffner. Due to the
quality of his work, he was also given a job as a janitor, which allowed him to work
off most of the cost of his board.

It was at this time that Washington met a man who was instrumental in his growth
as a man and a teacher, General Armstrong. Washington portrays Armstrong as an
extraordinarily inspirational and unselfish man. One former student was overjoyed to
be able to push him up a hill near the end of his life, glad to be able to do something
to be of service. Many other students volunteered to live in tents while at Hampton
to please their mentor, so that more students could be admitted.

Washington learned many things at Hampton besides traditional book lessons. For
example, he learned to eat meals at regular times, use a tablecloth and a napkin,
take a bath, brush his teeth, and use sheets. He believes bathing daily to be one of
the most important lessons he learned, and felt that it not only kept the body
healthy but also promoted virtue and self-respect.

Tuition fees, which were $70 per year, could have prevented Washington from
continuing his studies, as he had little money aside from what his brother John was
able to send him. Fortunately, General Armstrong was able to find a donor to defray
the cost. However, he still struggled to acquire books and clothing. Books he could
borrow, but it was hard for him to keep his clothes clean when he had only one set.
Thankfully, his teachers helped to supply him with second-hand clothes donated
from the North.

The students at Hampton ranged in age, but all were extremely earnest in studying
and working. Many were just as poor as Washington. Washington was impressed that
all seemed to desire to prepare themselves to lift up their people back home, rather
than thinking of themselves. He also expressed his admiration and gratitude for the
Yankee teachers who devoted themselves to helping the Negroes of the South.

Analysis
In this chapter Washington demonstrates the powerful effect that role models played
in his life. Viola Ruffner had a formative influence on his work ethic and may have
contributed to his obsession with cleanliness. In any case, she played a pivotal role
in opening the doors to his education, giving him the skills to impress the staff at
Hampton. General Armstrong, too, played a major role, later hiring him as a teacher
and recommending him to be the leader of Tuskegee. Washington makes clear his
debt to these mentors, noting, "There is no education which one can get from books
and costly apparatus that is equal to that which can be gotten from contact with
great men and women" (21). In this way he demonstrates how access to
inspirational people can help young people to grow and reach their potential.
 Washington also demonstrates the barriers caused by a lack of funds and expresses
his gratitude for those who helped pay his tuition and supply him with books and
clothing. Resolving his own financial issues lays the foundation for his later work as
a fundraiser for the Tuskegee Institute.

In addition, he introduces the theme of helping others, commending his fellow

students for educating themselves in order to lift up their people back home rather
than for their own advancement. At the same time, his own struggles to attend
Hampton remind readers of the power of hard work and perseverance.

Chapter 4: Helping Others

At the end of his first year at Hampton, Washington found himself without money to
go home for vacation. He tried to raise funds by selling a second-hand coat, but his
prospective buyer could only purchase it on credit. Hoping to raise funds for clothing
and other necessities and to repay the institution the $16 that he owed, he found
work at a restaurant near the school, but his wages were little more than his board.
Despite working hard and spending little, he had not yet raised enough money by
the end of the summer. During his last week at the restaurant, he found a ten-dollar
bill under one of the tables; however, when he showed it to the proprietor, the
proprietor decided that the money was rightfully his. Thankfully, he was allowed to
reenter Hampton, with the treasurer trusting him to repay the debt when he could.

At Hampton, Washington continued to learn many life lessons in addition to his book
learning. He was greatly impressed by the unselfishness of the teachers and
concluded that "those who are happiest are those who do the most for others" (25),
a lesson he repeats many times throughout the book. He also learned about the
Bible, both as a source of spiritual guidance and as literature. His Bible teacher, Miss
Lord, also gave him lessons in public speaking. He joined the existing debating
society and formed another, relishing the opportunity to improve his skills while
contributing to the school.

At the end of his second year, aided by money from his mother, brother John, and
one of the teachers, Washington was able to return home during the summer
vacation. There he found that workers were on strike, something that Washington
did not understand as it seemed to him that the striking workers ended up worse off
in the end. His family and friends were overjoyed to see him, and he spent much
time-sharing his experiences with his community. Due to the strike, however, he
could find no work. His burden increased with the news that his mother had died. His
younger sister did not yet know how to keep house, and the family struggled to feed
and care for themselves.

With the help of Mrs. Ruffner, Washington was finally able to earn enough money to
return to school. Miss Mackie, the lady principal, asked him to return early, in order
to assist in getting things ready for the coming year. During these two weeks,
Mackie and Washington worked together to clean windows, dust rooms, put beds in
order, and so on. Washington was impressed that a woman of her social standing
could take such delight in doing this service. Ever since then he felt that all southern
schools for blacks should teach students the "dignity of labour" (27).

During his last year at Hampton, Washington worked hard enough to be placed on
the honor roll. He felt the most important benefits of Hampton were contact with
General Armstrong and learning what education should do: teach a person to love
labor, both for its own sake and for the independence and self-reliance it brings. He
learned, too, that the happiest people are those who do the most for others.

After graduation, Washington worked for a short time as a waiter in a hotel in

Connecticut and then returned to his hometown of Malden, VA to be a teacher. He
was overjoyed to help the people of his community. Working 14-hour days, he not
only taught his students to read and write, but also to keep themselves clean. The
demand for education was so great that he opened a night school to serve students
who had to work during the day. In addition to this work, Washington also
established a reading room, started a debating society, taught two Sunday schools,
and gave private lessons to several young men he wished to prepare for Hampton.
He was happy to send his brother John to Hampton as well, and to assist him with
his expenses. When John returned, he and Washington worked together to send their
adopted brother James to the school. Both of Washington's brothers later obtained
jobs at the Tuskegee Institute.

It was at this time that the "Ku Klux Klan" was at its height. Their purpose was to
regulate the conduct of the black people of the south, in particular crushing any
political aspirations. They operated mostly at night and resembled the "patrollers,"
bands of white men who prevented slaves from holding meetings without permission
before the Civil War. The Ku Klux Klan burned both schoolhouses and churches, and
many innocent people suffered. These lawless acts made a big impression on
Washington. He saw one battle between colored and white people in which one of
the injured was General Ruffner, husband of his good friend Mrs. Ruffner, because he
tried to defend the colored people. In Washington's view, much had changed
between that time and the time he wrote the book, with public sentiment no longer
allowing such things to exist.

Analysis
This chapter is aptly named, as it highlights both the ways that Washington was
helped and the ways in which he helped others. Indeed, finding happiness through
helping others is one of the two most important lessons he learned from Hampton.
The second, that there is dignity in labor, is another recurring theme. Washington
learns this lesson first-hand when the lady principal joins him to wash windows and
prepare beds, serving others despite her high social standing.

The anecdote Washington shares about bringing the $10 bill to the proprietor may
lead the reader to draw parallels between Washington and his namesake, the first
president of the U.S., whose honesty was supposedly assured when he confessed to
cutting down a cherry tree.

It is at the close of this chapter that Washington unintentionally makes one of his
most ironic statements: I have referred to this unpleasant part of the history of the
south, simply for the purpose of calling attention to the great change that has taken
place since the days of the Ku Klux. To-day there are no such organizations in the
south, and the fact that such ever existed is almost forgotten by both races. There
are few places in the South now where public sentiment would permit such
organizations to exist (30). It is unfortunate that Washington was so mistaken, with
two other movements of the KKK flourishing in the 1920s and then again during the
Civil Rights movement.

Washington may again be making a deliberate choice to look towards a better

tomorrow rather than dwelling on the dismal reality faced by members of his race,
given the direct knowledge he had of the life of a black person during his time.
Rather than reviling the Klan, he diplomatically notes only that "during this period
not a few coloured people lost their lives" (29), and furthermore shares that the
white General Ruffner was seriously wounded defending blacks during a melee. This
choice reflects Washington's character and strong belief that cooperation rather
than anger is the key to a stable future.

Chapter 5: The Reconstruction Period

The Reconstruction period (1867-1878) included the time Washington spent as a
student at Hampton and as a teacher in West Virginia. During this time, the majority
of his race were clamoring to both obtain Greek and Latin learning and to hold
office. Schools overflowed with students, both during the day and at night. However,
many people had the idea that "as soon as one secured a little education, in some
unexplainable way he would be free from most of the hardships of the world, and, at
any rate, could live without manual labour" (30). They also felt that knowing a little
Latin and Greek would make them somehow superior.

Most of those who received a little education became either teachers or preachers.
While there were some capable men and women, many did so as an easy way to
make a living without being properly qualified. The ministry, especially, suffered
from ignorant and sometimes immoral men claiming they had been "called to
preach" (30). Washington notes that the situation has improved somewhat, and that
more men and women were being "called" to industrial occupations.

Washington's people looked to the Federal Government during the Reconstruction

period to provide them with what was needed, as it was the central government that
had given them freedom. Washington feels it was unfortunate that this government
did not make it a requirement that both races possess a certain amount of
education, property, or both in order to vote. He also feels that Reconstruction policy
was "artificial and forced" (32), and that there were some in the North who forced
Negros into positions over southern whites in order to punish southern white men.

Washington, too, was at one time tempted to enter politics, but he felt he could do
more help through education. He saw many colored politicians who could not read or
write, and who had weak morals. Without education or experience in government,
such politicians understandably made a lot of mistakes. Washington believes his
race had grown much stronger and wiser by the time of the book's publication, and
that blacks would not repeat such mistakes if given political rights. He advocates for
voting laws to apply equally to both races, arguing that any other arrangement
would be unjust to blacks and whites alike.

After teaching in Malden for two years, Washington studied for eight months in
Washington, D.C. Unlike Hampton, this institution did not offer industrial training.
Washington found that students there were wealthier and, in some cases, more
intelligent than the students at Hampton. The majority did not have to work to pay
for their board, books, clothing, and other expenses, and consequently cared more
for outward appearances but understood less about life. Hampton students were
more self-reliant, as they had learned to help themselves through the industries.
They were more likely to work for the betterment of others in the rural and
impoverished parts of the South, rather than becoming hotel waiters or porters.

Washington's emphasis on self-improvement extended to the colored people living in

the city. Many had been drawn there in the hopes of living an easy life, while others
either worked in government or hoped to do so. While there were many worthy black
citizens, there were also many who had become alarmingly superficial and would,
for instance, spend half their weeks' wages to ride up and down the street in a
buggy. Some had little ambition, but expected the government to create a position
for them. He also saw girls who were taught the industry of laundering by their
mothers, but after attending public school for six or eight years, they no longer
wished to practice this occupation and at the same time had more expensive tastes:
"In a word, while their wants have increased, their ability to supply their wants had
not been increased in the same degree" (34). Washington states that in each case,
much would have improved by training the men and women in an industry.

Analysis
In this chapter Washington explains how blacks during the Reconstruction period
aspired to escape a life of manual labor through education and/or politics.
Unfortunately, many felt they were qualified to teach or to preach with very little
education, and others entered politics without the training or experience needed to
do their job properly. He shows how an education lacking in industrial training leads
to unsustainable lifestyles, which ultimately adds to people's misery. As such, he
continues to support his primary message: that the path to success for his race is
through hard work and industrial training, rather than in avoiding such labor.

It is somewhat ironic that Washington highlights his own choice not to enter politics,
as he eventually wielded more political power than any other black American of his
time. He had a close relationship with Theodore Roosevelt, who regularly consulted
Washington on matters involving race and southern policies; furthermore, the
president cleared nearly all black political appointments with Washington first. He
maintained secret contacts with journalists, even owning partial interests in some
black newspapers that allowed him to plant stories and influence coverage. He used
his power to keep other black schools from locating near Tuskegee, to obtain
political appointments for his supporters, and to keep tabs on organizations that
opposed his leadership.
Washington also introduces his political views on voting rights, advocating a
meritocracy of sorts in which men of either race must demonstrate a certain level of
education and/or property ownership in order to vote. Rather than acknowledging
the very real barriers to education and wealth inherent in society, he reveals an
underlying belief that with hard work, anyone can lift him or herself out of poverty
and ignorance, as he did himself. This rather non-confrontational view later earned
him the criticism of prominent African Americans who felt that much more should be
done to advocate for civil rights.

It is interesting that Washington does not give the name of the institution he
attended in Washington, D.C. Since he compares its students unfavorably to those at
Hampton, his choice may be a diplomatic one, as he likely wishes to offend no one
who might potentially support his cause.

Chapter 6: Black Race and Red Race

At the close of Washington's time in Washington, D.C., he received an invitation from
a committee of whites in Charleston to advocate on behalf of the city to become the
new capital of West Virginia. He accepted and spent three months speaking around
the state, successfully influencing their choice of capital. He began to form a
reputation as a speaker and was encouraged to enter politics. Feeling that he could
do more in education, however, he refused, noting that political preferment would
be a "selfish kind of success" (35). He felt that it would be more beneficial for him to
take steps to pave the way for black people to succeed in their professional goals.

He also returned to Hampton to deliver the commencement address, receiving a

warm welcome from teachers and students. Soon afterwards, General Armstrong
invited him to return to Hampton, partly as a teacher and partly to continue his
studies, due to the fact that the faculty had been very impressed by the students he
had prepared and sent to Hampton.

At the time, General Armstrong was experimenting with educating American Indians
at Hampton. Washington's initial job was to live with the Indian men as a sort of
"house father." He expresses his attitudes and beliefs about the Indians: that they
considered themselves to be above both whites and blacks, and that most people
considered that the experiment would be a failure. Determined to succeed, however,
he established good relationships with his students. He also shares some of the
Indians' struggles: "The things that they disliked most, I think, were to have their
long hair cut, to give up wearing their blankets, and to cease smoking; but no white
American ever thinks that any other race is wholly civilized until he wears the white
man's clothes, eats the white man's food, speaks the white man's language, and
professes the white man's religion" (37).

Washington found there was little difference between colored and Indian students in
terms of learning trades and mastering academic studies. He was also delighted at
the positive relationships that developed between the two, with many colored
students taking on Indian roommates to teach them English and "civilized habits"
(37). He expresses his belief that people "lift themselves up in proportion as they
help to lift others" (37), and shares an anecdote in which Frederick Douglass, forced
to ride in a baggage car, told his sympathizers that it was not he who was being
degraded, but rather those who were inflicting such unjust treatment upon him. He
also tells a story of George Washington, who, when meeting a colored man who
politely lifted his hat, lifted his own hat in return. In response to his friends' criticism,
George Washington said, "Do you suppose that I am going to permit a poor,
ignorant, coloured man to be more polite than I am?" (38)

Washington also reflects on the ways in which caste works in America. Once, he was
charged with taking a sick Indian boy to Washington, D.C. so that he could be
returned to his reservation. On the steamboat, he learned that the Indian could be
served dinner, but he could not. Similarly, at a hotel in the city, the clerk told him he
could admit the Indian but not Washington. In a second incident, he witnessed a
dark-skinned man who had caused a large stir for stopping at the local hotel. When
locals thought the man was an American Negro, they were ready to lynch him; but
when they found out he was a citizen of Morocco, they were no longer upset.
 At the end of Washington's first year with the Indians, he also took charge of the
night school. This school allowed students to attend classes for two hours at night,
with the condition that they would work for ten hours during the day. They were paid
something above their board costs for their work, with most of their earnings held in
a fund to pay their board when they later entered the day school. Washington gladly
taught a dozen men and women who worked in the sawmill and the laundry during
the day, and earnestly studied each night. Due to their eagerness to both work and
study, Washington gave them the nickname "The Plucky Class." The night school
quickly grew, and at the time of the book's publication served between three and
four hundred students.

Analysis
Washington opens the chapter by reiterating his decision to stay out of politics,
noting that doing otherwise would be a "selfish kind of success - individual success
at the cost of failing to do my duty in assisting in laying a foundation for the masses"
(35). As noted in the analysis to chapter 5, his statement is quite ironic, given the
immense amount of political power he eventually wields. It also implies that the way
to help his race is through education rather than politics, supporting his view that
the path to improved race relations is for blacks to become economically self-
sufficient rather than agitating for civil rights.

His description of the Indians at Hampton belies his own stereotyping of other races,
just as whites were doing to blacks. He describes them as "wild and for the most
part perfectly ignorant" (36) and states other stereotypes as facts: "I knew that the
average Indian felt himself above the white man, and, of course, he felt himself far
above the Negro, largely on account of the fact of the Negro having submitted to
slavery - a thing which the Indian would never do" (36).

The decision to educate Indians at Hampton was, in fact, a political decision by

General Armstrong, who understood that Virginia's elites would be more likely to
accept an African-American school that also enrolled Native Americans. In addition,
both northern and southern philanthropists would be likely to support such an
endeavor. The idea was to "civilize" the "savage" Indians and teach them how to
dress, speak, work, and behave like whites, much as reservation schools purported
to do. The first such Indians were defeated Plains warriors who had been held as
prisoners of war in St. Augustine, FL. The black students were made to feel superior
in terms of their work habits, language skills, and general progress, in the hopes that
Natives' hostilities towards whites would be redirected towards blacks. While
Washington's account suggests a greater degree of cooperation between the two
races, it does imply a certain superiority of blacks, allowing them to magnanimously
demonstrate their high moral character by helping their more ignorant Indian
classmates.

This theme of helping others is an oft-recurring one. Washington gives examples of

both Frederick Douglass (at the time the de facto leader of the black race) and
George Washington to make his point that those who act unjustly demonstrate their
own weakness of character, whereas those who behave kindly towards others lower
in status lift themselves up. His choice to include these particular men may be a
deliberate ploy to draw parallels between himself and well-known leaders, so as to
enhance his own image.

It is notable that Washington tells about being the victim of racism while
accompanying an Indian youth evenhandedly and without anger or malice. In so
doing he expresses both the enormous challenges he faced in improving race
relations and his own strength of character, to suppress any emotions that might
detract from his image and cost him the support of sympathetic whites.

Chapter 7: Early Days at Tuskegee

Near the end of Washington's first year teaching at the night school, General
Armstrong approached him with the opportunity to take charge of a school for
colored people in the town of Tuskegee, Alabama. Tuskegee was located in
what was known as the Black Belt of the south, in which colored people
outnumbered whites. Washington expected to find a building and everything
needed to begin teaching. While he was disappointed in that regard, he did find
"that which no costly building and apparatus can supply - hundreds of hungry,
earnest souls who wanted to secure knowledge" (41).

Washington found Tuskegee to be an ideal place for a school. The town had
been an educational center for whites, and therefore the white people of the
town had more culture and education than in most places. The colored people,
though ignorant, did not have the sort of vices found in large cities. In general,
race relations were pleasant; for instance, the town hardware store was jointly
owned and operated by two men of different races.

While ironically there was money for teacher salaries from the state government,
there was no provision for land, buildings, or supplies. Washington initially found
a dilapidated building near the Methodist church, which together with the church
could be used as an assembly room. Both were in such poor condition that the
ceilings often leaked when it rained.

The people he met were intent that he should vote as they did - exactly the
opposite of however the white man voted. Washington notes that he is pleased
that black voters are now learning to vote for whatever seems to be best for both
races.

Washington also traveled through Alabama to learn about the life of the people
and to advertise the school. He found that families tended to sleep in one room,
along with others outside the immediate family. There was rarely a provision
inside the cabin to bathe, although this could usually be found outside. People's
diets consisted mainly of fat pork and cornbread, both purchased at high prices
from a store in town. Rather than raising vegetables to eat, families planted
cotton. In the midst of this poverty, however, Washington often saw sewing
machines or showy clocks. One family of four had just one fork, yet they had
also purchased a sixty-dollar organ they were paying off in installments - despite
having no one in the household who could play it! People typically spent
weekdays in the cotton fields and Saturdays in town, doing little more than
standing in the streets. The crops were typically mortgaged and most farmers
were in debt.

Schooling typically happened in churches or log cabins, with often no way to

heat the building during the winter. The teachers in these schools were poorly
prepared and often had poor moral characters. School was in session for just a
few months a year, and there were few supplies beyond an occasional
blackboard. Washington found similar conditions among church buildings and
ministers.
Washington explains that the reasons he has described these conditions is in
order to later emphasize the many positive changes that have taken place,
through the work of the Tuskegee Institute and other institutions.

Analysis

In this chapter Washington highlights the extremely poor conditions in Alabama

before the opening of Tuskegee. In a sense, he is showing the nature of the
"rags" in a "rags-to-riches" story, in which through hard work he manages to
uplift not only his own life, but also the lives of countless others.

He includes an amusing anecdote that highlights ignorant voting practices: "At

the time I went to Alabama the colored people were taking considerable interest
in politics, and they were very anxious that I should become one of them
politically, in every respect... I recall that one man, who seemed to have been
designated by the others to look after my political destiny, came to me on
several occasions and said, with a good deal of earnestness: 'We wants you to
be sure to vote jes' like we votes. We can't read de newspapers very much, but
we knows how to vote, an' we wants you to vote jes' like we votes.' He added:
'We watches de white man, and we keeps watching de white man till we finds
out which way de white man's gwine to vote; an' when we finds out which way
de white man's gwine to vote, den we votes 'xactly de other way. Den we knows
we's right" (42). Notably, Washington did not include this anecdote in his first
autobiography, intended for less literate readers, as it could have angered poor
black supporters. Its inclusion here lends support to his view on voting rights, as
he earlier states that he is in favor of an educational requirement for voting as
long as it applies equally to members of both races.

In line with his emphasis on self-reliance, Washington also condemns the

wasteful spending of poor colored families. This spending contrasts with the
behavior of his mother, whom he earlier praised for sewing him a hat rather than
going into debt to purchase one.

Chapter 8: Teaching School in a Stable and a Hen-House

After spending a month seeing the actual life of the colored people in Alabama,
Washington was struck with the enormity of his task. He became more
convinced than ever that his students needed much more than mere book
learning.

He set July 4, 1881 as the opening day for Tuskegee. Both white and colored
people were quite interested in the event. However, some whites feared it might
bring about trouble between the races. They felt that educated blacks might
leave the farms, and that it would be more difficult to find domestic servants.

Washington mentions the men who asked General Armstrong to recommend a

director for Tuskegee: Mr. George W. Campbell (a white former slave holder)
and Mr. Lewis Adams (a former slave). He is effusive in his praise for these
men, both for their vision and their support over 19 years in helping to execute
that vision. He felt that Mr. Adams was particularly wise due to his mastery of
three different trades as a slave.

Thirty students reported for school on the first day, most from the county in
which Tuskegee is located. More had wished to enroll, but Washington had
decided to admit just those over 15 who had previously received some
schooling. The majority were public school teachers themselves, and some
were placed lower in classes than their former pupils. Some had studied Latin or
Greek and felt this entitled them to "special distinction" (46). Many were fond of
memorizing complicated rules in grammar or math, but they could not apply
these rules to anything in their daily life. Most wanted an education because
they thought it would help them to earn more money as teachers. By the end of
the first month, there were nearly fifty students enrolled, although many said
they hoped to get a diploma in their first year as they could attend for only a few
months.

After 6 weeks a new teacher arrived: Ms. Olivia A. Davidson, who later
became Washington's wife. She was born and educated in Ohio, but had also
spent time working in southern schools in Mississippi and Memphis. A
humanitarian at heart, she volunteered to nurse a boy with smallpox when
nobody else would, and to become a yellow-fever nurse despite lacking
immunity to the disease. Like Washington, she believed the people of the south
needed more than just book-learning and was attracted to the work of the
Hampton Institute. With the help of donors, she studied at Hampton and then at
the Massachusetts State Normal School. Soon afterwards she arrived at
Tuskegee, where she became an integral part of the school.

Washington and Davidson shared a vision to teach their students far more than
books, including bathing, caring for their teeth and clothing, diet, table manners,
keeping their room's clean, and the practical knowledge of some industry that
would allow them to make a living. Since agriculture was such a large part of life
in the South, they wanted to ensure that graduates returned to their plantation
districts and showed their communities how to improve farming with new ideas.

At first, the only structures at Tuskegee were an old shanty and an abandoned
church, while the number of students was rising daily. After three months, an
abandoned plantation came up for sale about a mile from town. The price was
low for the dilapidated house and grounds ($500), and the owner agreed to
accept half the money down, with the remainder to be paid within one year.
However, it was still a challenge to raise these funds, as they were strangers in
town with little money and no credit. Fortunately, General J. F. B. Marshall,
Treasurer of the Hampton Institute, answered Washington's plea with a loan
from his personal funds. While grateful, Washington felt the burden heavily of
having to repay such a large amount of money.
The new farm consisted of a cabin, an old kitchen, a stable, and an old hen
house, each of which were repaired and used for the school. The students
performed nearly all the work after their classes each day. At first they balked at
the thought of clearing land to plant crops, as they felt it would be beneath their
dignity, and they could not see the connection with their education. However,
when Washington himself led the way, they assisted and soon cleared and
planted 20 acres.

In the meantime, Davidson worked at raising funds to repay the loan, planning
festivals with donations of food from both black and white families in the
community and also asking for direct gifts of cash. One elderly woman, a former
slave, donated six eggs, all that she could afford. Washington felt it was the
most touching donation he ever received.

Analysis

In this chapter, Washington shares the initial improvements to the school from its
bare beginnings described in Chapter 7. These are still "rags" in the "rags-to-
riches" story, but he shows how rather than getting discouraged by such a
meager start, he began to see progress as the result of hard work.

He expands on the recurring themes of self-reliance and the dignity of labor,

showing how Davidson too had realized through her work in the south that
students needed to learn practical skills in addition to book learning. He gives
the example of Lewis Adams, one of the men who had asked General
Armstrong to recommend a leader for Tuskegee, whose mental alacrity he
attributes to his knowledge of three trades learned during his time as a slave.
Since many of his students come to him with an opposing idea - thinking that
education will allow them to avoid working with their hands - he teaches these
values by example, leading the way to clear the land on Tuskegee's new
property and plant crops. Just as he had been inspired by Miss Mary Mackie
cleaning Hampton's facilities at his side, it seems his students were inspired by
their leader's willingness to do the work he expected of them.

Washington continues to pander to his white audience, pointing out that whites
as well as blacks were generous with their donations to Tuskegee and even
directly stating that "Miss Davidson did not apply to a single white family, so far
as I now remember, that failed to donate something" (49). He also illustrates his
goal of "civilizing" his students, teaching them habits and manners (such as
bathing, brushing their teeth, and using good table manners) that would likely
appeal to whites.

Sharing stories of generosity - for example, telling of the former slave who
donated her savings of six eggs - not only demonstrates the value Washington
placed on giving and helping others, but also shows the strong support he had
from the community, despite the fact that some whites initially feared what would
happen if blacks were educated.

Chapter 9: Anxious Days and Sleepless Nights

Washington gained more insight into the lives of the people of Alabama by
witnessing their Christmas traditions. The day before, scores of children
knocked on doors asking for "Chris'mus gifts!" (50). Following the traditions of
slave times, there followed a week of debauchery with drunkenness and time off
work. Visiting local families, he found some with just 10 cents worth of ginger
cakes, a few pieces of sugar cane, or a jug of cheap whiskey as the only
signifiers of the holy season. He contrasts these observations with the manner
in which Tuskegee students were taught to spend the season: caring for others.
Some helped rebuild a cabin for a 75-year-old woman, while others who
generously donated coats for a fellow student in need.

Washington felt strongly that Tuskegee should be an integral part of its

community. While it was important to have friends in Boston, it was just as
important to have white friends in Tuskegee. He reports proudly that "the
Tuskegee school at the present time has no warmer and more enthusiastic
friends anywhere than it has among the white citizens of Tuskegee and
throughout the state of Alabama and the entire South" (52). With the help of
these white friends, after three months the school had enough money to repay
General Marshall's loan. Two months later, they had enough to pay the rest of
the money to purchase the property. The majority of this money came from small
individual donations and activities such as festivals and concerts.

Their next goal was to increase the cultivation of the land and to train students in
agricultural techniques. The choice to begin with farming was practical: "We
began with farming, because we wanted something to eat" (52). They also
wished to start an industrial system so that students could earn enough money
to remain in school for the entire session.

As the school's numbers were growing, it was important to build a large central
building, estimated to cost around $6000. A southern white man offered to
provide the needed lumber on credit, and Davidson began asking the
community for donations. One man gave a hog, and others volunteered several
days' labor.

Having raised all that she could locally, Davidson traveled north to solicit
donations, speaking in front of individuals, churches, and organizations. Despite
not loving the process, she proved to be a competent fundraiser. Her first
contributor was a woman who donated $50 after talking with her on the boat
north. Davidson was not terribly strong, and once fell asleep in the parlor when
calling upon a potential donor in Boston.
The need for money was always acute, but the school had a great deal of luck.
Once, Washington had promised a creditor to pay him $400 by a certain day.
That morning they had no money at all; yet that morning, a check arrived in the
mail for exactly $400. The generous donors, who were two ladies from Boston,
ended up giving $6000 every year for 14 years.

The students were responsible for digging the foundations. Although many
initially complained, feeling they had come "to be educated, and not to work"
(54), they gradually began to realize the value of labor. The laying of the
cornerstone was a momentous event, coming just 16 years after the abolition of
slavery. The address was given by the Superintendent of Education for the
county and was attended by teachers, students, parents, county officials, and
leading members of the community. Both blacks and whites wished to place
some memento under the cornerstone.

Washington was often anxious about finding the money for buildings and
equipment. He felt the weight of his endeavor, noting, "I knew that, in a large
degree, we were trying an experiment - that of testing whether or not it was
possible for Negroes to build up and control the affairs of a large education
institution. I knew that if we failed it would injure the whole race" (55) However,
everyone he approached in Tuskegee helped as much as they could, and even
General Armstrong donated a large amount from his personal funds. He was
careful to keep the school's credit high, recalling the advice of his mentor Mr.
Campbell that "credit is capital" (55).

In 1882, Washington married Miss Fannie N. Smith, who had also attended
Hampton. After giving birth to a daughter, Portia, she passed away two years
later. Washington is lavish in his praise of her efforts towards the school,
mourning that she died "before she had an opportunity of seeing what the
school was designed to be" (55).

Analysis

Washington opens the chapter by juxtaposing the behavior of uneducated

blacks with those of Tuskegee students at Christmastime. In so doing, he shows
his audience how Tuskegee is improving not only the skills and intellects but
also the morals of the students - something that is likely to greatly appeal to
white supporters.

Drawing such juxtapositions is a repeated literary device. In other chapters he

shows how Tuskegee started with just a few dilapidated buildings, yet grew into
an impressive and wealthy institution. Here, after telling of the school's first
animal - a blind horse - he contrasts it with the wealth of livestock the school
now owns of "over two hundred horses, colts, mules, cows, calves, and oxen,
and about seven hundred hogs and pigs, as well as a large number of sheep
and goats" (52). This rhetorical device not only demonstrates his own
achievements, but may also show his black supporters that they, too, can rise
above their initial circumstances to achieve greatness, however low their
beginnings may be.

Washington also continues to stress that help from strangers can profoundly
change others' lives. Just as he is generous with his thanks in earlier chapters to
those who helped him obtain an education, he is now generous with praise and
thanks for those who give to the school, both from the north and the south.

It is an apt metaphor that Tuskegee students dug the foundation for the school's
first major building, as Washington felt that learning to do useful work was the
foundation for improving the lives of southern blacks. Just as each experience in
Washington's life has served as a foundation for the next, his students learn that
success starts with growing food and constructing the buildings that will make
possible the education that they crave.

Chapter 10: A Harder Task than Making Bricks Without

Straw
Washington's plan at Tuskegee was to have students do not only the agricultural and
domestic work, but also to construct their own buildings. They were to be taught the
best methods for doing so, so that not only would the school benefit from their labor,
but also students would learn to love labor for its own sake. While some doubted the
wisdom of his plan, over nineteen years 36 of 40 buildings at Tuskegee were built
nearly entirely using student labor. During this process, hundreds of men learned
mechanical skills, such that by the time of the book's publication any building could
be entirely constructed by Tuskegee instructors and students, from drawing plans to
installing electrical fixtures.

The most trying experience in those days was attempting to make bricks. The bricks
were needed to construct Tuskegee buildings, but also there was a demand in the
general market. However, the work was hard and dirty, and it was difficult to
persuade students to help. The process required special skills and knowledge that
nobody initially had. The first three kilns failed, and there were no funds to try again.
Ever persistent, Washington pawned a watch for $15 and with the money was able
to successfully construct a fourth kiln. At the time of the book's writing, brickmaking
had become such an important industry at the school that last season students
constructed twelve hundred thousand bricks, and scores of men had mastered the
trade.

Making bricks taught Washington an important lesson: that providing a need for the
community can improve race relations. Many whites realized that education for
Negros was a good thing, as it added to the wealth and comfort of the community.
Furthermore, members of each race had more opportunities to interact as whites
came to buy bricks. Tuskegee graduates who learned the trade were able to
replicate this easing of racial tensions in other parts of the south, as communities
became in a way dependent upon these graduates for their skills. Washington
believes merit will always be rewarded no matter what race a person is, and that
tangible signs of one's worth can soften prejudices: "The actual sight of a first-class
house that a Negro has built is ten times more potent than pages of discussion
about a house that he ought to build, or perhaps could build" (58).

The same principle applied to wagons, carts, and buggies which students built. Just
like bricks, Tuskegee was able to supply the community with needed vehicles, and
men who learned to build and repair wagons and carts were highly valued.

Not all students and families subscribed to Washington's view of the value of
industrial labor, and many parents requested that their children be exempt from
having to engage in labor while at school. Washington did not heed their requests,
but rather visited many parts of the state to show the value of this type of
education. Despite the lack of popularity of industrial work, enrollment increased to
150 by the middle of the second year.

In the summer of 1882, Washington and Davidson went on a fundraising tour of the
North. An officer of a missionary organization along the way refused to give him a
recommendation and advised him to turn back, believing he would never make
anything more than what would cover his traveling expenses. In Northampton, MA,
he searched for a colored family with which to board, as he believed he would never
be accepted at a hotel. He was pleasantly surprised to learn this was not the case.

The two were able to raise enough money to hold their first service on Thanksgiving
Day in the chapel of Porter Hall, although the building was not yet complete.
Washington asked Rev. Robert C. Bedford, a white pastor from Wisconsin, to
give the sermon. Bedford later became a trustee of the school and worked tirelessly
for the good of the school. Washington praises both Bedford and Mr. Warren
Logan, who later became the treasurer of Tuskegee and the acting principal
whenever Washington was away.
As soon as the first building was complete enough that they could occupy part of it,
Tuskegee opened a boarding department. Students dug out the basement to make a
rough kitchen and dining room. Merchants allowed them to purchase food on credit,
but it was difficult to cook without stoves and to eat without dishes. At first, they
cooked outside using pots and skillets over a fire and ate on carpenters' benches
converted into tables. There was often something wrong with meals, students had to
share cups and dishes, and sometimes they had trouble even getting water from the
well.

Gradually, however, conditions improved. Washington shares his philosophy of

perseverance: "With patience and hard work, we brought order out of chaos, just as
will be true of any problem if we stick to it with patience and wisdom and earnest
effort" (61). He notes that he is glad they had to endure such discomforts in the
beginning, as it prevented them from becoming "stuck up": "It means a great deal, I
think, to start off on a foundation which one has made for one's self" (61). Former
students who return to Tuskegee and see the vastly improved conditions also often
note that they are glad they started as they did and grew naturally year-by-year.

Analysis
This chapter highlights, through numerous examples, the importance of
perseverance. Washington persevered when parents asked him to exempt their
children from industrial labor, holding true to his beliefs and explaining the reasons
for them rather than caving in to pressure. He did not give up after three failed
attempts at making bricks, instead trading in a watch in order to try a fourth time.
He refused to be discouraged when his military acquaintance told him to turn back
from his fundraising efforts in the north. The closest he came to becoming
discouraged, he admits, is when in the early days of the boarding program he
overheard a student complain that she could not even get water at the school; yet
even then, he kept going, following his vision for Tuskegee's future.

Once again, Washington juxtaposes the old and the new to highlight the way that
this perseverance, coupled with hard work, brings incremental progress that can
lead to great success. He describes in detail the dining room the way it is at the time
of the book's writing, so very different from the initial room dug into the basement
and furnished with crude carpenters' benches. He points out that these changes
came gradually, "by a slow and natural process of growth" (61), suggesting that
others, too, can achieve success if they work hard and have enough patience. This
incremental progress parallels his own life, in which tiny first steps - teaching himself
the alphabet, moving the clock's hands so he could go to school on time, setting off
for Hampton with very little money, and so on - can eventually bring enormous
results.

Washington reiterates his belief that individual merit is far more important than race
in achieving success. His strategy is practical: make yourself useful, and you will be
valued. Certainly in his life, this belief proved to be true. He made himself
indispensable as a janitor at Hampton so that he could continue his studies, and he
was later offered a teaching job at his alma mater because he had prepared
students from his home community so well. His skill at public speaking won him a
spot on the lecture circuit, and he made such an impression on others that he was
eventually invited to dine at the White House. What he failed to realize, and what
critics have pointed out, is that an unjust society can make it difficult for ordinary
people to achieve this kind of success.

Chapter 11: Making Their Beds Before They Could Lie On

Them
A little later, Washington received a number of visitors from the Hampton Institute:
General Marshall, the treasurer who had given the institute its first loan; Mary
Mackie, the head teacher who had admitted him into the school; and General
Armstrong himself. Most of the teachers at Tuskegee by that time were graduates of
Hampton. The visitors were quite impressed by the school's progress.

Washington had previously assumed that Armstrong would have feelings of

bitterness towards southern white men, having fought against them in the Civil War.
However, he soon learned that Armstrong was as anxious about the prosperity of
southern whites as southern blacks. This attitude caused Washington to respect him
even more: "From his example in this respect I learned the lesson that great men
cultivate love, and that only little men cherish a spirit of hatred. I learned that
assistance given to the weak makes the one who gives it strong, and that
oppression of the unfortunate makes one weak" (62). Washington endeavored to
become like Armstrong in this respect, and reports that as of the book's writing he
no longer had any ill feelings towards southern whites for wrongs they may have
inflicted upon his race.

He also reflects upon the acts of certain southern whites who have tried to get rid of
the force of black votes. He argues that doing so is actually worse for the white man
than for the Negro, as the white man only temporarily hurts the Negro but
permanently injures his own morals. He learns to be dishonest in all areas of his life,
including in his dealings with other white men. Similarly, a white man who lynches a
Negro may later lynch a white man.

Soon after the boarding department opened, students began arriving in greater
numbers. In order to house the newcomers, the school rented a number of
dilapidated cabins near the school that did a poor job of protecting students from
the cold. Students paid $8 a month for their room, board, fuel, and washing, but
received a credit on their board bills for any work they did for the school. The cost of
tuition was $50 per year per student, which they could not always pay right away.
These fees provided little capital for the department, and there were not enough
blankets or even mattresses for all of the students. During the coldest nights,
Washington had trouble sleeping due to worrying about the students, and would
sometimes visit them in order to comfort them. Even though it was sometimes too
cold to sleep and students even got frostbite, no one complained, and they even
asked what they could do to lighten the burden for teachers.

Washington had heard people say colored people would not respect members of
their own race who were placed in positions of authority over them. Contrary to this
belief, he notes that no student or staff member ever treated him with disrespect.
Instead, he has been often impressed by many acts of kindness, such as offers to
carry heavy loads or to hold an umbrella over his head. Nor has he received any
insults from southern whites, noting that instead the white people near Tuskegee go
out of their way to show him respect.

Washington notes that strangers, too, now treat him with respect. When on a train
between Dallas and Houston, there were whites at every station who came and
thanked him for the work he was doing. On another trip from Augusta to Atlanta, two
ladies from Boston insisted he sit and eat with them in their section. When he finally
extricated himself from the situation (for segregation laws required him to sit
elsewhere), he found that the southern white men, rather than chastising him for
being in the wrong section of the train, instead expressed their gratitude for what he
was trying to do for the south.
He also stresses that Tuskegee belongs not to him, but to his students, and that they
have as much interest in it as the teachers or trustees. He notes that he is not their
overseer, but rather their friend and advisor. Several times a year, he asks students
to write him letters with their criticisms or complaints, or to have a talk with him
about the school. Doing so allows him to impart responsibility upon his students, and
to show them his trust in them. Washington believes many labor problems could be
avoided by employers similarly getting closer to their employees, consulting with
them, and letting them know their interests are common.

Washington wished for students not only to construct the buildings at Tuskegee, but
also the furniture. He marvels at the patience of students who slept on the floor
while waiting for a bed or a mattress. Few students in the beginning were used to
carpentry, and much of the early furniture was poorly constructed. They eventually
made mattresses by sewing together cheap cloth into bags, which they filled with
pine needles. Now, the school teaches mattress making to many girls, and the
mattresses are as good quality as those sold in stores. The furniture in students'
rooms was initially rudimentary and sparse; now, it is more plentiful and well
constructed.

Washington valued cleanliness and insisted on it for his students, explaining,

"people would excuse us for our poverty, for our lacks of comforts and
conveniences, but that they would not excuse us for dirt" (66). He insisted that
every student use a tooth-brush, explaining the civilizing influence of such a device:
"I have noticed that, if we can get a student to the point where, when the first or
second tooth-brush disappears, he of his own motion buys another, I have not been
disappointed in the future of that individual" (66). Similarly, students were required
to bathe regularly, and many learned for the first time how to sleep between two
sheets and to wear a nightgown. Their clothing was inspected daily, and they
learned never to have missing buttons, torn areas, or grease-spots.

Analysis
In this chapter Washington details the early growth of the school. He also shows how
his own fame has started to grow, with strangers greeting him at railway stations.
He highlights the warm welcome he receives from southern whites and reiterates
that neither he nor General Armstrong harbor any ill will against them, thereby
demonstrating to his audience that it is possible to have harmonious relations
between the races. This treatment is a marked change from earlier days, when he
had to sleep under the sidewalk and was refused service even when the Indian
student he accompanied was not. Indeed, considering the racial tensions of the day
(see "Racism in the 1890's"), his attitude is particularly optimistic and reflects his
vision that education will bring a brighter future for both races in the south.

Washington keeps his audience in mind as he discusses his views about the
suppression of black votes and the problem of lynching, arguing that injustices
carried out by whites actually hurt whites more than blacks due to the permanent
harm they cause to their morals. Many black activists such as William Monroe
Trotter, editor of the Boston Guardian, and sociologist W.E.B. Du Bois have criticized
Washington for not being more outspoken about such practices. In fact, he secretly
provided support to fight violence, segregation, and black disfranchisement, but he
did not wish to do so publicly as he was afraid of jeopardizing the support of white
politicians and philanthropists.

Washington draws clear parallels between himself and his mentor, General
Armstrong. When Washington attended Hampton, Armstrong used to visit the
students living in tents who suffered through cold nights to give them moral support;
so, too, did Washington visit Tuskegee students shivering all night in their
dilapidated cabins. In addition, just as students were eager to help Armstrong in any
way they could, he reports that his own students often offered to carry his books or
hold umbrellas over his head when it rained.

Washington also continues his "then and now" juxtapositions by comparing the
initial furniture in students' rooms with the way that rooms are furnished now. In
detailing how much of the construction students performed, Washington may be
illustrating not only how hard working his Negro students are, but also how the
money given by potential donors is stretched to yield the maximum benefit.

Chapter 12: Raising Money

When the school opened its boarding department, they provided rooms for girls in
the attic of Porter Hall, their first building. However, the number of students
continued to grow. They could find rooms outside the school grounds for the young
men, but they wished to keep the girls on campus. They eventually decided to
construct a larger building that would have rooms for the girls and boarding
accommodations for everyone. This building would cost around $10,000. Despite
having no money to begin with, they named the proposed building Alabama Hall.
Miss Davidson began fundraising around the community, and students began
digging out the foundations.

At this time, General Armstrong invited Washington to spend a month traveling with
him in the North. Using Hampton's funds, he had generously arranged to hold
meetings in important cities, along with a quartet of singers, in order to solicit
support for Tuskegee. In this way they both raised funds for the construction of
Alabama Hall and brought the school and its work to the attention of the public.

After this initial introduction, Washington began traveling North on his own to
fundraise. He had two "rules": first, to do his best to make Tuskegee's work known to
individuals and organizations; and second, to not worry about the results. He
realized that the men who have achieved the most are those who were always calm,
patient, and self-controlled, and that the way to get the most out of one's work is to
forget oneself in one's cause.

Washington has little patience for those who condemn the rich, explaining how
frequently wealthy people are asked for help and how much money anonymous
donors give away. For example, two ladies from New York gave the school enough
money to erect three large buildings, in addition to other donations; yet their names
rarely appeared in print.

Although he has raised hundreds of thousands of dollars, Washington avoids using

the term "begging." Persistently asking for money, he explains, does not usually
yield results. Instead, it is more effective to share the facts about Tuskegee and its
graduates, and let the wealthy decide on their own whether or not it is a worthy
cause. He does not generally enjoy asking for money, but he does enjoy the
opportunity to study human nature and to meet the "best people in the world" (69).
He finds many who consider it a privilege to help such a good cause, and who
"regard men and women who apply to them for help for worthy objects, not as
beggars, but as agents for doing their work" (70). In Boston, he finds that people
tend to thank him for calling before he can even thank the donors for their money.

Results did not always come immediately. Once, Washington spent many hours
visiting a man in Connecticut who did not at the time donate anything. Two years
later, however, he sent a check for $10,000. This money came at a most opportune
time, when funds were particularly low and Washington was feeling the weight of his
endeavor: "If the institution had been officered by white persons, and had failed, it
would have injured the cause of Negro education; but I knew that the failure of our
institution, officered by Negroes, would not only mean the loss of a school, but
would cause people, in a large degree, to lose faith in the ability of the entire race"
(71).

In a similar way, it was not always possible to tell where a small donation would
lead. Collis Huntington, a railroad man, initially donated just $2 to the school, but a
few months before he died he gave $50,000 towards the endowment fund. He also
gave many gifts in between. Washington did not blame Huntington for the small size
of the initial gift, but rather decided to convince him through tangible results that
the school was worthy of larger gifts. As the school's usefulness grew, so too did the
size of the donations.

Another donation came after Washington invited the Rev. E. Winchester Donald,
rector of Trinity Church in Boston, to give the Commencement sermon. Since there
 was no room large enough for all attendees, they held the address outside under an
improvised shelter. Soon after the reverend began speaking, the rain came pouring
down. He remarked that it would be a good thing to have a large chapel at
Tuskegee; the next day, a letter arrived from two women who had decided to give
the money for such a chapel.

Other donors included Andrew Carnegie, who gave $20,000 for a library building
despite his disinterest in the school ten years earlier; the State Legislature of
Alabama, due to the hard work of a Tuskegee graduate in the legislature; the John F.
Slater Fund; and the Peabody Fund. Washington acknowledges two men who work
for these funds, Hon. J.L.M. Curry and Mr. Morris K. Jessup, both of whom he lavishly
praises. The majority of the school's gifts, however, were small donations from
people who were less wealthy. In particular, Christian societies and Sunday schools
gave a lot of small gifts, along with Tuskegee graduates.

Analysis
While on the surface this chapter is not much more than a list of acknowledgements
for gifts to the school, it also reflects Washington's hard work and perseverance in
demonstrating that Tuskegee is worthy of such donations. Washington rewards past
contributors with public praise, but also plants the idea in future donors' minds that
Tuskegee is giving them an opportunity to make a tangible difference with their
money. He also reminds readers that there is always a need for more charitable
giving and also that each donation, large or small, is a step towards a better
tomorrow.

Chapter 13: Two Thousand Miles For A Five-Minute Speech

Many students applied to Tuskegee who had no money to pay even the small
fees required. Not wishing to refuse these applicants, in 1884 they opened a
night school based on the model used at Hampton. Students were required to
work for ten hours during the day and study academics for two hours in the
evenings, with nearly all of their earnings given to the treasury to use to pay
their board in the day school once they were able to transfer. At this point, they
studied academics four days a week and worked at their trade for two days.
They also typically worked over the summer months. The school grew from 12
students at its opening to 457 at the time of the book's writing.

The school also provided religious training. It was non-denominational but

Christian and offered preaching services, prayer meetings, Sunday school, and
several Christian societies and missionary organizations.

In 1885, Washington married Olivia Davidson, who had been working for some
time at the school and traveling north to fundraise. She gave birth to two sons,
Booker Taliaferro and Ernest Davidson, the older of whom mastered the
brickmaker's trade at Tuskegee. After just four years of marriage, however, she
passed away, having worn herself out.

Washington reflects on his life as a public speaker, a vocation he never intended

to have. However, when he went north with General Armstrong, Thomas
Bicknell, President of the National Educational Association, heard him speak
and invited him to deliver an address at the next meeting of the association in
Madison, WI. This address began Washington's public-speaking career. There
were around 4,000 people present, many from Alabama and some even from
Tuskegee. While many of these southerners expected him to speak poorly of the
south, he instead praised southern whites for their help in starting the school. He
had long before decided never to say anything in the north that he would not be
willing to say in the south. When he does need to call attention to wrongdoings,
he feels the proper place to do so is in the south.

In this address, Washington explained his view on race relations: that the best
policy is to bring the races together and to encourage friendly relations. In terms
of voting, the Negro should consider the interests of his community, rather than
seeking to please someone far away. Washington explained that the Negro's
future depended on his ability to make himself of value to his community, and
that by learning to do something better than anyone else a man could solve his
problem regardless of his race. He gave the example of a graduate who had
learned to produce five times as much food from an acre of land than what was
average; the white farmers respected him for his skill and came to him for
advice. The Negro did not have to work forever in agriculture, but succeeding in
this industry would lay the foundations for his children and grandchildren to
achieve more.

Rather than feeling ill will against anyone who speaks unkindly or tries to
oppress the black man, Washington says he now pities such people, as they are
trying to stop the progress of the world.

After his Madison address, Washington began receiving offers to speak at other
places. In the North, his purpose was primarily to raise funds for Tuskegee;
when speaking to colored audiences, his purpose was to impart the importance
of industrial and technical training in addition to book learning. In 1893, he had
the chance to speak at a meeting of Christian Workers in Atlanta. He had other
engagements in Boston at the time, but he realized he could take a train from
Boston to Atlanta that would allow him to arrive half an hour ahead of time, and
then return to Boston on the next train. The address would be just five minutes
long, but the audience would be composed of influential whites, and it would be
an excellent opportunity to publicize the work of Tuskegee. He therefore made
the trip.

This address opened the door to speak at the opening of the Atlanta Cotton
states and International Exposition in September 1895. In the spring of that year,
he was asked to accompany a mostly white committee from Atlanta to
Washington, D.C. to solicit government support for the Exposition. There he
emphasized that the Exposition would allow both races to show how they had
advanced since the end of the Civil War and encourage them to make further
progress. He felt that while blacks should not be unjustly deprived of the right to
vote, political activism was not the answer; rather, they needed to acquire
property, skill, intelligence, and character. The Exposition could therefore be of
lasting value to both races.
The committee made a favorable report, and the Exposition received funding
from Congress. The directors decided to erect a large building devoted to black
progress since freedom, entirely designed and constructed by Negro
mechanics. The officials wanted Washington to take care of the exhibit, but he
felt he didn't have the time due to his obligations at Tuskegee. He recommended
Mr. I. Garland Penn to do so in his stead. The exhibit was successful, with the
most attention going to exhibits from the Hampton and Tuskegee Institutes.

Since Negros had been asked to play a prominent part in the Exposition, the
Board of Directors decided to invite a black man to speak on the opening day as
a representative of the Negro race. They unanimously voted to extend this
honor to Washington. He felt a great deal of responsibility at receiving the
invitation. It was the first time a Negro had been asked to speak from the same
platform as southern white men and women on an important occasion. In
addition, his audience would be comprised of whites from the north and the
south, as well as many men and women of his own race.

Washington felt a great deal of pressure to say the right thing. He knew he could
jeopardize the success of the Exposition or prevent a similar invitation from
being extended to a black man for years to come. He wanted to be true to his
own race, but also to the North and to the best element of the white South.
There was a lot of discussion in the papers as the speech drew near, and a
number of southern white papers were unfriendly to the idea. Nervous, he
rehearsed in front of his wife and the teachers at Tuskegee, all of whom thought
well of what he said.

Traveling to Atlanta with his wife and children, he met a white farmer who
summarized the enormity of his situation: "Washington, you have spoken before
the Northern white people, the Negroes in the South, and to us country white
people in the South; but Atlanta, to-morrow, you will have before you the
Northern whites, the Southern whites, and the Negroes all together. I am afraid
that you have got yourself in a tight place" (81). Many people of both races
came to the train to point him out and discuss what was about to happen.

Atlanta was packed with people from all parts of the country, as well as
representatives from abroad. The papers forecasted the next day's proceedings,
adding to Washington's tension. He slept little that night. The next morning, he
kneeled down and asked God to bless his efforts. He always tries to make
special preparations for each address, as no two audiences are exactly alike.

The next morning, a committee escorted him to his place in the procession that
would march into the Exposition grounds. The procession included prominent
colored citizens in carriages, as well as Negro military organizations;
Washington noticed that all were treated well. The procession lasted around
three hours, during which the sun was extremely hot. By the time they reached
the grounds, he felt nearly ready to collapse. The room where he would speak
was packed. There were vigorous cheers from blacks, and faint cheers from
whites. He had been told that there would be many people in the audience who
were present for the purpose of watching him make a fool of himself. One of his
friends, William Baldwin, was so nervous that he didn't even enter the building
until after the opening exercises were over.

Analysis

This chapter primarily tells the story of how Washington came to speak at the
Atlanta Exposition, arguably the high point of his career. As before, small,
incremental steps eventually lead to great success; in this case, touring the
north with General Armstrong eventually led to a speaking engagement in
Atlanta, which, though it required many hours of travel for just five minutes of
speaking, opened the door to his monumental speech at the Exposition.

Washington gives a great deal of detail in explaining the lead-up to this address.
This slowing down and "zooming in" with visual and auditory imagery helps the
reader to understand the magnitude of the event, and the reader can even feel
some of Washington's emotions during the days and moments before the
speech. Interestingly, Washington shares more about his emotional state at this
point than when relating his wives' deaths, which he does with a calm
detachment.

Indeed, while we may marvel at the lack of details about Washington's personal
life, he is nothing if not consistent, pursuing industrial education for blacks with
an almost missionary zeal. When introducing his children, he proudly notes that
his older son has already mastered the brickmaker's trade; and when telling of
his wife's death, his praise centers on her unselfish work for Tuskegee. The
book's message is unwavering and clear: industrial education and hard work
among blacks is the way to create harmonious race relations and progress for
his race.

Chapter 14: The Atlanta Exposition Address

Washington's address can be summarized as follows: One-third of the

population of the south is black; thus, it is important to include blacks
when considering the welfare of this region. This Exposition has done
an excellent job recognizing the value of the American Negro, a
recognition that will cement the friendship between the races. This
opportunity will also begin a new era of industrial progress. It isn't
surprising that when blacks were ignorant and inexperienced, they
were more interested in becoming politicians than learning a trade.

A ship lost at sea asked a friendly vessel for water, as they were dying
of thirst. The answer came back: "Cast down your bucket where you
are." After asking three more times and receiving the same answer
every time, the captain finally cast down his bucket and received
fresh, sparkling water from the Amazon River. To those of his race who
expect to better themselves in another land or underestimate the
importance of cultivating friendship with the southern white man,
Washington says, "Cast down your bucket where you are." Do so in
agriculture, mechanics, commerce, domestic service, and in
professions. It is in the south that the Negro has a chance in the
business world. The biggest danger is to overlook the fact that most
of the race needs to live by working with their hands, and that they
will prosper in proportion with the degree to which they glorify
common labor.

To those of the white race who look to foreigners to bring prosperity to

the south, he also says, "Cast down your bucket where you are." Cast
it down among the millions of Negros you already know, who have
proven their loyalty to you and tilled your fields, cleared your forests,
built your railroads and cities, and retrieved treasures from the earth,
without going on strike. If you do so, you will find they will buy your
surplus land, make your waste fields grow, and run your factories. You
can be assured you will be surrounded by the most patient, faithful,
and unresentful people there are. Just as we have proven our loyalty
to you in the past, nursing your children and parents, we will stand by
you in the future, ready to lay down our lives in defense of yours. We
can be separate in our social lives, but work together for mutual
progress.

There can be no security except in the intelligence and development

of all. If there are efforts to curtail the Negro's growth, let these be
turned into encouraging him to be the most useful and intelligent that
he can be. Such investment will earn a thousand percent interest. The
races are inescapably entwined; the black race can lead upwards or
downwards. They can constitute a third of southern crime, or
contribute a third to the economic prosperity of the region.

You must not expect too much, as the progress we have made would
not be possible without the constant support for education from
southern states and northern philanthropists.

The wisest of the race understand it is foolish to agitate for social

equality, and that enjoying full privileges must come as the result of
hard work and struggle. No race that has something to contribute will
be ostracized for long. It is important to have legal rights, but it is
more important to be prepared to exercise those privileges. It is far
more important now to be able to earn than to spend.

In conclusion, nothing in thirty years has given the black race as much
hope as this Exposition. In your effort to work out the problems of the
south, you will have the help of the race. Yet more important than
material benefits will be the ceasing of racial animosities and an
obedience of all to the law. This, along with material prosperity, will
bring to the south "a new heaven and a new earth" (85).

After concluding his speech, Washington received many hearty congratulations.

The next morning, crowds of men who wished to shake hands surrounded him.
The same thing happened at each station as he traveled back to Tuskegee by
train. Papers around the country published the address, and for months there
were complimentary editorial references, several of which he quotes verbatim.
Washington began to receive propositions from lecture bureaus and editors to
speak and to write articles. One lecture bureau offered him $50,000 to work for
them for a certain amount of time. However, he responded that his life work was
at Tuskegee, and that he would not do anything that simply placed a commercial
value upon his work.

Washington sent a copy of his address to Grover Cleveland, then president of

the US. Cleveland responded with a heartfelt letter of support, reprinted in the
book. Washington later met Cleveland at the Atlanta Exposition, where he spent
an hour in the Negro Building. Washington expresses his admiration for the
man, who shook hands with many blacks and gave them his autograph. The two
became friends and Cleveland did much for Tuskegee, including making
personal donations and using his influence to secure donations from others.
Washington believes Cleveland does not have any racial prejudice, and that
such prejudice is limited to narrow people who do not open their minds and
souls. The happiest people are those who do the most for others, he believes,
while the most miserable are those who do the least.

The colored people and papers at first seemed to be pleased with the speech,
but after a time some felt they had been hypnotized. They felt he had not
spoken strongly enough for black "rights". However, later those who felt this way
seemed to change their minds and believe as Washington did.

Another example of a change in public sentiment came when Dr. Lyman

Abbott, editor of Outlook Magazine (where the book was initially published),
asked Washington to give his opinion of the condition of colored ministers in the
south. He answered honestly, painting a rather bleak picture. Many condemned
him, and some organizations even advised parents to cease sending their
children to Tuskegee. However, when church leaders began investigating, they
found he was right. Public sentiment then demanded that better men be placed
in the pulpit, and many who had originally condemned Washington then thanked
him. He now has many warm friends among the clergy.

Soon after the Atlanta speech, Washington was invited to be one of the judges
at the Department of Education in Atlanta. He became secretary of his group of
jurors, whites from both the north and the south, and judged the white exhibits
as well as the black ones.

Washington spends the remainder of the chapter expanding on his political

views. He believes that eventually the southern Negro will be given all of the
political rights to which he is entitled, based on his ability, character, and
material possessions. Such rights will not come through artificial forcing, but
rather will be given by southern whites themselves, as soon as they no longer
feel they are being forced to do something they do not wish to do. He feels that
the Atlanta officials invited a Negro to speak at the Exposition and to be a
member of the board of jurors because they wished to do so, and that this likely
would not have happened had there been demands from outside. Therefore, he
believes that blacks should not agitate for political rights, but rather should
depend on gaining them slowly as they acquire property, intelligence, and high
character. They should not cease voting, but they should let themselves be
influenced by intelligent neighbors of good character, such as southern white
men who have helped them to succeed economically.

Washington believes it is unjust to allow a poor and ignorant white man to vote
but to deny a black man in the same condition from voting. Such a law would
encourage the Negro to become educated and get property, while the white man
would remain ignorant and poor. He thinks that friendly race relations will cause
the cheating at southern ballots to stop, as it will become clear that a southern
white man who cheats a black man out of his vote will learn to do the same to a
white man, and then may commit bigger crimes such as theft. He believes the
south will eventually encourage everyone to vote, as it is wiser to have a healthy
political life than the political stagnation that results from half the population
having no share or interest in the government. However, at present he feels it is
justified to protect the ballot at least for a while by an education test, a property
test, or both, provided that such tests are applied equally to both races.

Analysis

The Atlanta Exposition speech is Washington's most famous speech, and the
only one he considered important enough to reprint in its entirety within the
book. It is also known as the "Atlanta Compromise," a term coined by outspoken
critic W.E.B. Du Bois, as it posited that blacks would not agitate for social or
political equality but would work hard to become educated and make
themselves valuable in society. As he expanded on later in the chapter,
Washington believed political rights would be granted naturally as blacks rose
out of poverty and contributed to their communities. His views are extremely
practical, given that slavery had been abolished just 30 years prior and southern
whites were unlikely to grant blacks full equality without a fight. Thus he focused
on that which he felt was most foundational - economic opportunity - rather than
social or political equality, which he felt would naturally come later. His views are
eloquently expressed in an oft-quoted metaphor: "In all things that are purely
social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things
essential to mutual progress" (84).

The speech was very well received by whites, but less so by members of his
own race. Washington claims that most blacks later changed their views to
mirror his, but it is likely that he is exaggerating. In fact, he was a financial
supporter of a number of black newspapers, allowing him to influence their
editorials and news coverage. Thus, it is more likely that these blacks simply
found it expedient to be less vocal about their dissent. Not everyone was so
diplomatic, of course. In an influential 1903 essay, W.E.B. Du Bois wrote, "So far
as Mr. Washington preaches thrift, patience, and industrial training for the
masses, we must hold up his hands and strive with him...But so far as Mr.
Washington apologizes for injustice, North or South, does not rightly value the
privilege and duty of voting, belittles the emasculating effects of caste distinction
and opposes the higher training and ambition of our brighter minds -- so far as
he, the South, or the Nation, does this -- we must unceasingly and firmly oppose
them."

To be fair, Washington did not actually oppose higher education, social

integration, or voting rights for blacks; he merely felt it was important to build
skills and obtain rights by starting with the foundations. In a sense, he was
advocating for members of his race to follow the rags-to-riches trajectory that his
own life had followed, as well as the life of Tuskegee. In supporting the
requirement of a property and/or education test for voting (applied equally to
members of both race), he showed his faith in the power of individual merit in
lifting blacks out of poverty, minimizing the importance of societal barriers which
may have prevented them from doing so.

It is interesting to compare this climax of Washington's book with that of typical

slave narratives. While the climax in such a narrative typically involves escape,
Washington's climax is conciliatory - rather than breaking free from his former
enslavers, he attempts to bond with them. His efforts are clearly successful, as
he develops a friendship with the president of the United States and sees his
own political power grow.

Chapter 15: The Secret of Success in Public Speaking

Washington opens the chapter with an editorial by James Creelman published in

the New York World. Creelman described Washington as a "Negro Moses," his
"face lit up with the fire of prophecy" (91). With vivid imagery, he described the
event and the massively enthusiastic response by the audience.

When he could spare the time, Washington accepted other invitations to speak
publicly, with the understanding that he would be free to talk about his life work
and the needs of his people. He never really understood why people came to
hear him speak. Once, a fierce snowstorm occurred shortly before an address
he was giving in Madison, WI; yet even so, the church where he was to speak
was packed. He always gets nervous before speaking, and afterwards he
usually feels some sort of regret, as he fears he has left out the main thing he
wanted to say. However, after about ten minutes he would feel he had mastered
his audience and was completely connected. He could identify anyone who did
not share his views, and go straight at him to "thaw him out" (93).

Washington believes there is no sense in speaking for its own sake, but rather
that one should speak only if he has a message to deliver. While there are
certain things that help, such as pauses, breathing, and pitch, nothing can take
the place of soul when public speaking. Washington likes to forget all about the
rules of language when he speaks, and to make his audience forget as well.
Because he gets thrown off balance when someone leaves the room, he tries to
make his address so interesting and full of facts that no one can leave.

His favorite kinds of audiences are comprised of strong businessmen, such as

can be found in northern cities like Boston and New York, as they are quick to
understand a point and very responsive. After dinner is the best time to speak,
although it can be tortuous to have to sit through a long meal before giving an
address. When he takes part in these long dinners, he often wishes he could put
himself back in the cabin where he was a slave boy getting molasses from the
"big house" once a week. He would tip his plate to spread the molasses out,
believing there would be more of it that way. Those two spoonfuls of molasses
were far more enjoyable than a fourteen-course dinner after which he had to
speak.

His next favorite audience is southern people of either race, separate or

together, as they are highly enthusiastic and responsive. After that, he enjoys
delivering addresses at a college.

When Washington speaks about Tuskegee, he usually arranges meetings with

various organizations ahead of time. Three years ago, he received funding from
the Slater Fund to hold meetings with his wife among colored people in large
centers of Negro population, particularly southern cities. They have done so for
a few weeks each year, with Washington speaking to ministers, teachers, and
professional men, his wife speaking to the women, and then Washington
addressing everyone in the evening. Members of both races have attended the
meetings, and Washington feels he accomplished a lot of good. They were also
an opportunity to see the conditions of black people in their homes, churches,
workplaces, prisons, and so on, and to witness the relations between the races.
The meetings have given him a lot of hope.

Someone has noted that 90% of Negro women are not virtuous, but Washington
is sure this is a falsehood.
In 1897, Washington accepted an invitation to speak at the dedication of the
Robert Gould Shaw monument in Boston. The event was full of distinguished
people from the former anti-slavery movement. He includes a report from the
Boston Transcript describing the event, full of praise and imagery detailing the
excitement of the audience and their emotional response. Washington
addressed members of the fifty-fourth regiment, the first all-black regiment in the
north during the Civil War, and the black color-bearer rose and raised the flag.
The effect was dramatic, and the audience nearly lost control.

Washington also spoke at a peace celebration in Chicago following the close of

the Spanish-American war. He addressed at least sixteen thousand people, his
largest audience yet, including President McKinley and many other dignitaries.
Again, he lets a newspaper report tell the story, this time quoting from the
Chicago Times-Herald. In his speech, he recalled the many ways that Negros
had supported whites even as the latter perpetuated slavery, helping, too, to free
the enslaved people of Cuba even as they faced unjust discrimination back
home. He then appealed to the consciences of white Americans: "When you
have gotten the full story of the heroic conduct of the Negro in the Spanish-
American war, have heard it from the lips of Northern soldier and Southern
soldier, from ex-abolitionist and ex-masters, then decide within yourselves
whether a race that is thus willing to die for its country should not be given the
highest opportunity to live for its country" (97-8). He received some criticisms
from southern papers about a portion of the address, but his response seemed
to satisfy his critics. He said that he had argued for eliminating prejudice in
"commercial and civil relations" (98), but that he had made no mention of social
recognition.

In meeting crowds of people, Washington dreads the crank, whom he can now
recognize at a distance. He met one of these fellows in Chicago, who said he
had a way to keep Indian corn for a few years that could settle the entire race
question if the southern Negro would adopt the process as a whole. Another had
a scheme to close all the national banks in the country. There are many other
people who try to consume his time for no reason, such as a man who came to
his hotel to say, "I rather liked your talk, and so I came in this morning to hear
you talk some more" (99).

One reason Washington is able to take so much time away from Tuskegee to
speak is because the school is so well organized that it does not need any given
individual to be present in order to run. The executive council meets twice a
week, a financial committee meets weekly, and at least once a month there is a
meeting of the instructors. Washington has arranged a system of reports so that
he receives a record of the school's work each day, no matter where he is.
These reports detail the school's income and expenditures, what food was
served, what students are excused, and so on.
Washington tries to do any routine work early in the day, so that he can do more
advanced work afterwards. He clears his desk each day and seeks to keep in
complete control of his work. He also prepares himself for unpleasant
occurrences. In nineteen years he took just one vacation, when friends forced
him and his wife to spend three months in Europe. He tries to keep his body in
good condition, and consults a physician if something is the slightest bit wrong.
If he has an exceptionally difficult question to decide, he tries to sleep on it or
consult with his wife and friends. He enjoys reading newspapers, which he does
most while traveling. He also enjoys biographies, and has read nearly
everything he can about Abraham Lincoln. He spends about half the year away
from Tuskegee, giving him a break from unimportant details and letting him see
the school's big picture. The traveling also lets him connect with the best
educators in the country.

He gets the most rest, however, when he can sit down with his wife and three
children after dinner and read or take turns telling a story, or walk with them
outdoors on Sunday afternoons. He enjoys working in his garden and gains
strength and inspiration from nature. He also raises pigs and fowls, but has little
interest in games.

Analysis

In this chapter, Washington primarily reflects on his public speaking experience:

how he connects with his audience, "thaws out" those who don't agree with his
views, makes his speeches so interesting that nobody will want to leave, and so
on. He singles out each of the three groups to which the book is directed -
northern whites, southern whites, and southern blacks - and acknowledges them
all as being his favorite kinds of audiences.

There is a fair bit of religious imagery. For instance, one reporter described
Washington as a "Negro Moses," and noted that when he "stood on the
platform... his whole face lit up with the fire of prophecy" (91). Washington
seems to want to present himself as modest, yet his inclusion of such
praiseworthy editorials suggest otherwise. In fact, he even engaged in some
dictatorial behaviors, such as blocking blacks with whom he didn't agree from
getting positions and trying to shut down black newspapers that didn't share his
views. His need to be kept abreast daily of all news at the school - from financial
dealings to student absences and even what they ate for dinner - supports this
view of Washington as controlling.

As he does throughout the book, Washington is careful to juxtapose images

from his past with those of his successful present, this time sharing the
anecdote of being a slave boy getting molasses from the "big house" to remind
the reader of his humble beginnings. He is, in a sense, the epitome of the
"American dream," working his way up from poverty to become arguably the
most powerful African American in the country.
He briefly mentions and refutes the claim that Negro women are not virtuous.
Despite earlier claiming that he fills his speeches with facts, however, he offers
no facts to back himself up, merely the assertion that "there never was a baser
falsehood uttered concerning a race, or a statement made that was less capable
of being proved by actual facts" (95).

Washington spends a fair amount of time describing his speech at the peace
celebration in Chicago, in which he highlighted the contributions made by blacks
in the Spanish-American War. He does not, however, emphasize it nearly as
much as he did in his first autobiography, intended for a mostly black audience.
In that book, he included the text of the entire speech - a testament to black
achievement - and even put in an illustration of the event. Some have argued
that leaving out this detail in Up from Slavery supports a less positive image of
blacks as poor, ignorant, and uneducated, in need of the panacea he offers in
the form of industrial education.

Washington alludes to criticisms about this address, but leaves out the details.
In fact, the offending words were the following: Americans "have succeeded in
every conflict except the effort to conquer ourselves in the blotting out of racial
prejudices. ... Until we thus conquer ourselves, I make no empty statement
when I say that we shall have a cancer gnawing at the heart of this republic that
shall some day prove to be as dangerous as an attack from an army within or
without." Washington never retracted his words, suggesting that as much as he
appeared to pander to whites, he was firmly opposed to racial prejudice in all of
its forms. At the same time, it is likely that he did not wish to draw attention to
these views in Up from Slaveryfor fear of losing support.

At the end of the chapter, Washington gives us a glimpse of his family life,
portraying himself as a family man who enjoys reading and taking walks with his
children. In so doing he may be showing his white readers how similar they are
to one another, as his family life resembles that of a wealthy white family far
more than the poor black families he describes earlier in the book.