LINING TECHNOLOGY

Segmental linings:
a vision for the future
In the Oct/Nov issue of Tunneling Journal North America[1] the
authors, Anthony Harding and Malcolm Chappell described
the current state of the art in segmental linings. Following
this, they explore some of the areas they think segmental
linings are likely to develop over the next decade.

WHILE TUNNEL LININGS have been getting bigger (see box), the
thickness of linings has been going in the opposite direction in an Figure 1: Hexagonal lining erection sequence
effort to save cost and excavated volumes. The authors have seen
contractors consider a lining thickness of 240mm for a 6m Metro Erect Thrust Erect Thrust
tunnel, but settle on slightly higher thicknesses having examined
risks associated with fragility of such thin linings, particularly the
imposed loads and deformations at cross passage openings. It
therefore appears likely that we are approaching the practical lower
limit for lining thickness in many parts of the world.
The largest rings still tend to use traditional rectangular segment
designs. However, at smaller diameters rectangular segments are
increasingly being replaced with trapezoidal and parallelogram Step 1: thrust from shaded rams and retract other rams
shapes (often called the universal ring). These rings typically build to erect the segments outlined
more quickly, more easily, and more accurately than their straight
sided counterparts. It is likely that they will continue to be used at Thrust Erect Thrust Erect
ever higher diameters until they are the geometry of choice except
where particular project requirements dictate otherwise.
However, the geometry that warrants real development over the
next decade is the hexagonal lining. Hexagonal linings offer
significant productivity benefits over the traditional tapered ring, as
the TBM can thrust from half of the ring while the other half is
being erected (see Figure 1). In their current form they suffer from
gaps that open due to imperfect ring plane (see Figure 2). These
Step 2: thrust from shaded rams onto segments just erected
gaps tend to concentrate the hoop loads in just one half of the ring and retract other rams to erect remainder of ring
unless the gap is grouted with a high strength mortar. The gaps can
also pose problems with waterproofing
gaskets. For this reason their use has been the load transfer through the remaining
confined to: Figure 2: Gaps due to ring plane lining. While this would require additional
rock tunnels where water ingress and loss in hexagonal linings reinforcement in the segments around the
ground loads are not an issue opening, it could eliminate the requirement
projects in Japan where high tolerance for internal propping.
moulds and bespoke steel connectors
Gap
have been employed to limit loss of plane Allowance for internal structures
and ensure a good fit As more and more tunnels are constructed
However, if a simple and cost-effective with internal structures, particularly where
method for early identification and intermediate decks are required, cost
correction of ring plane can be identified Offset effective solutions for the construction of
(due to plane loss)
then it is possible that these linings could the internal structures will be required. Such
become an attractive alternative to normal solutions will need to:
tapered rings. connect to the lining in a cost effective
An additional benefit of hexagonal and buildable way
segments is that it is possible to create accommodate all the movements that
openings by simply removing a segment or might occur to the lining over its design
pattern of segments in a way that allows life (including seismic)

TUNNELLING JOURNAL 31
 LINING TECHNOLOGY
Are tunnel linings getting bigger?
Figure 3: Comparison of twin bore and single bore stacked configurations
of a three lane tunnel
Twin bore
be easy to build without impeding TBM
logistics
The authors are hopeful that this will
generate some innovative solutions that
improve significantly on the traditional
method of drilling and fixing large numbers
of anchors into the lining.
Materials
The predominant material in segmental
linings is concrete that uses Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC) as a binder, and is
reinforced either with steel or steel fibres.
However, the authors view is that there will
be an increasing trend towards lower
carbon, non-ferrous linings.
One way that carbon footprints will be
reduced is by the replacement of OPC with
geopolymer, a product that uses slag and
fly ash in place of cement, activated by
admixtures to produce comparable strength
and strength gain rates to conventional
OPC. Wimpenny and Chappell[2] have
presented research into the use of fibre
reinforced geopolymer concrete for tunnel
segments that demonstrates that
32 TUNNELLING JOURNAL
Single bore
geopolymer can achieve equivalent or
better structural, durability and fire
performance than traditional OPC. This
technology is sufficiently mature to be
adopted on a tunnel project. Critically, their
research showed that the CO2 required to
produce and deliver the segments would be
70% less than the OPC equivalents.
The major barrier to the widespread
uptake of geopolymer has been that high
volumes of concrete are required to make
the cost of setting up a supply chain and
manufacturing facilities economically
viable. However, a typical metro tunnel
contains at least 1,000m of precast
concrete per route kilometre in the tunnel
lining alone, and would easily provide
sufficient concrete volume to make for a
viable the business case for geopolymer.
Indeed, geopolymer binder could even be
cheaper, particularly if the geopolymer was
to be used for other concrete on the
project.
As well as material cost, geopolymer can
also save money in the manufacturing
plant:
It seems that barely a few years passes
before the latest world record TBM is
surpassed by another tunnel of even
larger diameter. This has been driven by a
combination of tunnel function and
constrained urban environments. Where
corridors are narrow (for example due to
the presence of tall buildings either side
of a street), there may not be enough
room for a twin bore tunnel. This problem
becomes even more apparent at the
portals, where significant excavated space
outside the TBM perimeter is required. So
what do you do if you dont have enough
width? One option is to stack the
roadways within a single bore as
illustrated in Figure 3, to obtain a lower
overall width.
This has been successfully implemented
in a number of tunnels, including the
SMART tunnel in Kuala Lumpur and the
Socatop Tunnel in Paris. A three lane
tunnel with full height traffic lanes would
require a world record size TBM, as was
envisaged for the Orlovski project in St
Petersburg.
Such solutions also offer benefits in
eliminating cross passages as
communication between roadways can be
provided with internal structures, and
equipment and ventilation spaces
provided to either side of the roadway.
Removing the requirement to hand mine
cross passages may be a significant
geopolymer requires almost no curing,
eliminating the requirement for steam
curing
geopolymer is less vulnerable to early
thermal cracking
improved fire performance may save on
micro-synthetic polypropylene fibres
These cost savings will be of interest to
contractors while the reduced carbon
footprint will be a concern to all in the
industry and a major selling point to clients.
Therefore as soon as a trial project has
successfully demonstrated the effectiveness
of this technology, it is likely that there will
be a proliferation of projects that use
geopolymer concrete in place of OPC.
Fibres
As well as changing the concrete binder, the
authors also see macro-synthetic fibres
becoming a frequently employed alternative
to steel fibres. There is currently much
debate in the industry as to whether steel
fibres or macro-synthetic fibres are superior
for the reinforcement of concrete segments.
Both have limitations when compared to

Table 1: Comparison of single metro tunnel to twin bore.
Element Conventional twin bore
Tunnel 2x 6m tunnel
Footprint 18m wide
Cross passages Every 250m approx.
Crossovers Cut and cover box ~200m long
Stations Cut and cover box ~150m long
Sidings Separate tunnel required
the other, but the authors believe that the
limitations can generally be designed for
and there will be many circumstances where
both materials could meet the required
criteria.
A further development that is relevant to
both fibre types, however, is increased
concrete strengths and a desire to make
steel fibres work at ever higher diameters
and more heavily loaded linings. At larger
diameters the higher hoop loads and higher
TBM ram thrusts give rise to high bursting
stresses on the longitudinal and
circumferential joints. While steel fibres
have been shown to increase the post-crack
strength of concrete joints in bursting, the
strength of the joints is still fundamentally
tied to the strength of the concrete.
However, the authors are aware that at
least one of the latest steel fibre types offers
increased concrete splitting strengths at low
dosages. This, paired with high strength
fibres that perform well with high and very
high strength concretes, make the
possibility of solely fibre reinforced rings at
higher diameters a realistic possibility.
Single tunnel
Single 12m tunnel
12m wide
Not required
Constructed within tunnel
Driven by patronage, but could be as small as one 30m diameter shaft
Within tunnel.
Plain concrete???
Another potential area of development is the
use of plain, unreinforced concrete. This may
at first appear to be a retrograde step back
to the earliest segmental linings, many of
which were not reinforced at all[3]. However,
the problem with plain concrete segments
was that they proved very prone to damage
during handling, even at low aspect ratios
(ratio of circumferential length to thickness).
In recent years aspect ratios have been
increasing in order to have fewer segments
in the ring, with the consequent cost and
schedule benefits. So it would appear that
modern requirements make plain concrete
even more problematic. However there are
two important recent developments that
may put plain concrete back in the frame.
Firstly, increased concrete strengths and
qualities mean that in many tunnels the
reinforcement is not required for the tunnel
in its constructed state. The hoop force in
many tunnels provides sufficient resistance
for the expected bending moments.
Secondly, handling systems that limit
damage have become widespread, primarily
LINING TECHNOLOGY
Figure 4: Double
deck construction in a single
tunnel from Barcelona Line 9
project benefit in some ground
conditions. The single bore option does
reduce schedule flexibility somewhat but
this can usually be managed. Therefore
where space is tight we can expect more
mega-TBMs.
Will conventional tunnels get bigger?
While the mega-projects grab the
headlines, the workhorses of the
tunnelling industry are much smaller
tunnels: metro tunnels at around 6m,
cable tunnels at 2-4m, and water tunnels
varying from the very smallest tunnels up
to diameters over 10m. One might think
that this blend of sizes might remain.
However, even for normal tunnels there
may be upward pressure on diameter. In
metro projects the solutions developed
for Barcelona Line 9 (see Figure 4), which
place both tracks on separate decks
within the same tunnel, offer a number
of benefits outlined in Table 1. The impact
of these benefits will vary from project to
project, but it is likely that this kind of
scheme will be the best solution for some
projects.
There may be other circumstances
where we can add genuine value to
projects by making space for more
infrastructure inside the tunnel. This will
also put upward pressure on the average
size of segmental linings.
to limit damage to steel fibre reinforced
segments. The success of such systems is
that they ensure that the segments are not
cracked by the handling activities. Given that
the fibres only provide additional strength
after the formation of the crack, it could be
argued that the systems could also limit
damage to plain concrete segments even at
high aspect ratios.
The key differences between fibre
reinforced and plain concrete are:
Fibre reinforced concrete provides
toughness against impacts that plain
concrete does not.
In the event of a flexural failure the fibres
will hold the segment together and
provide residual resistance. Plain concrete
segments could break into two or more
pieces.
Where these obstacles can be overcome (and
ground loads allow) plain concrete linings
may become more common.
Connecting
As well as reducing or even eliminating steel
from the main body of the segments, the
TUNNELLING JOURNAL 33
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authors also expect that steel bolts will
become less and less common. Push-fit
plastic dowels have already replaced steel
bolts on the circumferential joint in many
parts of the world, and there are projects
where guiding rods have been used in place
of steel bolts on the longitudinal joint. Bolts
are often included in designs simply
because they have always been used,
without regard for whether they are actually
required[4]. However, resistance to the
removal of bolts will continue to be eroded
as more projects demonstrate that bolts are
not required in normal circumstances.
Where tension across the joint must be
resisted bolts could continue to be required.
However, installing bolts can add time to
the erection process and providing long
term protection against corrosion is difficult.
The authors have been working with one
supplier to develop a push-fit plastic
alternative to bolts in order to provide
alternatives for some current projects, and
have some promising ideas. Other suppliers
are also looking to develop systems.
Therefore in ten years time it appears likely
that there will be no need to use ferrous
elements of any kind to connect the
segments.
Grouting and sealing
The recent and welcome adoption of cast-in
gaskets is likely to turn into widespread
usage in the next ten years. While it may be
difficult to see any big developments in the
seals incorporated into the segments, the
first line of defence is usually the grouting.
Tail shield grouting is very widely adopted,
but still needs very careful control to ensure
effective filling of the annulus. Poor filling
can easily occur and requires significant
secondary grouting to mitigate if detected
at all. Even where tail shield grouting
operation is good some check grouting is
required to verify the continued
performance. Check and secondary
grouting activities require additional crews
handling highly alkaline materials, and can
often slow progress of the TBM.
Therefore if an alternative can be found
that provides an assured filling of the void
(such as a low strength expandable
material cast into the outside of the
segments, for example), then these
activities and the associated risks of
material handling could be eliminated. A
void filling material that is expanded could
also be useful in squeezing ground if the
material could absorb inward movements
without overloading the lining.
Automation
The drive to improve both productivity and
tunnel safety must be maintained if we are
to push the industry forward. The gold
standard for safety is to remove operatives
from the work area. Meanwhile the quality
LINING TECHNOLOGY
of segmental linings and TBM performance turning, marking, and craneage. In this area
is subject to quality of workmanship. automation is already developing in a
Automation of the tunnelling operation has piecemeal way as automation of various
the potential to remove operatives from the aspects becomes cost-effective, and this
tunnel, while maintaining or improving process is likely to continue.
quality and productivity.
The items required to fully automate the Quality control
tunnelling process are listed in Table 2. It is The automation of segment manufacture,
interesting to note that the only technology transport and erection can also bring
Table 2: Components of tunnelling automation.
Excavation and advance Either from a TBM operators cabin located at the surface or completely automated
Segment erection Robotic controlled erector arm. All segment connectors are pre-installed push fit type.
Segment identification Bar code or more durable cast in system to uniquely identify each segment.
Grouting Automated two component type grout fed by pipes on self-extending system.
TBM consumables supply Either by robotic processing of cars delivered by automated train or by self-extending supply lines
Segment supply Automated trains with robotically controlled transfer station to place segments on segment feeder.
Muck handling Self-extending conveyors.
Survey for TBM guidance Access for survey could be targeted mainly at routine maintenance
Routine maintenance Systems designed for lower levels of routine maintenance to limit personnel entry into tunnel
that has not been implemented successfully benefits to quality control/quality assurance.
is the offloading of TBM consumables, and In normal practice each segment is
even this appears straightforward when equipped with a unique identifier, often
compared to systems employed in other simply a number sprayed onto a segment.
industries. This number is usually manually entered
Automation requires a lot of up-front into a database, and then tied to data such
investment, but saves in the cost of as date cast, batch number, etc. However
operatives, so the cost-benefit is likely to be with an automated system this information
most apparent in long tunnels in locations could be automatically entered. A bar code
could be affixed to the segment
immediately upon demoulding.
Automation requires Alternatively, a barcode or other binary
system could be cast into the segment.
a lot of up-front If all handling steps could record the
investment, but specific item that they were handling then a
database could be created which linked
saves in the cost of records of all inspection and test steps. If
operatives, so the such steps were recorded electronically in
wireless devices (such as tablets) then paper
cost-benefit is likely entry could be almost eliminated and fail
to be most apparent safes used that prevent unchecked
segments proceeding to the next stage.
in long tunnels in Much of this technology already exists and
has been applied to a few projects.
locations where However, tying the quality control system
wages are high. into an automated segment delivery and
erection system could allow the full history
of the segment to be recorded, from mould
where wages are high. However, the system cleaning and preparation through to the
must have a high degree of reliability. time, location, and orientation of
Downtime will increase if the operatives placement. This could free up time for the
required to rectify the problem are not actual quality control activities that require
already on site, so the incidence of failures human inspection, improving quality and
must be minimised if an automated system freeing up staff for more productive
is to achieve performance that is as good as activities.
or better than current practice.
In addition to the tunnel, there are also Intelligent segments
potential benefits to automating other parts Another area that may see significant
of the segment manufacture and supply changes over the coming years is intelligent
process. Automation at pit top could easily segments: segments that monitor their
tie in with the automatic trains operating in performance over their life span or some
the tunnel. Meanwhile there are many portion of it. A recently developed small
aspects of the manufacturing plant that can device known as Utterberry can locate itself
be automated such as reinforcement relative to other devices very accurately and
welding, automatic batching, segment communicate wirelessly, and has already
TUNNELLING JOURNAL 35
 LINING TECHNOLOGY

been deployed successfully in an

underground context[5].
Figure 6: Internal lining/gasket detail on Herrenknecht combi-segments
Paired with the development of other
technologies such distributed glass fibre
monitoring it is entirely feasible that at least
some segments in the tunnel may be
intelligent able to assess their
performance against what they were
designed for. Over the next decade it is
reasonable to assume that the cost of such
systems will come down significantly. The
potential benefits of would be many, but
one that the authors consider most
significant is for critical infrastructure where
creating downtime for inspection and
maintenance is problematic, as the
additional cost of the system could be many
times less than the cost of just a single
inspection.

Special circumstances
As well as he more routine segment
designs, there will continue to be one-off
designs that fulfil a particular need. These
have the potential to provide new
technologies that push the industry in
different directions. A few such
circumstances are discussed below.

One-pass pressurised tunnels

The traditional approach to pressurised projects in both Switzerland and Japan. This
tunnels is to use the segmental lining to solution has much merit insofar as it keeps
provide a primary lining that resists external the concrete and the gaskets between the
ground and water loads during segments in compression under tensile
construction, and then to provide a service loads, thereby enhancing durability
secondary lining (of reinforced concrete, (by minimising cracking) and minimising
steel or other material) that provides the leakage. However, the cable is hard to
resistance to the tensile hoop forces assure for the 100 year design life often
generated by the internal pressure. If this required, and it can be difficult to install.
can be achieved in a one-pass system then However, if a robust and cost effective
the cost and schedule benefits are self- solution to these issues can be found then
evident. it is likely that such solutions will
One solution is to thread post-tensioning proliferate.
cables through ducts specially cast into the A second solution is to design the lining
segments, and then use the cables to to take the tension. This can be achieved by
compress the entire ring, as used in recent systems that span the longitudinal joint,
such as bolts, or
across the
Figure 5: Dowels transferring tension loads around a joint
circumferential joint
by dowels (Figure 5).
A system has also
been developed in
Japan where a
profiled
circumferential joint
interlocks with the
segments in the
adjacent ring,
allowing the tension
to be transferred
1. Opening created by segments between rings in the
moving apart circumferentially same manner as
2. Segments moving apart circumferentially dowels.
resisted by two dowels on each joint on both sides
Integral protection
3. Path of tensile forces across opening
Another area where
one-pass solutions
have been sought is in sewer tunnels,
where protection from the aggressive
environment is required. Systems with an
integral internal plastic protection have
been developed. Such solutions may use
welding or gaskets to ensure continuity of
the protection (Figure 6). However, a
frequent objection to the solution is that
the plastic can mask the deterioration of
the concrete behind, and significant levels
of degradation may be required before it is
spotted. This is less of an issue for a grout
annulus or secondary lining as they are
easier to repair than the primary lining that
provides grout support. If a solution to this
objection can be found then integrally
protected one-pass solutions could become
the preferred option.
Heat recovery
Another area that is likely to receive
increased attention is to enhance return on
the capital investment by utilising the tunnel
for a secondary use.
One such idea that has been proposed is
to recover energy through a series of pipes
cast into the tunnel lining. These are inter-
connected to form a continuous circuit
through each ring of the lining which are
then in turn fed into a main to circulate
water to a surface heat exchanger. This can
be used as a very effective heat sink or
source of heat, providing a very economic
source of energy for heating and cooling.
The energy that is able to be captured can
be quite staggering.
The authors are convinced that there

36 TUNNELLING JOURNAL
 LINING TECHNOLOGY

could be other beneficial applications that
could be applied if entrepreneurs\inventors
were given the challenge.
Conclusions
Precast concrete segmental tunnel linings
may appear to be a mature technology that
has changed little over the years. However,
in their previous article[1] the authors showed
how the technology has changed
significantly over the last 20 years. In this
article the authors have shown how there is
plenty of scope for the technology to
continue to develop over the next decade
and beyond. In some areas, such as
geopolymer concrete and non-ferrous
linings, the authors have been able to
pinpoint what the solutions might look like.
In others the authors have merely been able
to highlight the problems and the benefits
of solving them. However, if the authors
were asked what the ideal lining might look
like in ten years time they would offer the
following:
Geopolymer concrete lining with macro-
synthetic fibre reinforcement.
Non-ferrous connections on longitudinal
and radial joints
Hexagonal segments to allow continuous
mining
Ability to resist internal tension loading
Intelligent segments monitor tunnel benefits to the industry and society as a
performance remotely, reducing the whole. This will require commitment to
requirement for inspection and communication and genuine problem
maintenance solving from clients, contractors, and
Void filling assured by an expanding designers alike. Surely we can manage that?
material cast into the outside face of the
segment that actuates on exit from the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
tail shield
Database that allows the QC and as-built The authors would like to acknowledge the
records of every segment on the job to be following people for their contributions to this
easily called up. article: Chris Smith of CRS consultants,
This may appear a panacea, but the authors Rolando Justa Camara, Director of Tunnels
are convinced that if we work together as and Marine Works Department of Acciona
an industry it can become a reality that Infraestructuras SA.
offers cost, safety, and environmental
REFERENCES
1. Harding and Chappell, 2014. State of the art precast linings. North American Tunneling Journal,
Oct/Nov issue, TGS Media, Tunbridge Wells, UK
2. Wimpenny, D; Chappell, M; 2013. Fiber-reinforced geopolymer concretean innovative material
for tunnel segments. In Rapid Excavation and Tunneling Conference. Washington DC, USA, 23-26
Jun 2013. Englewood, Colorado, USA: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. 810-819.
3. Craig, R N; Muir-Wood, A M; 978. A Review of Tunnel Lining Practice in the United Kingdom; TRRL
Supplementary Report 335, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, UK
4. Harding and Chappell, 2014. Myth and Reality: Bolts in Modern Concrete Segmental Tunnel
Linings. North American Tunnelling Conference, Los Angeles, 22-25 June 2014, Englewood,
Colorado, USA: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. pp66-75
5. UtterBerry sensor scoops award for industry. 2014. http://www-
smartinfrastructure.eng.cam.ac.uk/20141022-UtterBerry-innovation-award

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TUNNELLING JOURNAL 37
 LINING TECHNOLOGY
Segmental
lining joints
In this article, Dr Benot Jones, Director of
the Tunnelling and Underground Space
MSc at the University of Warwick, UK,
looks at recent developments in the design
of segmental lining joints.
THERE HAVE BEEN SIGNIFICANT
ADVANCES in our understanding of
segmental lining behaviour in the last 15
years from instrumented rings in actual
tunnels, full scale or reduced scale
laboratory tests and 3D numerical
modelling. This article will attempt to
summarise this work, with particular
reference to the behaviour of the joints in
a segmental lining.
Segmental tunnel linings have
traditionally been designed in two
dimensions using quite simple models. For
instance, the International Tunnelling
Associations Working Group No.2 Report
in 2000 (ITA, 2000) recommended the use
of analytical solutions, such as the Curtis-
Muir Wood solution (Curtis, 1974; Muir
Wood, 1975), or bedded beam models,
where each segment is modelled by a 1D
beam element and the ground is modelled
by springs. In addition, simple methods
were used to estimate construction loads
due to handling, storage, ringbuilding and
jacking forces, and these were performed
Figure 1: Curtis-Muir Wood solution
boundary conditions
v
h h
r0
t deformation. The equation is only valid if
v
38 TUNNELLING JOURNAL
as a separate check from the service loads.
But recent studies have found that
ringbuilding and jacking loads remain in
the lining permanently.
Virtually all the cracking and damage to
segmental linings occurs during
construction. Once the rings are in place
and the grout has hardened, it is rare for
them to experience any further distress.
This should indicate to us that although
we are probably quite good at designing
for the earth and water pressures in
service, the worst design loads occur
during construction and we need to
improve our methods of estimating them.
Introduction previous state of the art
circa 2000
In the case of the continuum analytical
solutions, which are referred to in ITA
(2000) as the elastic equation method,
the material properties of the lining and
the ground are assumed elastic and the
effect of joints is smeared by reducing
the moment of inertia of the whole lining.
The boundary conditions are shown in
Figure 1.
Muir Wood (1975) proposed the
following equation to reduce the moment
of inertia of a ring to take account of
joints:
This smears the effect of joints by
reducing the moment of inertia of the
whole ring. The equation is based on the
assumption that there is no resistance to
rotation at the joints, except that provided
by ground reaction to the rings ellipsoidal
there are more than 4 joints. In reality a
ring can deform with 4 joints if the joints
are aligned with the principal stress
directions in the ground, i.e. joints at 12,
3, 6 and 9 oclock positions in Figure 1.
But if they were rotated 45, then the
joints would have no effect. When a ring
has 4 joints, the orientation of the joints
makes a huge difference, but this effect
decreases as the number of joints
increases. Hefny & Chua (2006) compared
Muir Woods equation to analyses using
continuum finite element models and
found that as the number of joints
increases beyond 6 joints, the influence of
joint orientation becomes negligible.
Muir Woods equation also assumes
that an individual rings deformation is
unimpeded by the adjacent rings, which
would only be the case if the
circumferential joint had no shear keys,
dowels or friction, or if the radial joints
were all aligned down the length of the
tunnel (Klappers et al., 2006). Usual
practice, however, is to stagger joints and
to encourage shear resistance, so this
assumption is unrealistic.
Another problem with continuum
analytical solutions is that the smearing of
Another problem
with continuum
analytical solutions
is that the smearing
of the effect of the
joints allows
calculation of
average bending
moments, but in
reality, bending
moments near to the
joints will have a
different value
(usually higher) than
bending moments
mid-segment and
will depend on the
joint geometry, bolt
details, packer and
gasket.
the effect of the joints allows calculation
of average bending moments, but in
reality, bending moments near to the
joints will have a different value (usually
higher) than bending moments mid-
segment and will depend on the joint
geometry, bolt details, packer and gasket.
One way to fudge this is to assume a
 LINING TECHNOLOGY

Restraint from the shield, and in

Figure 2: From left to right: aligned radial joints, staggered radial joints, particular the tailseal brushes
monolithic rings (from Fei et al., 2014). What happens when radial joints are not
parallel to the axis of the tunnel, e.g.
when trapezoidal or hexagonal segments
are used.
In this article I will discuss staggered radial
joints, packers, joint geometry, rotation
and misalignment of joints. Next issue I will
discuss jacking forces, grout pressures and
longitudinal effects.

Staggering of radial joints

Staggering the radial joints has the effect
of reducing deformations and increasing
bending stiffness of the rings. Fei et al.
(2014) used small scale physical models
(Figure 2) to show that by staggering the
joints an overall stiffness is achieved that is
Figure 3: Effect of ignoring circumferential joint shear resistance ('uncoupled',
somewhere between that of aligned radial
left) and modelling circumferential joint shear resistance (coupled, right) (from
joints and that of monolithic rings (with no
Klappers et al., 2006)
radial joints).
By increasing the circumferential joint bolt
forces in their model, Fei et al. (2014) also
showed that a higher longitudinal axial force

Figure 5: Behaviour of elastomeric

and bituminous packers - 3 loading
cycles under simple compression
(from Cavalaro & Aguado, 2012)

(a) Line 9 in Barcelona - Rubber

21
Normal stress (MPa)

18 Load cycle 1
15 Load cycle 2
Load cycle 3
12
9
joint rotation based on the maximum 6
specified ovalisation and then to use the Figure 4: Eccentricity of hoop thrust 3
joint geometry and packer properties to caused by joint rotation 0
calculate the eccentricity of the hoop force 0 20 40 60 80
Strain (mm/m)
and hence a bending moment. The
designer can then use the greater of the (b) Line 9 in Barcelona - Bitumenous
Resultant 21
average and this local value for design, Joint
Normal stress (MPa)

Intrados hoop force Extrados 18 Load cycle 1

and this approach should be conservative. contact
pressure 15 Load cycle 2
From experience I know that this approach Load cycle 3
12
is not commonplace and often only the
9
average values are used for design. Joint
Packer rotation 6
When a bedded beam model is used, the
3
radial joints may be modelled by rotational
0
hinges, which is a slight improvement on Eccentricity
0 45 90 135 180 225 270
the continuum analytical solutions. If a Strain (mm/m)
finite element or frame analysis program is
used, then these hinges can be assigned a
rotational stiffness. However, knowing them in a very simplistic way (Blom et al., across the circumferential joints increases
what this rotational stiffness should be is 1999; Molins & Arnau, 2011): bending rigidity. This is illustrated by the
not straightforward. De Waal (2000) Staggering of joints in adjacent rings exaggerated deformed mesh plots from a
showed that the results will always be Packing material in the joints 3D numerical analysis by Klappers et al.
between the two limiting situations of a Grout pressure and grout hardening (2006), showing how coupling of rings by
monolithic ring with no joints and a ring The type of joints and their rotational introducing longitudinal axial force and
with free (or pin) joints. Lee et al. (2001) stiffness shear resistance in the circumferential joint
estimated that it is between 1/10 and 1/4 Redistribution of moments via shear harmonises deformations. This effect was
of the segment stiffness. stress across the circumferential joint to found to occur even at quite low values of
The bedded beam models and analytical adjacent rings longitudinal axial force, so it is likely that
solutions, prevalent circa 2000, usually The effect of longitudinal compression in even residual axial forces left behind by the
ignored the following factors or dealt with the tunnel caused by the TBM jacks TBM shove rams would be sufficient.

TUNNELLING JOURNAL 39
 LINING TECHNOLOGY
Joint geometry and packers
In reality, bending moments at the joints
depend on the geometry of the joint and
the properties of any packer. As joints
rotate, the line of thrust across the joint
moves and this eccentricity of the thrust
transfers moment to the adjacent segment
(Figure 4). The moment is equal to the
hoop force multiplied by the eccentricity.
In addition, as eccentricity increases and
the hoop force gets closer to the edge, the
shearing resistance of the corner reduces
as the potential shear plane reduces in
length. This could result in damage to the
edges of the joints. If this occurs on the
Figure 6: Effect of misalignment on
eccentricity
Resultant
Intrados hoop force Extrados
Misalignment Eccentricity
e = /2
intrados, it will require repair. If a shear
failure occurs on the extrados it cannot be
repaired, and it may also compromise the
watertightness of the gasket. Therefore,
designing to minimise eccentricity is
important.
The properties of the packer have a big
influence on the eccentricity of the hoop
force. A packer that is too thin or too
compressible will result in a concrete to
concrete contact and a high stress
concentration. A packer that is too stiff
will also generate a large eccentricity as
stress is mobilised at the edge of the
packer first. Understanding the stress-
strain behaviour of a packer and how it
interacts with joint rotation is absolutely
essential.
Cavalaro & Aguado (2012) performed
simple compression and simultaneous
compression and shear tests on
elastomeric and bituminous packers for
several tunnelling projects in Spain, testing
the packer between both concrete blocks
and steel plates. Using steel plates resulted
in a more repeatable test, because even
concrete cast to tight tolerances has small
asperities that can cause stress
concentrations. Bituminous packers were
found to have a softer response than
elastomeric packers, but both have an
exponential behaviour; they become stiffer
as strain increases, due to densification
(Cavalaro & Aguado, 2012). Two of their
40 TUNNELLING JOURNAL
Joint geometry and packer properties
are crucial to the design of a segmental
lining, because the eccentricity of the
hoop force across the joint determines
the bending moment induced, the
bursting stress and the shear capacity.
tests are shown in Figure 5. The first Conclusions
loading cycle also shows a much softer Virtually all the cracking and damage to
response this is known as the Mullins segmental linings occurs during
effect. construction. Once the rings are in place
Sometimes radial joints are designed and the grout has hardened, it is rare for
with curved surfaces, and in theory curved them to experience any further distress.
joints have a lower rotational stiffness This should indicate to us that although
than flat joints. This is because when flat we are probably quite good at designing
joint surfaces rotate relative to each other, for the earth and water pressures in
they will quickly generate a larger service, the worst design loads occur
eccentricity by tending to hinge about the during construction and we need to
edge of the contact area. As curved joints improve our methods of estimating them.
rotate, the line of thrust stays closer to the Continuum analytical solutions smear
centreline of the segment. Another feature the effect of joints and therefore provide
is that as flat joints in a ring rotate, the average bending moments. In reality,
perimeter of the ring increases. As far as I bending moments vary a lot within each
know, no-one has researched this effect, segment.
but it should be expected to slightly Where staggered radial joints are used,
increase the hoop force. If curved joints it is important to model more than one
have a radius approximately equal to one ring. In the simplest possible model, 3
half the arc length of a segment, then the rings need to be modelled in 3D.
perimeter does not change. Joint geometry and packer properties
Eccentricity in radial joints is also caused are crucial to the design of a segmental
by lipping, where segments are misaligned lining, because the eccentricity of the
and have a step between them. In this hoop force across the joint determines the
case the eccentricity is equal to half the bending moment induced, the bursting
misalignment, as shown in Figure 6. stress and the shear capacity.
REFERENCES
Blom, C.B.M., van der Horst, E.J. & Jovanovic, P.S. (1999). Three-dimensional structural analyses of the
shield-driven green heart tunnel of the high-speed line south. Tunnelling and Underground Space
Technology 14 (2), 217224.
Cavalaro, S. H. P. & Aguado, A. (2012). Packer behavior under simple and coupled stresses. Tunnelling
and Underground Space Technology 28, 159173.
Curtis, D. J. (1974). Visco-elastic tunnel analysis. Tunnels & Tunnelling, November, 38-39.
De Waal (1999). R.G.A. (2000). Steel Fibre Reinforced Tunnel Segments for the Application in Shield
Driven Tunnel Linings. PhD Thesis. Technische Universiteit Delft.
Fei, Y., Chang-fei, G., Hai-dong, S., Yan-peng, L., Yong-xu, X. & Zhuo, Z. (2014). Model test study on
effective ratio of segment transverse bending rigidity of shield tunnel. Tunnelling and Underground
Space Technology 41, 193205.
Hefny, A. M. & Chua, H. - C. (2006). An investigation into the behaviour of jointed tunnel lining.
Proceedings of the ITA-AITES 2006 World Tunnel Congress Safety in the Underground Space, Seoul,
Korea, 2227 April 2006.
Klappers, C., Grbl, F., Ostermeier, B. (2006). Structural analyses of segmental lining coupled beam
and spring analyses versus 3D-FEM calculations with shell elements. Proceedings of the ITA-AITES
2006 World Tunnel Congress Safety in the Underground Space, Seoul, Korea, 2227 April 2006.
ITA (2000). Guidelines for the design of shield tunnel lining. Tunnelling & Underground Space
Technology 15, No.3, 303-331.
Lee, K.M., Ge, X.W. (2001). The equivalence of a jointed shield-driven tunnel lining to a continuous
ring structure. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 38, 461483.
Molins, C. & Arnau, O. (2011). Experimental and analytical study of the structural response of
segmental tunnel linings based on an in situ loading test. Part 1: Test configuration and execution.
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 26, 764777.
Muir Wood, A. M. (1975). The circular tunnel in elastic ground. Gotechnique 25, No.1, 115-117.
 ITA CROATIA
Croatian Association for
ASSOCIATION
INTERNATIONALE DES TUNNELS
ET DE LESPACE SOUTERRAIN
ITA
INTERNATIONAL TUNNELLING
Tunnels and Underground
Structures AITES AND UNDERGROUND SPACE
ASSOCIATION

41st General Assembly and Congress of

International Tunnelling and Underground
Space Association ITA-AITES

SEE
TUNNEL
PROMOTING TUNNELLING IN SEE REGION
LACROMA VALAMAR CONGRESS CENTER MAY 22-28,2015
DUBROVNIK, CROATIA

www.wtc15.com
MACRO-SYNTHETICS
In-service performance
of Macro Synthetic
FRC in tunnel linings
R. Winterberg, G. Sedgman of Elasto Plastic
Concrete state the case for the use of Macro
Synthetic Fibres in tunnel linings.
MACRO-SYNTHETIC FIBRE REINFORCED
CONCRETE or shotcrete (MSFRC or MSFRS) is
a technology that is becoming an accepted
form of reinforcement in the construction
community and is seen by many design
engineers as offering a viable alternative to
steel fibre and steel bar reinforcement in
applications such as tunnel linings. The
technology is now common place in
applications such as shotcrete for primary and
secondary ground support in both mining and
civil tunnel applications. For example it has
become the standard form of reinforcement in
the Australian mining industry, where 2014
marked the end of steel fibre reinforcement
use in shotcrete[1]. Additionally, an increasing
number of tunnels are adopting permanent
sprayed concrete linings using macro synthetic
fibres, examples of which include the A3
Hindhead tunnel near Guildford in the UK and
the North Strathfield Rail Underpass in Sydney,
Australia[2,3].
Applications such as permanent tunnel
linings have required further research and
investigation to confirm that macro synthetic
42 TUNNELLING JOURNAL
fibre reinforcement meets the strict
performance criteria. This is a consequence of
the highly performance-based nature of the
industry in which engineers constantly monitor
lining behaviour and adapt design and
construction methods to achieve improvements
in outcomes. This research combined with a
number of major tunnel lining projects recently
completed using macro synthetic fibre
reinforcement sees the future of this type of
reinforcement looking extremely bright.
For civil tunnel lining applications there are a
number of factors design engineers must
consider when determining which
reinforcement product can meet the design
performance criteria. These include structural
capacity, durability, corrosion, crack width,
creep and embrittlement to name a few. It is
always important for a designer and the client
to understand the benefits of adding any type
of reinforcement to the concrete - in order to
assess value for money. What are the benefits
in terms of durability or extended asset life
because of the use of macro synthetic fibre?
This article examines a number of these key
Left: The North Strathfield Rail Underpass
tunnel in Sydney, Australia, incorporated a
single pass macro-synthetic fibre reinforced
permanent sprayed concrete lining[3].
considerations with the aim of summarising
the latest research and industry thinking as well
as presenting instances where MSFRC will
deliver a distinct advantage to the finished
product.
Durability
The durability of a tunnel concrete lining
encompasses a number of factors including the
permeability of the concrete, concrete strength,
reinforcement and control of cracks. The
durability of the concrete matrix in FRC is
affected by the same parameters governing
plain concrete when subject to the exposure
conditions typical of an underground
environment. When macro-synthetic fibres are
used in concrete (in the absence of steel bars),
there is no need to be concerned about
chloride ion penetration, carbonation, and to a
lesser degree, water impermeability, since there
is no steel within the concrete which could be
subject to corrosion. This frees the designer
from the difficulties of trying to satisfy multiple
performance requirements related to corrosion
resistance thereby allowing greater flexibility in
design. The designer can therefore focus on
strength gain, shrinkage, sulphate resistance,
and post-crack performance without the
complications of trying to satisfy other
parameters such as crack width control, which
largely governs traditional design approaches
for the sake of protecting the incorporated
steel against corrosion.
Corrosion
If steel bars or fibres are included within a
tunnel lining, the mix design becomes more
challenging and compromises must be made
to satisfy concerns over durability. Chloride ion
penetration and carbonation depth need to be
considered thereby restricting the design of the
mix. Maximum allowable crack widths are
much smaller when using steel bars or steel
fibres since cracks, should they occur, act as
points of rapid salt ingress to the

reinforcement. Maximum acceptable crack
widths are about 0.15mm for steel bar
reinforcement, and recent in-field tests by
Kaufmann[4] and Bernard[5], supported by earlier
research by Nordstrom[6,7], all indicate a
maximum acceptable crack width of only
0.10mm for steel FRC. This places very
stringent requirements on crack control when
steel reinforcement is used, especially for steel
fibres since crack width control is much more
difficult and unpredictable for steel fibres than
for steel bar reinforcement.
In contrast, crack widths are not a concern
when macro-synthetic FRC is used since there is
then no corrodible material present within the
lining. Crack width limits are therefore
governed by other considerations, such as
water-tightness. However, if significant in-plane
compressive loads are present in the lining
(which is almost always the case) flexural cracks
will not penetrate through more than a small
fraction of the total lining thickness so water
ingress to the tunnel is unlikely to occur
through unplanned cracks.
Examples of where corrosion has been seen
as a potential problem are the subsea tunnels
in Norway and Finland. Research on durability
in these aggressive environments, due to the
saline water peculating through the rock to the
tunnel lining, has brought about a complete
ban on steel fibre in these constructions and
the use of macro synthetic fibres for all
shotcrete reinforcement[8].
The Ryfast Subsea tunnel, currently under
construction (the longest subsea tunnel in the
world) near Stavanger, is a current example of
this as is the Helsinki West Metro Extension.
Another example of the successful
application of macro-synthetic fibres in this
regard is the 4.47km Oliola water tunnel in
North Eastern Spain, which has now been in
service for 5 years and was constructed using a
BarChip fibre reinforced secondary concrete
lining to eliminate the risk of corrosion in this
environment[9].
Most concrete or shotcrete mix designs focus
on durability and corrosion protection to
provide high resistance against chemical attack
over their service life, which in tunnelling is
typically 120 years. To achieve this, the mix
Left: Spraying
of MSFRS at
the Helsinki
West Metro
Extension
project
Below: Macro-
synthetic fibre
reinforced cast
in situ in the
final lining of
the Oliola
water tunnel,
Spain[9].
designs often contain large proportions of
pozzolanic binders, which in turn can show
significant post-hardening of the concrete with
age. This leads to embrittlement of the fibre
concrete matrix, which is responsible for post-
crack performance loss when using steel fibres.
Embrittlement of FRC
Embrittlement of concrete or shotcrete with
age due to post-hardening and its detrimental
effect on the post-crack performance of steel
FRC, has been known for nearly 20 years.
Numerous investigations have indicated that
aging can lead to a significant loss of post-
crack performance for steel FRC[10,11,12].
The change in behaviour with age is due to a
change from a high-energy pull-out mode of
post-crack fibre behaviour to a brittle low-
energy rupture mode. This leads to rupturing
of steel fibres at crack widths in excess of the
elongation capacity of the fibre. Thus, the
performance degradation primarily affects
resistance to late-age load conditions such as
nearby underground construction, seismic
loading, or changes in groundwater pressure.
Extensive research into post-crack behaviour
of steel fibres, strand, and bar in concrete
suggests that rupture is caused by excessively
high friction between the steel and
cementitious paste that is more closely related
to the hardness of the binder paste. Paste
hardness increases with the strength of the
MACRO-SYNTHETICS
concrete, but is also related to the elastic
modulus and composition of the paste. For this
reason, satisfactory performance at early ages
(around 28 days) is not a guarantee of
acceptable performance at late ages for steel
FRC. The performance of steel FRC at crack
widths in excess of 1.0mm can fall by as much
as 50% compared to the optimum exhibited at
early ages, thus a performance reduction factor
should be applied to the long-term flexural
resistance of steel FRC[5,12]
Macro-synthetic FRC is largely unaffected by
this phenomenon since changes in paste
hardness make little difference to the
behaviour of the fibre within the composite
beyond the first few days of
hardening. The performance of
macro-synthetic FRC evident at 28
days can therefore be relied upon
to be retained with age. Thus,
designers can be more confident
about the long-term retention of
post-crack performance.
Crack width control
An investigation into the potential
use of BarChip macro-synthetic
fibres was undertaken to
determine whether these fibres
were effective in reducing mean
crack widths generated in
conventionally reinforced concrete
members as a result of flexural
loading[13]. Use of macro-synthetic
fibres to reduce maximum crack widths in
reinforced concrete flexural members subject to
aggressive environmental exposure is more
rational than the use of steel fibres because the
latter are more sensitive to the corrosive effects
of environmental exposure at cracks. The fibre
was an experimental variant of a standard
BarChip fibre that has been developed for
crack width control purposes.
In this first part of the research, the focus
was on the effect of the presence of special
macro-synthetic fibres on the cracking
development and the developing crack
spacings. Through a set of experimental trials
involving 32 beams reinforced with normal
levels of steel bar reinforcement, and between
0 and 6kg/m3 of BarChip macro-synthetic crack
width control fibres, it has been demonstrated
that these fibres are indeed capable of
reducing mean crack spacings by up to 30%
compared to plain reinforced concrete
members.
This result is useful in the field because,
unlike steel fibres, macro-synthetic fibres are
entirely immune to the effects of corrosion and
thus their potential location close to the surface
of a member (in a crack or otherwise) will not
compromise durability. Inclusion of up to
6kg/m3 of BarChip crack width control fibres
may therefore prove a useful tool for reducing
maximum crack widths in RC members in
aggressive environments where maximum
TUNNELLING JOURNAL 43
MACRO-SYNTHETICS
acceptable crack widths of about 0.10-
0.15mm must be achieved.
The reduced crack widths will offer higher
durability and therefore longer asset life and
less maintenance over the design life. Malaga
Above: Malaga Airport High Speed Rail segmental lining used a
combination of steel cage and macro-synthetic fibre reinforcement
Airport High Speed Rail was a project which
benefited from this type of reinforcement.
Macro synthetic fibre was used in combination
with the traditional reinforcement cage. The
addition of macro-synthetic fibre was able to
assist in keeping crack widths, which may have
been produced from either the TBM rams or in
service loads, much smaller than if there was
no fibre. This design reduced repair and
maintenance costs and increased asset life in
the long term.
Creep considerations
Creep has always been a question for designers
as they see the material properties between
steel and macro synthetic fibre as very different.
However, in segmental linings hoop
compression forces typically govern the
occurring stresses and tensile stresses are
minimal after installation and grouting to the
substrate. Potential cracks, which have
developed during hauling, handling and
installation of the segments, or during TBM
propulsion, are expected to close over time due
to the natural creep of concrete under high
compressive forces. The creep of the type of
reinforcement plays a negligible role herein.
The particular requirement for long-term
testing of macro-synthetic FRC is only necessary
when long-term tensile stress is expected to be
imposed on a cracked section in service. This
almost never occurs in reality as the section is
typically under compression due to high axial
forces from surrounding groundwater and
earth pressure. In service, the tensile behaviour
is not as significant as during production and
transient stages. If transitory tensile stresses are
expected, then there is no need for long-term
test data because macro-synthetic FRC
performs very similarly to steel FRC in the short
term.
However, concerns have been raised about
the long-term performance of macro-synthetic
44 TUNNELLING JOURNAL
fibres in respect of creep and the associated
consequences for crack width development
with time under sustained flexural loads. To
address these concerns, a method to
determine the effects of creep and shrinkage
on the time-dependent
behaviour of cracked,
macro-synthetic fibre
reinforced concrete cross-
sections containing
conventional bar
reinforcement subjected to a
sustained bending moment
and axial force has been
developed[14]. The results of
this analysis show that the
inclusion of macro-synthetic
fibres in the concrete has
only a minor effect on the
flexural strength of the
cross-section, but the fibres
reduce time-dependent in-
service deformations and
significantly reduce
maximum crack widths when used in
combination with conventional reinforcing
bars. This research work will be presented at
the World Tunnelling Congress (WTC 2015) in
Dubrovnik, Croatia this year in May.
REFERENCE
[1] E. Stefan Bernard, Matthew J.K. Clements,
Stephen B. Duffield, and D. Rusty Morgan, 2014.
Development of macro-synthetic fibre reinforced
shotcrete in Australia, 7th International
Symposium on Sprayed Concrete Modern Use
of Wet Mix Sprayed Concrete for Underground
Support Sandefjord, Norway, 16. 19. June
2014
[2] Ireland, T.J., Stephenson, S., 2010. Design
and construction of a permanent shotcrete lining
The A3 Hindhead Project, UK, Shotcrete: More
Engineering Developments, Bernard (ed.), pp143-
152
[3] Gonzalez, M., Kitson, M., Mares, D., Muir, B.,
Nye, E., Schroeter, T., 2014. The North Strathfield
Rail Underpass Driven Tunnel Design and
Construction, 15th Australian Tunnelling
Conference 2014, Sydney, 17-19 September, pp
369-374.
[4] Kaufmann, J. P., 2014. Durability performance
of fiber reinforced shotcrete in aggressive
environment, Proceedings of the World Tunnel
Congress 2014 Tunnels for a better Life. Foz do
Iguau, Brazil.
[5] Bernard, E.S. 2008. Embrittlement of Fiber
Reinforced Shotcrete, Shotcrete, Vol. 10, No. 3,
pp16-21, American Shotcrete Association
[6] Nordstrm, E., 1999. Durability of steel fibre
reinforced sprayed concrete with regard to
corrosion, Proceedings, 3rd Int. Symposium on
Sprayed Concrete, Gol, Norway, 26-29
September.
[7] Nordstrm, E., 2001. Durability of steel fibre
reinforced shotcrete with regard to corrosion,
The physical properties of different macro-
synthetic fibres vary greatly and for the majority
of the research and the completed projects
presented in this article only highly engineered
macro synthetic fibres with a tensile strength of
> 600MPa and a Modulus of Elasticity of
>10GPa has been used. These fibre
characteristics are required to achieve and
maintain the presented performance
outcomes.
Conclusions
Highly engineered macro-synthetic fibres prove
to be effective in reducing crack widths in RC
members and therefore significantly add to a
tunnel linings durability.
The inherent isolated creep properties of
macro-synthetic fibre reinforcement play a
subordinate role in the long-term performance
of tunnel linings where compression forces
typically govern.
High-performance macro-synthetic fibre
reinforcement is ideal for aggressive exposure
conditions and guarantees durable
performance over the design life cycle without
suffering matrix embrittlement and
performance loss with age.
making it an ideal construction material
for tunnel linings.
Shotcrete: Engineering Developments, Bernard
(ed.), pp213-217, Swets & Zeitlinger, Lisse.
[8] Hagelia, P. 2008, Deterioration mechanisms
and durability of sprayed concrete in Norwegian
tunnels, Fifth International Symposium on
Sprayed Concrete, Lillehammar, Norway, 21-24
April, pp180-197.
[9] Spains synthetic reinforcement, Tunnels and
Tunnelling International, April 2009, pp 25-27
[10] Bjontegaard, O., Myren, S.A., Klemtsrud, K.,
and Kompen, R., 2014. Fibre Reinforced Sprayed
Concrete (FRSC): Energy Absorption Capacity
from 2 days age to One Year, Seventh
International Symposium on Sprayed Concrete,
Sandefjord, Norway, 16-19 June, pp 88-97.
[11] Kaufmann, J.P., 2014. Durability
performance of fiber reinforced shotcrete in
aggressive environment, World Tunnelling
Congress 2014, (Ed. Negro, Cecilio and Bilfinger),
Iguassu Falls Brazil, p279.
[12] Bernard, E.S., 2014. Age-dependent
Changes in Post-cracking Performance of Fibre-
Reinforced Concrete for Tunnel Segments, 15th
Australian Tunnelling Conference 2014, Sydney,
17-19 September, pp229-235.
[13 Bernard, E.S., 2015. Investigation of Crack
Width Control Using Barchip Fibres in Reinforced
Concrete Beams, TSE Report 248, Penrith, NSW,
Australia, January 2015
[14] Gilbert, R. I. and Bernard, E. S., 2015. Time-
dependent Analysis of Macro-synthetic FRC
Sections with Conventional Bar Reinforcement, (in
press) World Tunnelling Congress (WTC 2015) in
Dubrovnik, Croatia, May 2015
TJ_0215_ADS_045_revised_page.qxd:Feature 16/2/15 23:21 Page 45

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Promat are the worlds largest dedicated manufacturer of passive Recruiting For Your Industry
re protection materials and global leaders in the Fire Protection
of Tunnels, providing re protection solutions to many of the
worlds largest tunnel projects.  Specialists in Tunnelling and Infrastructure
Recruitment over the past 30 years
Since the 1960s Promat materials have protected more than
190 tunnels using PROMATECT boards. More than 1.4 million m2 of  Supplying personnel of all nationalities for
tunnel linings have been protected using our spray applied systems.
UK and International Projects
www.promat-tunnel.com
Contact
David Kellett +44 (0) 1202 298322
www.hunterpersonnel.com

TUNNELLING JOURNAL 45