Leadership at work

Leadership and management theories

There are several different ways of thinking about leadership; however, we first need to
discuss exactly what is meant by the term.

Let us consider the definition of leadership given by the Encyclopedia of Business Online
(2011), which first sets the parameters of leadership as a social influence process (that)
cannot exist without a leader and one or more followers. The Encyclopedia defines
leadership as the process by which one individual influences others toward the attainment
of group or organisational goals. It also defines leadership as

We can build on this definition by recognising that leadership is also about eliciting voluntary
action. Because this action is voluntary, leadership is separated from other types of
influence based on authority.

We can look at leadership in an organised setting. Leadership results in purposeful and goal-
directed behaviour from followers, but it is not the same as management. Management is
concerned with a number of functions, and is required to plan, staff, direct, and control.
Leadership, on the other hand, deals primarily with influence. This means that a manager is
not always a good leader, as a leaders ability to persuade and influence others may depend
on factors other than their formal position or authority

Theoretical underpinning to models

Recent literature and studies have outlined four main leadership theories:

trait theories

behavioural theories

contingency or situational theories

transformational theories.

None of these theories are mutually exclusive, and each subsequent model has built upon
previous ones. These four theories are seen as variations of the classic leadership model,
and they are all underpinned by various theoretic models, which we will look closer at here.

Traits-based theories

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The traits-based theories state that leaders are typically those who demonstrate certain
traits, or characteristics. They hold that these characteristics do not create leaders, but
indicate leadership potential in a person.

These characteristics include:

the self-confidence and motivation to achieve and to lead

industry knowledge and intellectual ability

a strong ability for self-expression and communication.

Behaviour-based theories

The behaviour-based theories look at the actions of leaders. These theories examine the
qualities of behaviour, in particular towards followers. They identify patterns in those
behaviours.

Contingency or situational theories

These theories are concerned with the context in which leadership is exercised and how it
changes from situation to situation. As such, they examine leadership in context and the
influence of conditions on leadership styles.

Transformation theories

Finally, a transformation theory is defined as an approach that stimulates change in

individuals and creates positive changes with the goal of turning followers into leaders.

Leadership models

The Ohio State model

The Ohio State leadership model is based on the studies of leadership conducted by Ohio
State University in the 1940s and 50s. The research was based on two questionnaires: the
Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LDBQ) and the Supervisor Behaviour
Description Questionnaire (SDBQ).

The studies focused on two independent dimensions of behaviour in leaders: consideration

and initiating structure. Both were classified as either high or low.

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Consideration is the extent to which a leader shows concern for the welfare of members of
the group. This is a style of leadership that is people-oriented. The initiating structure is the
extent to which a leader sets roles within the group (including his/her own), defines task and
how they are to be accomplished, and organises and initiates action. This style of leadership
is task-oriented.

According to the findings, leaders exhibit these two critical characteristics or behaviours, in
order to facilitate goal accomplishment.

Some of the statements used to measure consideration were:

being friendly and approachable

treating all group members as equal

looking out for everyones welfare.

Some of the statements used to measure initiating structure were:

letting group members know what is expected of them

scheduling work to be done

maintaining definite standards of performance.

Although this model is based on early studies, it is still often referenced and used.

The Blake and Mouton model

The second behavioural model of leadership is mainly concerned with two classes of
leadership behaviour: initiation (task orientation), and consideration (socio-emotional
support). The concept of the initiating structure refers to the extent to which individuals
are likely to define and structure their roles and those of their subordinates towards goal
attainment, whereas consideration is defined as the extent to which an individual is likely
to have job relationships characterised by mutual trust, respect for subordinates ideas and
consideration for their feelings (Fleishman & Peters 1962).

One concept based largely on the behavioural approach to effective leadership was the
leadership grid, developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. The grid combines concern for

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production with concern for people and consequently presents five behavioural styles of
leadership. Thus it is possible to place the diverse styles of leadership on the grid and
determine which style to employ. For example, a person emphasising production but paying
little attention to subordinates is a so-called task manager, as the efficiency of operations
results from arranging work conditions to minimise human interference. According to this
grid, the best style of leadership is the so-called team management style, which
simultaneously exhibits a high concern for production and people to an equal extent. This
translates to the necessary work being done by committed people, as there is
interdependence through the common stake in the organisations purpose, which leads to
relationships of trust and respect.

The Hersey and Blanchard model

This leadership model was conceived by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard and is also referred
to as four quadrant leadership. Essential to this model is the premise that there is no
singularly effective style of leadership; instead, leader behaviour must be relevant and
adaptable to context and task.

The model rests on two fundamental concepts: leadership style and the level of maturity of
the followers, individually and as a group.

This maturity is demonstrated as a readiness to perform in a given situation, both in terms of

ability and confidence. Leaders must understand their followers maturity and readiness to
perform certain tasks in order to emphasise the alternative styles as needed.

The quadrants of this model refer to four possible styles of leadership:

The delegating style allows the group to take responsibility for task decisions. It is a
low-task, low-relationship style.

The participating style emphasises shared ideas and participative decisions on task
directions. It is a low-task, high-relationship style

The selling style explains task directions in a supportive and persuasive way. This is a
high-task, high-relationship style.

The telling style focuses on giving specific task directions and closely supervising
tasks. It is a high-task, low-relationship style.

The Avolio and Bass model

Avolio and Bass examined elements of effective leadership, and in doing so, defined two
styles of leadership: transactional and transformational.

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Transactional leadership is neatly described as the style of leadership that develops from
exchange or reciprocity a reward for a task completed. It is dependent on hierarchical
structures, and the ability of those in an authoritative position to control the exchange. This
type of leadership also involves skills in problem-solving, planning and organisation.

Transformational leadership, on the other hand, is concerned with engagement and

empowerment. Leaders are charismatic, stimulating and influential; they demonstrate
concern for the welfare and consideration of the individual input of their followers. This style
of leadership is dependent on trust, mutual understanding, the establishment of a long-
term vision, and employee development. A transformational leader fosters the leadership
abilities of others.

Individual learning styles

Learning styles are basically various approaches of learning. They all involve learning
methods specific to each individual, allowing for the best education. There are several
different theoretical approaches to learning, ranging from traditional instructivist to tutor-
centric approaches and student-discovery learning. Some of the more well-known
approaches include:

problem-based learning, where learning is centred on hands-on investigations and

resolution of real-world problems

experiential learning, a holistic perspective that combines experience, perception

cognition, and behaviour

discovery learning, a method of inquiry-based instruction based on the principle that

it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves.

Reference
Fleishman, E,A. & Peters, D.R. (1962), Interpersonal values, leadership attitudes and
managerial success, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 15, pp. 127-43

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