Mr.

Voth
Glorified Tubes
 Alimentary Canal
Digestive Tract

Digestion: This refers to the breakdown of food

molecules into their smaller subunits, which can
then be absorbed by the body.

Absorption: This refers to the passage of food

molecules after their digestion into the blood or
lymph.
 Motility
Refers to the movement of food through the digestive tract
and includes:
Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth.
Mastication: Chewing the food and mixing it with saliva.
Peristalsis: Rhythmic, wavelike contractions that move food
through the GI tract.
 Secretion
This includes both exocrine and endocrine secretions.
Exocrine Secretions: Water, hydrochloric acid,
bicarbonate, and many enzymes are secreted into
the lumen of the GI tract.
Endocrine Secretions: The stomach and small
intestine secrete hormones that help regulate the
digestive system.
 Chewing and Swallowing:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umnnA50IDIY

Dog Drinking:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=12paEIC7BkU
Why do you brush your teeth?
The Mouth
Ingested food is changed by the
mechanical action of teeth and by
the chemical activity of saliva into a
bolus, which is swallowed in the
process of deglutition.
The Teeth
Teeth are used to tear off food pieces and to break
down large pieces of food into smaller pieces. This
increases the surface area of the food for easier
chemical digestion.

Human adults
have 32 teeth.

Human children
have 20 teeth.
Anatomy of Teeth

Crown exposed part of tooth

made up of enamel.
Root part of tooth that is
embedded into the bone and
gum and contains the pulp.
Covered with bonelike material
called cementum.
Cementum cement root into
its socket.
Dentin substance similar to
bone, but harder. Bulk of
tooth material
Enamel covers dentin on the
outside and forms crown.
Composed mainly of calcium
phosphate. Is the hardest
substance in the body.
Gum AKA gingiva. Soft
tissue surrounding the
teeth.
Pulp Cavity Central region
of root. Contains the pulp.
Pulp Connective tissue
with blood vessels, lymph
vessels and nerves.
Root Canal Contains pulp
tissue.
 Tooth Anatomy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDxatqUbkVk
Fluoride in the Water
 Fluoride in the Water
Reduces tooth decay in children by 29 45%
Reduced tooth decay in adults (29%)
Reduces risk of losing teeth
Cost Effective
For every $1 spent on fluoridation of water, saves $38
in dental care costs
Colorado alone saves $149 million a year in dental care
costs
 The mouth and associated structures initiate
mechanical digestion of food through the
process of mastication (chewing).
The mouth is referred to as the oral or
buccal cavity.
Formed by the cheeks, lips, hard
and soft palates and tongue.
 Cheeks consist of outer layers of skin, subcutaneous fat, facial
muscles that assist in manipulating food in the oral cavity and
inner linings of cells that are constantly moistened by saliva.
Lips are fleshy, highly mobile organs that are mainly
associated with speech.
The Palate is the roof of the oral cavity.
Consists of the bony hard palate and the soft palate behind
it.
The Hard Palate is a bony plate that runs from the rear
(posterior) of the upper teeth. The tongue presses on the hard
palate in the act of swallowing.
The Soft Palate is made of muscle and continues behind the
hard palate.
Hanging from the soft palate is a cone-shaped projection called
the uvula.
During swallowing, both the soft palate and uvula are drawn
upward, closing the nasopharynx, which prevents food and
fluid from entering the nasal cavity.
The Tongue

As a digestive organ, the tongue functions to

move food around in the mouth during
mastication and to assist in swallowing
food.
Contains taste buds, through which various
food tastes are sensed.
Only about 2/3 of the tongue lie in the oral
cavity. The other 1/3 lies in the pharynx.
Lingual Frenulum the piece of tissue that
connects the tongue to the bottom of the mouth,
just posterior to the lower teeth.
Umami
Umami: savory flavours
Fish, tomatoes, cheeses
MSG = Sodium Mono-Glutamate
Salivary Glands
Salivary glands are accessory digestive glands that porduce a
fluid secretion called saliva.
Saliva:
Functions as a solvent in cleansing the teeth and dissolving food
molecules so that they can be tasted.
Contains starch-digesting enzymes and mucous that that
lubricates the pharynx to facilitate swallowing.
Produced by minor salivary glands called buccal glands, and
three major salivary glands called the parotid gland,
submandibular gland and sublingual gland.
The parotid gland empties into the oral cavity opposite the
second upper molar.
The submandibular gland empties into the floor of the mouth
on either side of the lingual frenulum.
The sublingual gland lies on the floor of the mouth on the side
of the tongue and empty into the floor of the mouth.
There are two types of
secretory cells found in all
salivary glands.
Serous cells produce a
watery fluid containing
digestive enzymes.
Mucous cells secrete a thick,
stringy mucous.

Most saliva is produced

involuntarily as a physiological
response to sight, smell, taste
or even thoughts of desirable
food.
Approximately 1000 to 1500
ml of saliva is produced daily.
 Amylase

Amylase breaks down

starches into glucose
monomers through
Hydrolysis.
Amylase
Produced in the
Salivary Glands and
the Pancreas
 Need to know
Digestive tract components and their functions
Definitions: Digestion, Absorption, Peristalsis, Exocrine,
Endocrine
Mouth
Teeth: Mechanical Action
Salivary Glands: Amylase
The Pharynx

The pharynx, or throat, is the passageway leading from

the mouth and nose to the esophagus and larynx.
It permits the passage of swallowed solids and liquids into
the esophagus, or gullet, and conducts air to and from the
trachea, or windpipe, during respiration.
Its about 12.5 cm. long.
has roughly the form of a flattened funnel

Orapharynx shared by
respiratory and digestive tracts.
Nasopharynx airway only.
Laryngopharynx airway
only.
Epiglottis
Elastic cartilage tissue attached to root of tongue.
During breathing, it points upward, allowing air to enter the
trachea.
During swallowing, it closes over the trachea opening and
forces food to enter the esophagus.
The Esophagus
Is a relatively straight, muscular tube that passes from the
pharynx to the stomach.
Can contract or expand to allow for the passage of food.
Lies behind the trachea and heart, and in front of the spinal
column.
Passes through the diaphragm before reaching the stomach.
Both ends are closed off by muscular constrictors called
sphincters.
 The upper esophageal sphincter
remains closed most of the time.
When food enters the pharynx, it
relaxes and allows food to pass through
into the esophagus.
It immediately closes after the bolus
passes through, to prevent food from
backing up.
Muscle contractions in the esophageal
wall create a peristaltic wave which
forces the bolus down the esophagus
toward the stomach.
When the bolus reaches the lower
esophageal sphincter the sphincter
opens to let the bolus pass into the
stomach, then closes to prevent gastric
juices from backing up into the
esophagus.
 The esophagus is about 25 cm (10 inches) in length.
The width varies from 1.5 to 2 cm (about 1 inch).
Contains four layersthe mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and
tunica adventitia.
The mucosa is made up of stratified squamous epithelium
containing numerous mucous glands. T
The submucosa is a thick, loose fibrous layer connecting
the mucosa to the muscularis.
The muscularis is composed of an inner layer, in which the
fibres are circular, and an outer layer of longitudinal fibres.
Both muscle groups are wound around and along the
alimentary tract, but the inner one has a very tight spiral,
so that the windings are virtually circular, whereas the
outer one has a very slowly unwinding spiral that is
virtually longitudinal.
 The outer layer of the esophagus, the tunica adventitia, is
composed of loose fibrous tissue that connects the
esophagus with neighbouring structures.
Except during the act of swallowing, the esophagus is
normally empty, and its lumen, or channel, is essentially
closed by the longitudinal folds of the mucosal and
submucosal layers.
The upper third of the esophagus is composed of striated
(voluntary) muscle.
The middle third is a mixture of striated and smooth
(involuntary) muscle
The lower third consists only of smooth muscle.
Peristalsis
Involuntary movements of the longitudinal and circular muscles, primarily
in the digestive tract but occasionally in other hollow tubes of the body,
that occur in progressive wavelike contractions.
Peristaltic waves occur in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
The waves can be short, local reflexes or long, continuous contractions that
travel the whole length of the organ, depending upon their location and
what initiates their action.
 In the esophagus, peristaltic waves
begin at the upper portion of the tube
and travel the whole length, pushing
food ahead of the wave into the
stomach.
Particles of food left behind in the
esophagus initiate secondary
peristaltic waves that remove leftover
substances.
One wave travels the full length of the
tube in about nine seconds.
The peristaltic-wave contractions in
the esophagus of humans are weak
compared with those of most other
mammals.
In cud-chewing animals, such as cows,
reverse peristalsis can occur so that
the food is brought back from the
stomach to the mouth for rechewing.
 When the stomach is filled, peristaltic waves are diminished.
The presence of fat in a meal can completely stop these
movements for a short period until it is diluted with gastric
juices or removed from the stomach.
Peristaltic waves start as weak contractions at the beginning of
the stomach and progressively become stronger as they near
the distal (outer) stomach regions.
The waves help to mix the stomach contents and propel food
to the small intestine.
Usually, two to three waves are present at one time in different
regions of the stomach, and about three waves occur each
minute.
 Deglutition Assignment
Describe anatomy and physiology involved in the act of
deglutition.
Submission:
Written (2 pages)
Audio (no more than 5 minutes)
Video (no more than 5 minutes)
 Case Study
42 yo male
Complains of burping, acid reflux, heartburn
Dull pain in stomach
Decreased appetite, weight loss

Stomach pain improves when he eats, drinks or takes

antacids
 Helicobacter pylori

Bacteria that causes ulcers

Dr Barry Marshall
Kochs Postulates
Urea -> CO2 Breath Test
Treatment: Triple Therapy
PPI + 2 Antibiotics
The Stomach - Anatomy
Is a J-shaped pouch that is continuous
with the esophagus and empties into
the small intestine.
The stomach stores food, initiates
protein digestion and mixes food into
chyme.
cardia
The stomach is divided into four
regions; the cardia, fundus, body and
pylorus.
Cardia narrow upper region directly
below the lower esophageal sphincter.
Fundus dome-shaped portion. Is in
direct contact with diaphragm.
Body large central portion.
Pylorus funnel-shaped end portion
that terminates into the small
intestine.
 The pylorus communicates
with the duodenum of ht
esmall intestine through the
pyloric sphincter.
Pylorus is a Greek word
meaning gatekeeper.
The pyloric sphincter
regulates the movement of
chyme into the small intestine
and prohibits backflow.
Gastric Rugae inner surface of stomach in long folds
Gastric Mucosa also folded (microscopically). Openings of these
folds into the stomach lumen are called gastric pits. Deeper in the
mucosa are gastric glands.
Gastric glands have several
types of secreting cells.
Goblet Cells secrete mucous.
Parietal Cells secrete hydrochloric
acid (HCl).
Chief (Zymongenic) Cells secrete
pepsinogen (an inactive form of the
protein-digesting enzyme pepsin.
Argentaffin Cells secrete
serotonin and histamine as
autocrine regulators.
G Cells secrete the hormone
gastrin into the blood.
 The Stomach Chemical Digestion
Pepsin and Hydrochloric Acid
Secretion of HCl by parietal cells makes the gastric juice highly
acidic, with a pH of less than 2.
This acidity serves three digestive functions:
1) Ingested proteins are denatured at a low pH. This means that their
structure is altered so that they are more digestible.
2) Under acidic conditions, pepsinogen enzymes partially digest each
other this frees the active pepsin enzyme as small peptide
fragments are removed. Basically this activates the pepsin
enzyme.
3) Pepsin is more active at lower pH. Optimum pH for pepsin activity is
2.0.
The peptide bonds of ingested protein are broken (through
hydrolysis reactions) by pepsin under acidic conditions.
HCl does not directly digest proteins.
HCl helps kill bacteria that may have been ingested with food.
 Digestion and Absorption in the
Stomach
Proteins are only partially digested by pepsin
in the stomach.
Carbohydrates and fats are not digested at all
in the stomach.
Complete digestion of food molecules occurs
later, when chyme enters the small intestine.
Almost all of the products of digestion are
absorbed through the wall of the small
intestine.
The only commonly ingested substances that
are absorbed the stomach wall are alcohol and
aspirin.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o18UycWRsaA
 Case Study
2 yo Female
Recurrent respiratory infections
Failure to thrive
 Cystic Fibrosis
Deletion of a single amino acid in a Cl Ion pump
Results in thick mucous secretions
Mucous in lung cannot move, resulting in bacterial
infections
Mucous in pancreas prevents the release of digestive
enzymes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BhFpFiZumS0
 Case Study
27 yo Female
Abdominal pain and Fever
Nausea
Vomiting
Loose, fatty stools
 Notes
Read slides on the small intestine (pgs 20 -26)
Make your own notes page synthesizing the key concepts and details

What is the function of the small intestine?

How does the anatomy contribute to this function?
Enzymatic secretions?
The Small Intestine
The mucosa of the small intestine is folded into villi that project
into the lumen. In addition, the cells that line these villi have
foldings of their cell membrane called microvilli. This
arrangement greatly increases the surface area for absorption.
It also improves digestion, since the digestive enzymes of the
small intestine are embedded within the cell membranes of the
microvilli.
How do you increase the absorption of nutrients?

http://i.imgur.com/vNP9bGP.gif
Structural Modifications for Absorption

The products of digestion are absorbed across the epithelial lining of the intestinal mucosa.
Absorption of carbohydrates, lipids, protein, calcium and iron occurs primarily in the
duodenum and jejunum.
Absorption of bile salts, vitamin B12, water and electrolytes are absorbed primarily in the
ileum.
Absorption occurs rapidly due to the large mucosal surface area due to the folds in the
intestine.
The mucosa and submucosa form large folds called the plicae circulares which can be
seen by the naked eye.
Surface area is further increased by microscopic folds of mucosa called villi and further by
microvilli, which are folds on the villi.
Villi
Each villus is a fingerlike fold of mucosa that projects into the lumen of the small
intestine.
Villi are covered with columnar epithelial cells and interspersed with mucous-
secreting goblet cells.
The lamina propria forms the connective core of each villus and contains
numerous lymphocytes, blood capillaries and a lymphatic vessel called the
lacteal.
Lacteal

Absorbed monosaccharides and amino

acids enter the blood capillaries.
Absorbed fat enters the lacteals.
Microvilli are also often called brush
borders, based on the way they are
seen on a light microscope.
Intestinal Enzymes

In addition to providing a large surface area for absorption, the cell

membranes of the microvilli contain digestive enzymes.
These enzymes are NOT secreted into the lumen but instead remain
attached to the cell membrane with their active sites exposed to the
chyme.
These brush border enzymes hydrolyze disaccharides, polypeptides
and other substrates. See table next slide.
Brush border enzymes attached to the cell membrane of microvilli in the small
intestine

Category Enzyme Comments

Disaccharidase Sucrase Digests sucrose to glucose and fructose;
deficiency produces GI disturbances.

Maltase Digests maltose to glucose.

Lactase Digests lactose to glucose and galactose;

deficiency produces GI disturbances. (lactose
intolerance)
 Category Enzyme Comments
Peptidase Aminopeptidase Produces free amino acids, dipeptides and
tripeptides.

Enterokinase Activates trypsin (and indirectly other

pancreatic juice enzymes); deficiency
results in protein malnutrition.

Phosphatase Ca++, Mg++-ATPase Needed for absorption of dietary calcium;

enzyme activity regulated by vitamin D.

Alkaline Phosphatase Removes phosphate groups form organic

molecules; enzyme activity may be
regulated by vitamin D.
 Case Study
58 yo male
In hospital, on Abx after surgery
Abdominal Pain
Fever
Watery diarrhea
Frequent (10 15 times a day)
 Microbiome
Population of bacteria living on and within your digestive
tract

Commensal relationship
Take up food and secrete Vitamins B3, B6, B12, K
Protect against pathogenic bacteria
Educate Immune system in Peyers Patches
 Case Study
58 yo male
In hospital, on Abx after surgery
Abdominal Pain
Fever
Watery diarrhea
Frequent (10 15 times a day)
 Clostridium difficile
Abx use depletes good gut microbiome
Clostridium difficile spores grow and cause disease, toxin
mediated
Most common hospital-acquired
The rate of C. difficile acquisition is estimated to be 13% in
patients with hospital stays of up to two weeks, and 50%
with stays longer than four weeks.
20% recurrence rate, 40% if second infection, 60% if third
Fecal Transplant
 What foods should you
only consume in moderation?

76
Vs.

77
78
79
Nutrition Information on Food Labels

Understanding
Nutrition Labelling
to Make Informed
Food Choices

80
 Nutrition information provided on food labels

Nutrition Facts INGREDIENTS: Whole wheat, wheat

bran, sugar/glucose-fructose, salt,
malt (corn flour, malted barley),
vitamins (thiamine hydrochloride,
pyridoxine hydrochloride, folic acid, d-
Ingredient List calcium pantothenate), minerals (iron,
zinc oxide).

Nutrition Claims Good source of vitamin C

Health Claims A healthy diet

81
Before

82
 After
Nutrition Facts: easy to find, easy to read, and on more foods

83
 What food products have Nutrition Facts?
Almost all prepackaged foods have Nutrition Facts.
Some exceptions are:
fresh fruit and vegetables;
raw meat, poultry, fish and seafood;
foods prepared or processed at the store:
bakery items, sausage, salads;
foods that contain very few nutrients:
coffee beans, tea leaves, spices;
alcoholic beverages.

84
Use Nutrition Facts

to easily compare similar foods

to look for foods with more or less of a specific nutrient
to select foods for special diets

to make informed food choices

85
Nutrition Facts are based on a specific amount of
food - compare this to the amount you eat

All the nutrient information is

based on this amount of food.
The specific amount is:
listed under the Nutrition Facts
title
listed in common measures
you use at home and a metric
unit
not necessarily a suggested
quantity of food to consume

86
Examples of Specific Amount of Food

Food type Suggested Serving Size

Bread 50 g (1slice), if unsliced

OR

25 - 70 g (1-2 slices), if sliced

Crackers and 15 - 30 g (4 crackers)

melba toast

87
 Specific amount of food
Compare this to the amount you eat

Nutrition Facts Amount you eat

bran cereal with raisins bran cereal with raisins
1 cup (59 g) 1 cups

88
The % Daily Value (% DV) is:

a benchmark to evaluate the nutrient

content of foods.

based on recommendations for a

healthy diet.

used to determine whether there is a

lot or a little of a nutrient.

89
 Use the % DV to make informed food choices

Increase a specific nutrient...

calcium, iron, fibre 15% DV HIGH

Decrease a specific nutrient...

combined saturated and 10% DV LOW
trans fats
fat, sodium 5% DV LOW

90
Use the % DV to make informed food choices
Choose between two similar products...
Cereal 1 Cereal 2

91
 Use the ingredient list to make informed food choices

all of the ingredients for a food are listed by weight, from the
most to the least
Example:
INGREDIENTS: WHOLE GRAIN ROLLED OATS, SUGAR, HIGH
MONOUNSATURATED CANOLA OIL, ALMOND PIECES, RAISINS,
GOLDEN SYRUP, SALT, CRISP RICE (RICE FLOUR, SOY PROTEIN,
SUGAR, MALT, SALT), SOY LECITHIN, NATURAL FLAVOUR

a source of certain nutrient information

a source of information for people with allergies

92
Use nutrition claims to make informed food choices

regulated statements made when a

food meets certain criteria

optional, and may be found only on

some food products

93
 Nutrition claims
When you want to decrease the amount of certain nutrients:

none or hardly any of this nutrient

Free
an example is sodium free
a small amount
Low
an example is low fat
at least 25% less of the nutrient compared with a
Reduced similar product
an example is reduced in calories
can be used on foods that are reduced in fat or
Light
reduced in calories
94
 Nutrition claims
When you want to increase the amount of certain nutrients:

contains a significant amount of the nutrient

Source
an example is source of fibre

High or contains a high amount of the nutrient

good source an example is high in vitamin C

Very high or contains a very high amount of the nutrient

excellent
source an example is excellent source of calcium

95
 Health claims

Disease risk reduction claims

Example: A healthy diet low in saturated and trans fats

may reduce the risk of heart disease. (Naming the food)
is free of saturated and trans fats.

96
 General health claims
General health claims are generally developed:

by third party organizations by corporations

Consumers should not solely rely on general health claims to

make informed food choices.

97
Nutrition Labelling Summary

Use Nutrition Facts, the ingredient list, nutrition and

health claims to make informed food choices.

Nutrition Facts: easy to find, easy to read, and on more

foods.

Nutrition Facts are based on a specific amount of food -

compare this to the amount you eat.

Use % Daily Value to see if a food has a lot or a little of

a nutrient.

98
Eating Well with Canadas Food Guide

www.healthcanada.gc.ca/foodguide
99
 Vegetables and Fruit

Canadas Food Guide Label Information

Messages Low sodium vegetable juice

Eat at least one dark green and

one orange vegetable each day.

Choose vegetables and fruit

prepared with little or no
added fat, sugar or salt.

Have vegetables and fruit more

often than juice.

100
 Grain Products
Canadas Food Guide Label Information
Messages Bread

Make at least half of your grain

products whole grain each day.

Choose grain products that

are lower in fat, sugar or salt.

101
 Milk and Alternatives

Canadas Food Guide Label Information

Messages Cheese

Drink skim, 1%, or 2% milk each

day (or fortified soy beverages).

Select lower fat milk Part Skim

alternatives. Cheese

102
 Meat and Alternatives
Canadas Food Guide Label Information
Messages Tuna

Have meat alternatives such as

beans, lentils and tofu often.

Eat at least two Food Guide

Servings of fish each week.
Select lean meat and
alternatives prepared with
little or no added fat or salt.

103
 Oils and Fats
Canadas Food Guide Label Information
Messages Non-hydrogenated margarine

Include a small amount -

30 to 45 mL (2 to 3 Tbsp) -
of unsaturated fat each day.
Use vegetable oils such as
canola, olive and soybean.

Choose soft margarines that

are low in saturated and trans
fats.

104
Read the label

Compare the Nutrition Facts

table on food labels to choose
products that contain less fat,
saturated fat, trans fat, sugar
and sodium.

The calories and nutrients listed

are for the specific amount of
food found at the top of the
Nutrition Facts table.

105
Use nutrition information on food labels to help you
make better food choices.

Health Canadas Web site:

www.healthcanada.gc.ca/nutritionlabelling

106
Lipid and Protein Digestion
Lab
Lipid Digestion

5 test tubes, numbered 1 -5

Measure the materials according to the chart
Let solutions rest for 15 minutes
Describe the detailed observations of each tube
Describe the colour changes of each tube
Protein Digestion

4 test tubes, number the tubes from 6-9

Place an even amount of boiled egg pieces into each tube.
Make sure there is enough for all groups!
Add materials according to table.
Allow prepared tubes aside for 48 hours. Be sure to write
your names on the tubes!
Lab Report (31 marks)
Predictions for each test tube (5 marks)
Lipid Digestion Results Table (3 marks)
Analysis Questions (12 marks)
48 hours later
Carbohydrate Digestion Results Table (3 marks)
Conclusion (8 marks)
Pancreatin and Bile Salts
Lipid Test
Biuret Reagent
48 hours later
Make initial observations of tubes 6-9 and record your
results.
Using a dropper, place several drops of each solution
onto a multi-well plate.
Place 4 drops of biuret solution on each sample.
Observe the changes and record your results.
Diabetes Mellitus Activity