Lesson 4.

2 Homework Solutions

1. What is the structure of a nucleus in an atom? Distinguish between a stable

nucleus and an unstable nucleus.

Rutherford model of the atom has

a positive central core called the
nucleus and negatively charged
electrons moving around the
nucleus in orbits. The nucleus is
made up of positively charged
protons and electrically neutral
neutrons. The number of protons
in the nucleus equal to the number
of electrons around it.
The stability of a nucleus is determined by the neutron to proton ratio in the
nucleus. For elements with low atomic number, this ratio is close to one for
stability. For bigger nuclei the ratio needs to be greater than one. All elements
below Z = 83 are stable. In an unstable nucleus the nuclear forces are not
sufficient to hold the nuclear particles together. Such nuclei tend to disintegrate
by throwing out nuclear particles and radiant energy.

2. What is radioactivity?

Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an unstable atom

by emitting nuclear particles and radiant energy. The remaining nucleus belongs
to another element. The original element is called parent element, and what is left
after disintegration is called the daughter element. Radioactivity was discovered
by Becquerel while experimenting with x-rays and photographic plates.

3. What are the radiations that are emitted by a radioactive nucleus? What are the
properties of these radiations?

There are three types of radiations emitted by a radioactive element. They are
called alpha (), beta () and gamma () radiations.
Alpha radiations consist of two protons and two neutrons. They are helium nuclei
that carry 2 units of positive charge and 4 mass units. They are deflected by
electric and magnetic fields. They are stopped by few centimeters of air. But
while they move through air, they are capable of knocking off electrons from
atoms producing ions. Their ionizing ability can be used to detect them.

Beta radiations consist of electrons. These are very light compared to alpha
particles. They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields. They are more
penetrating than alpha particles, but can be stopped by a sheet of aluminum.
 Although they produce ions on their path, they are not as effective as -particles
in producing ions.
Gamma radiations are high energy electromagnetic radiations. They are not
affected by electric or magnetic fields. Since they are very high energy radiations,
they can penetrate through several centimeters of lead. They are not very effective
in producing ions.

4. What happens to a nucleus when it emits an alpha particle? Illustrate using

examples.
When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, it looses two protons and two neutrons.
Losing two protons reduces the atomic number by 2 units. Losing 2 protons and 2
neutrons reduces the mass number by 4 units.
If the original element is AZ X, after emitting an -particle it becomes A 4
Z 2 Y
A
Z X 24 AZ42Y
Plutonium-239 emits an alpha particle to become an isotope of uranium.
239 4
94 Pu 235 92U
2

Uranium-235 emits an alpha particle to become an isotope of thorium.

235 4 231
92 U 2 Th
90

5. What happens when a nucleus emits a beta particle? Illustrate using examples.
Beta radiations consist of electrons. But there are no electrons in the nucleus. A
neutron splits into a proton and an electron as follows:
1 0 1
0 n -1 e 1 p
The proton gets added to the nucleus and the electron is emitted as a -particle.
The resulting element now has an atomic number one unit more than the original
element. Since it is a neutron that changed into a proton, the total number of
protons and neutrons do not change. This means that the mass number does not
change. If element X of atomic number Z and mass number A emits a -particle,
it becomes element Y of atomic number Z + 1 and mass number A.
A
ZX -10 Z A1Y
Uraniaum-239 emits a beta particle to become an isotope of neptunium-239.
239 0
92 U 239
-1 93 Np

Neptunium-239 emits a beta particle to become an isotope of plutonium.

239 0
93 Np -1 239 94 Pu
6. How do the penetration abilities of alpha, beta and gamma radiations compare?

-radiations are least penetrating,

they are stopped by a thin sheet of
paper. -radiations are more
penetrating than . They penetrate
through paper, but are stopped by
a sheet of aluminum. -radiations
are most penetrating. They
penetrate few centimeters into
lead.

7. What is the role played by the ratio of neurons to protons in the stability of a
nucleus?

The stability of a nucleus is determined by the neutron to proton ratio in the

nucleus. For elements with low atomic number, this ratio is close to one for
stability. For bigger nuclei the ratio needs to be greater than one. All elements
below Z = 83 are stable.

8. What is stability band? What type of elements are likely to be alpha active? What
type are likely to be beta active?

The stability band represents a neutron to proton ratio that provides stability for
the nucleus. Elements to the left of the stability band have too many neutrons and
they decay by - emission where a neutron changes into a proton bringing the
 element closer to the stability band. An element to the right of the stability band
decay by + where a proton changes to a neutron, again bringing the element
closer to the stability band.

9. What is a radioactive series? Illustrate with an example.

An unstable nucleus very often does not gain stability by just one decay. It goes
through a series of decay until a stable isotope is formed. This is called a
radioactive series.
U-238 decays by 5 successive emissions of followed by -- to become a
stable isotope of lead (Pb)
238 4 234
92 U
2 90Th
234 4 230
90 Th
2 88 Ra
230 4 226
88 Ra
2 86 Rn
226 4 222
86 Rn 2 84 Po
222 4 218
84 Po 2 82 Pb
218 0 218
82 Pb -1 83 Bi
218 0 218
83 Bi -1 84 Po
218 4
84 Po 214
2 82 Pb

Lead-214 is stable. This is called the uranium series.

10. Define half-life of a radioactive element.

Half-life of a radioactive element is he time taken for half the number of
radioactive atoms in a sample to disintegrate. After one half-life there will be only
half of the original material left. The other half has disintegrated to become the
daughter element.

11. If half-life of an isotope of an element is 2200 years, how much of the original
material will be left in a sample of 20 g after 8800 years?

8800 years contain 4 half-lives.

After one half-life the amount left is 10 g
After second half life the amount left is 5 g
After the third half-life the amount left is 2.5 g
After the fourth half-life the amount left is 1.25 g
Of the original 20 g of the parent element, only 1.25 g remains after 8800 years.
The rest has been decayed into daughter elements.

12. What is radioactive dating?

Radiocarbon dating is a method of estimating the age of organic materials. It was

developed right after World War II by Willard F. Libby and coworkers, and it has
 provided a way to determine the ages of different materials in archeology,
geology, geophysics, and other branches of science. Some examples of the types
of material that radiocarbon can determine the ages of are wood, charcoal, marine
and freshwater shell, bone and antler, and peat and organic-bearing sediments.

To measure the amount of radiocarbon left in a fossil, scientists burn a small piece
to convert it into carbon dioxide gas. Radiation counters are used to detect the
electrons given off by decaying Carbon-14 as it turns into nitrogen. In order to
date the fossil, the amount of Carbon-14 is compared to the amount of Carbon-12
(the stable form of carbon) to determine how much radiocarbon has decayed. The
ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 is the same in all living things. However, at the
moment of death, the amount of carbon-14 begins to decrease because it is
unstable, while the amount of carbon-12 remains constant in the sample. Half of
the carbon-14 degrades every 5,730 years as indicated by its half-life. By
measuring the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-14 in the sample and comparing it to
the ratio in a living organism, it is possible to determine the age of the fossil.

13. Describe the working of a Geiger Muller counter.

The Geiger counter consists

of a metal tube filled with
an inert gas such as argon.
An insulted wire inside the
tube is connected to the
positive terminal of a
battery. The metal cylinder
is connected to the negative
terminal.
No current flows between the metal wire and the cylinder because the gas inside
is an insulator. When radiation passes through the window, it ionizes some of the
gas atoms producing free electrons. These electrons make the gas conducting and
a pulse of current flows that is amplified and measured. When connected to a
counter, these current pulses produce click sounds or directly registers the number
of counts.

14. What are some of the units used for measuring radioactivity?
The number of decays per second, or activity, from a sample of radioactive nuclei
is measured in becquerel (Bq), after Henri Becquerel. One decay per second
equals one becquerel.
An older unit is the curie, named after Pierre and Marie Curie.
One curie is approximately the activity of 1 gram of radium and equals (exactly)
3.7 x 1010 becquerel.
The amount of radiation received by a human is expressed in terms of radiological
dose. Radiation dose is measured in a unit called rem. The natural radiation that
people receive a day is about 1 millirem.
The SI unit for the radiation dose is the sievert (Sv)
 1 rem = 0.01 sievert (Sv)

15. What is binding energy? Explain how this is related to nuclear energy?

The energy that hold the nuclear particles together is called binding energy. When
nuclear particles escape the nucleus, part of the energy holding the nucleons
together is released. This is the origin of radiations.
If a bigger nucleus is split into two smaller nuclei, the total binding energy for the
two smaller nuclei will be less than the binding energy for the bigger nucleus. The
extra energy is released in a process like this. This is the origin of nuclear energy.

16. What is the significance of binding energy per nucleon of an element?

The biding energy per nucleon is an important indicator of the stability of a

nucleus, higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable it is.

The greatest binding energy per nucleon occurs near mass number 56, then
decreases for both more massive and less massive nuclei. Iron-56 is the most
stable nucleus. To the left and right of it, the biding energy per nucleon decreases
and the stability of the nucleus decreases. More massive nuclei can gain stability
by splitting into smaller nuclei releasing their binding energy. Conversely less
massive nuclei can combine together to gain stability, again with the release of
energy.
17. Describe the process of nuclear fission.

The process of splitting a massive

nucleus into more stable less
massive nuclei with the release of
energy is called nuclear fission.
Fission can occur when the
nucleus of a heavy fissionable
atom captures a neutron. In
addition to energy, free neutrons
are released during fission.
Materials that undergo fission are
called fissionable materials.
235
U, 233U, 239Pu are example of
fissionable materials.

18. Use the fission process of U-235 nucleus to describe a chain reaction.
235
U absorbs a stray neutron to become 236U which is very unstable. 236U splits
into nuclei of barium and krypton releasing 3 free neutrons and energy.
235 92
U + 1 neutron Kr + 142Ba + 3 neutrons + ENERGY

In a mass of U-235, if one nucleus undergoes fission, the neutrons that are
released in this fission can cause fission in 3 different nuclei releasing 9
neutrons. This generation of neutrons can produce 27 different fissions.
 Each of these neutrons can produces further fission and a chain reaction sets in
until the entire mass undergoes fission. Such a chain reaction is called an
uncontrolled chain reaction. An uncontrolled chain reaction is used in the
construction of an atom bomb.

19. What is a critical mass? How is it important in the making of an atom bomb?
In order that a chain reaction may be sustained within a given mass of fissionable
material, at least one neutron per fission should be available to be captured by
other fissionable nuclei to produce fission. Neutrons produced in fission are fast
moving and there is a good chance that they escape before being captured for
further fission. If the mass of the fissionable material is too small the neutrons
have a greater chance to escape. The minimum mass that is necessary to start and
sustain a chain reaction is called the critical mass of the fissionable material.

20. What is a nuclear reactor?

A nuclear reactor is a device where a chain reaction is allowed to proceed in a

controlled manner so that the energy of fission may be used for producing
electricity.
To maintain a sustained controlled reaction, for every two or three neutrons
released, only one should be allowed to produce further fission. If this ratio is less
than one, the reaction will die out, if it is more than one the reaction becomes
uncontrolled. Nuclear reactions can be controlled by using neutron absorbing
materials such as boron.

Heat is produced in a nuclear

reactor when neutrons strike
Uranium atoms causing them
to fission in a continuous
controlled chain reaction. This
heat is removed by circulating
water through the reactor
producing steam. The steam
runs turbines producing
electricity.
21. Describe the roles played by neutron absorbers and moderators in the working of
a reactor.
Ordinary uranium contains only 0.2% of the fissionable isotope U-235. The fuel
used in a reactor is enriched uranium that contains a greater percentage of U-235.
Neutrons produced in fission have to be slowed down sufficiently so that other U-
235 atoms could capture them for further fission. Blocks of fuel are separated by
graphite to slow down neutrons. A material used for slowing down neutrons is
called a moderator. In some commercial reactors water is used as the moderator.
Neutron absorbers called control rods are placed among the fuel assembly. When
the control rods are pulled out of the core, more neutrons are available and the
chain reaction speeds up, producing more heat. When they are inserted into the
core, more neutrons are absorbed, and the chain reaction slows or stops, reducing
the heat.

22. How is the energy of fission used to produce electricity?

The Energy of fission is

removed by circulating
water through the core of
the reactor. The heat is
transferred to a second
water loop through a heat
exchanger. Water boils in
the heat exchanger
producing steam at high
pressure which turns the
turbines to generate
electricity.

23. Explain the working of a breeder reactor.

Under appropriate operating conditions, the neutrons given off by fission
reactions can "breed" more fuel from otherwise non-fissionable isotopes. The
most common breeding reaction is that of plutonium-239 from non-fissionable
uranium-238. U-238 absorbs neutron and becomes beta active. It emits two
successive beta particles and becomes the nucleus of plutonium, a very readily
fissionable material. The reactor core consists of thousands of stainless steel tubes
containing a mixture of uranium and plutonium oxides, about 15-20% fissionable
plutonium-239. Surrounding the core is a region called the breeder blanket
consisting of tubes filled only with uranium oxide. Such a reactor can produce
about 20% more fuel than it consumes by the breeding reaction.
24. Discuss nuclear fusion as a source of energy.
Nuclear fusion is the process of two light nuclei fuse together to produce a bigger
nucleus releasing energy. Stars are powered by the fusion of hydrogen into
helium. The most suitable reaction occurs between the nuclei of the two heavy
forms (isotopes) of Hydrogen - Deuterium (D) and Tritium (T). Temperatures in
excess of 15 million degree Celsius is required to initiate nuclear fusion. This is
the kind of temperature at the core of a star. The practical difficulty of producing
fusion on the surface of the earth is our inability to create the temperature
conditions to start a fusion reaction.

25. Discuss some of the drawbacks of nuclear energy.

One of the drawbacks of a nuclear reactor is that failures in safety measures could
cause a meltdown which could release large amounts of lethal radiation to
surrounding areas which could become contaminated for long periods of time.
The reactor accidents at Chernobyl in 1986 and Three Mile Island in 1979 are
cases in point. As a result of these and similar accidents, the construction of more
reactors for power generation was put on hold until recently. Now there is
renewed interest in nuclear energy because it could partially address both
dwindling oil reserves and global warming with far fewer emissions of
greenhouse gases than fossil fuels.

Another serious concern with the use of nuclear reactors is the problem of storing
radioactive waste for indefinite periods, the potential for possibly severe
radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, and the possibility that its use
could in some countries lead to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Proponents,
including some national governments, claim that these risks are small and can be
lessened with new technology.