Topic 7: Run for Your Life

1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the How Science Works

areas listed in the table on page 13 of this specification.
2 Describe the structure of a muscle fibre and explain the structural
and physiological differences between fast and slow twitch muscle
fibres.
A muscle fibre is made up of bundles of myofibrils and contain several nuceli.
Each myofibril consists of filaments: Actin (thin filament) and Myosin (thick
filament). The cell surface membrane of a muscle fibre is called the sarcolemma.
The specialised endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle fibre is called the
sarcoplasmic reticulum (this releases calcium ions in order for muscles to
contract). The cytoplasm of a muscle cell is called the sarcoplasm. The
specialised synapse between neurones and muscle cells is called the
neuromuscular junction.

Slow twitch muscle fibres Fast twitch muscle fibres

Contain lots of mitochondria where
lots of ATP is produced
Is used for slower, sustained periods
of exercise
Carries out aerobic respiration
Lots of myoglobin to store oxygen
Fatigue resistant
Contains few mitochondria as not
much energy is used
Is used for short bursts of exercise
Carries out anaerobic respiration
Little myoglobin as less oxygen is
used
Fatigue quickly

3 Explain the contraction of skeletal muscle in terms of the sliding

filament theory, including the role of actin, myosin, troponin,
tropomyosin, calcium ions (Ca2+), ATP and ATPase
1 The sarcolemma receives an electrical impulse which travels down the T-
tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum
2 The sarcoplasmic reticulum released calcium ions which bind to the
Troponin molecules
3 This causes the Troponin to change shape which causes the Tropomysin
molecules to unblock the actin-myosin binding site
4 The myosin head binds to the Actin-Myosin binding site on the Actin
filament and the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP + Pi releases energy for the
myosin head to change shape
5 This pulls the Actin filament along causing the sarcomere to shorten
6 Free ATP then binds to the myosin head causing the cross-bridge to break
and the myosin head detaches from the Actin filament, reattaches to
another binding site further down the filament and pulls it along further
7 This continues until calcium ions stop being released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum and existing calcium ions travel back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport using ATP
4 Recall the way in which muscles, tendons, the skeleton and ligaments
interact to enable movement, including antagonistic muscle pairs,
extensors and flexors.
Tendons are non-elastic fibrous tissue that join muscles to the skeleton (bones).
Ligaments are elastic connective tissue that join bones to bones.
Skeletal muscles are those which are attached to bones and normally arranged in
antagonistic pairs (pairs of muscles that pull in opposite directions).
Antagonistic pairs are made up of flexors and extensors: Flexors are muscles
which contract to bend a joint whilst extensors are muscles which contract to
straighten a joint.
5 Describe the overall reaction of aerobic respiration as splitting of the
respiratory substrate (eg glucose) to release carbon dioxide as a waste
product and reuniting of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen with the
release of a large amount of energy.
Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + water + energy
6 Describe how to investigate rate of respiration practically.
1 Set up a respirometer and place equal volumes of potassium hydroxide
into the two test tubes on either side- these will absorb the carbon dioxide
that is produced
2 Place small organisms onto a piece of gauze over one of the test tubes
above the potassium hydroxide
3 Place a coloured fluid into the manometer tube
4 The rate is respiration is measured by observing the movement of the fluid
in the manometer towards the organism- the volume of oxygen absorbed
can then be calculated from this
5 Repeat the experiment and calculate a mean average to make the results
more reliable

7 Recall how phosphorylation of ADP requires energy and how

hydrolysis of ATP provides an accessible supply of energy for biological
processes.

8 Describe the roles of glycolysis in aerobic and anaerobic respiration,

including the phosphorylation of hexoses, the production of ATP,
reduced coenzyme and pyruvate acid (details of intermediate stages
and compounds are not required).
Glycolysis:
1 Glucose is taken from its storage molecule glycogen
2 It is broken down into Hexose phosphate and then into a less stable
molecule, Hexose biphosphate, which requires energy (2 x ATP)
3 This splits into 2 x triose phosphates
4 2 x ATP and 2 x hydrogen are release- 2NAD pick up the hydrogen atoms
to form 2 x NADH
5 Another 2 x ATP are released as 2 x triose phosphate molecules are
converted to 2 x pyruvate
6 In total, 4 x ATP were produced but 2 were used so there is a net gain of 2
x ATP
7 The reduced NAD (NADH) molecules are taken to the matrix of the
mitochondria where the hydrogen is used in the Krebs Cycle.
9 Describe the role of the Krebs cycle in the complete oxidation of
glucose and formation of carbon dioxide (CO2), ATP, reduced NAD and
reduced FAD (names of other compounds are not required) and that
respiration is a many-stepped process with each step controlled and
catalysed by a specific intracellular enzyme.
Link reaction:
1 Pyruvate releases carbon dioxide as a waste product and a hydrogen atom
(which is picked up by NAD to form reduced NAD) which produces an
Acetyl group
2 This reacts with Coenzyme A to form Acetyl coenzyme A
3 The acetyl group is taken to be used in the Kreb cycle and 1 x NADH
produced which is used in oxidative phosphorylation
Kreb Cycle:
1 The acetyl group from the acetyl coenzyme A is combined with
oxaloacetate to form a 6-carbon compound
2 Carbon dioxide is removed from this as a waste product and hydrogen is
removed and taken up by NAD to form reduced NAD (NADH)
3 This leaves a 5-carbon compound
4 Another carbon dioxide is removed as a waste product and ATP is released
5 3 x hydrogen molecules are reduced and picked up by 2 x NAD and 1 x
FAD to form 2 x reduced NAD and 1 x reduced FAD
6 This leaves a 4-carbon oxaloacetate which binds with a new acetyl group
from acetyl coenzyme A and the cycle starts again
7 In total, the 3 x NADH and 1 x FADH take the hydrogen atoms to be used
in the electron transport chain

10 Describe the synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

associated with the electron transport chain in mitochondria, including
the role of chemiosmosis and ATPase.
Electron Transport Chain:
1 Hydrogen atoms are released from the reduced NAD AND FAD and split
into electrons and protons (H+)
2 The electrons travel through the electron carriers, losing energy at each
carrier
3 Protons move into intermembrane space which creates an electrochemical
gradient
4 Protons then move down the electrochemical gradient back to the
mitochondrial matrix- this process allows ATPase to catalyse ATP synthesis
5 Electrons and protons (H+) then bond to oxygen to form water molecules

11 Explain the fate of lactate after a period of anaerobic respiration in

animals.
In anaerobic respiration, Pyruvate is reduced to form Lactate/Lactic acid and NAD
is formed. Once aerobic respiration continues lactate is converted back into
Pyruvate.

12 Understand that cardiac muscle is myogenic and describe the normal

electrical activity of the heart, including the roles of the sinoatrial node
(SAN), the atrioventricular node (AVN) and the bundle of His, and how
the use of electrocardiograms (ECGs) can aid the diagnosis of
cardiovascular disease (CVD) and other heart conditions.
Cardiac muscle is myogenic, meaning that the impulse which causes the muscles
to contract comes from the heart itself rather than sent from the brain.
Electrical activity of the heart:
1 The Sinoatrial node sends an electrical impulse to the muscles in the atrial
walls, causing them to constrict and push blood into the ventricles (a band
of non-conducting collagen tissues prevent the impulse from travelling
straight to the ventricles)
2 After a short delay, the impulse then travels to the atrioventricular node
and then to the Bundle of His before it travels into the Purkyne fibres to
the apex of the heart
3 The walls of the ventricles then contract from the apex upwards and push
blood into the arteries.
Electrocardiograms:
This is a machine which records the electrical activity of the heart
It shows the waves of depolarisation during atrial systole, ventricular systole
and diastole
If something disrupts the hearts normal conduction pathways, changes will
occur in the pattern recorded during the ECG which can be used for diagnosis
of cardiovascular disease
For example, it can pick up whether the heart is:
Tachycardia The heart beats too fast to make up for it not being able to
pump enough blood with each cycle
Problem with AVN The QRS wave on the ECG recording will be missing or will
be abnormal as the electrical impulse wont be travelling to the AVN as it
needs to be
Fibrillation There is no rhythm between the atria and ventricles and so the
person would have an irregular heartbeat

13 Explain how variations in ventilation and cardiac output enable rapid

delivery of oxygen to tissues and the removal of carbon dioxide from
them, including how the heart rate and ventilation rate are controlled
and the roles of the cardiovascular control centre and the ventilation
centre.
Ventilation rate = the rate at which someone breathes (often measured as the
volume of air breathed per minute/ the minute ventilation)
Tidal volume = volume of air breathed in or out of the lungs in one breath
Ventilation rate = tidal volume x breaths per minute
As ventilation increases, more oxygen is absorbed into the lungs which creates a
greater oxygen concentration gradient between the alveoli and the blood, this
increases rate of diffusion of oxygen into the blood. Also, as ventilation increases
more carbon dioxide is releases creating a steeper concentration gradient
between the blood and alveoli, causing an increased rate of diffusion of carbon
dioxide from the bood into the alveoli. As cardiac output increases, more blood is
pumped around the body during each cycle, meaning more oxygen reaches
tissues and more carbon dioxide is taken away.
Ventilation centre:
1 Chemoreceptors in the medulla (brain) and arteries detect change in pH
and concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood
2 Impulses are sent from the ventilation centre to the muscles involved with
breathing
3 A small increase of carbon dioxide in the blood causes a large increase in
ventilation
4 Reactions from stretch receptors in tendons and muscles involved in
movement and from the motor cortex are detected which increases
ventilation
5 We also have voluntary control over breathing
Cardiovascular control centre:
1 Adrenaline is secreted from the Adrenal gland before and during exercise
2 This stimulates the SAN to increase its rate of contraction
3 Action potentials are sent along motor neurones from the cardiovascular
control centre to the SAN
4 The neurone releases a neurotransmitter called noradrenaline just as it
reaches the SAN, causing the SAN to increase its rate of concentration

14 Describe how to investigate the effects of exercise on tidal volume

and breathing rate using data from spirometer traces.
1 Set up a spirometer with an enclosed chamber containing air, lying over
water
2 As a person breathes in and out through the mouthpiece, the movement
of the lid should be recorded by a pen on chart attached to a revolving
drum
3 By counting the number of ups and downs on the trace recorded we can
calculate breathing rate in breaths per minute
4 We can calculate ventilation rate by measuring mean average volume of
air breathed in with each breath (tidal volume) and multiplying this by the
number of breaths taken in per minute

15 Explain the principle of negative feedback in maintaining systems

within narrow limits.
If receptors detect an increase in the normal state of the body system, it triggers
events that cause a decrease in reaction. Equally, if receptors detect a decrease
in the normal state of the body system, it triggers events that cause an increase
in reaction.
1 Receptors detect a change in the normal state of a body system
2 This sends an electrical impulse to the relevant part of the brain e.g.
hypothalamus if there is a change in body temperature
3 The brain sends an electrical impulse to the relevant effector muscle
which reacts
4 The change is counteracted
5 Returns to normal state of body system
16 Discuss the concept of homeostasis and its importance in
maintaining the body in a state of dynamic equilibrium during exercise,
including the role of the hypothalamus and the mechanisms of
thermoregulation.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. This
includes core body temperature; it is vital that this remains the same as if it rises
too high enzymes that are essential for many processes in the body may
denature so metabolic reactions cannot take place.
During exercise, some energy is lost as heat during the transfer from one place
to another or from one type to another. Therefore, the body must maintain
temperature as much as possible- it does this by:
Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect a rise in temperature of blood, the
hypothalamus also receives signals from receptors in the skin. When this rise is
detected, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to various effectors which
respond by:
Arterioles dilate so that a greater volume of blood can flow to the surface of
the skin and heat is lost by radiation through the skin
Sweat glands receive more blood which increases sweat production- the
sweat travels to the surface of the skin and evaporates, taking heat with it
Erector muscles attached to hair relax, meaning they lie flat against the skin
and so trap less air- this allow heat to radiate from the skin more easily
When a decrease in temperature is detected:
Arterioles constrict which greatly reduces the volume of blood travelling close
to the skin, and diverts the blood underneath the insulating fat- this reduces
the amount of heat lost through radiation
Sweat glands secrete little or no sweat
Erectors muscles contract causing hairs to stand up, this traps a layer of air in
the hairs which reduces the heat lost through the skin by radiation
Certain muscles contract and relax very rapidly (shivering) which generates
extra heat and increases blood temperature
17 Explain how genes can be switched on and off by DNA transcription
factors including hormones.
1 Transcription factors, such as hormones like Thyroxine, bind to specific
parts of DNA (genes)
2 They either increase or decrease the ability of RNA Polymerase to bind to
the DNA and catalyse the synthesis of a complimentary Mrna strand
 3 This may increase the transcription of a particular gene, known as up-
regulating, or decrease it, known as down-regulating

18 Analyse and interpret data on possible disadvantages of exercising

too much (wear and tear on joints, suppression of the immune system)
and exercising too little (increased risk of obesity, coronary heart
disease (CHD) and diabetes), recognising correlation and causal
relationships.

Correlation As one variable changes, another changes

Causal relationship One variable effects a change in another variable

Too little exercise Too much exercise

Increases risk of obesity (metabolic Joints may become abnormally worn
rate remains low so fuels such as (by wearing away cartilage)
glucose and fatty acids are not used
which increases amount of adipose
fat)
Increases risk of type 2 diabetes Strenuous exercise over a long period
of time may cause immune system to
be less effective (less cytokines
released, so less activation of specific
B and T killer cells, less chance of
destroying pathogens)
Increases risk of cardiovascular
disease (increases blood pressure and
LDL: HDL ratio which can lead to
atherosclerosis)

19 Explain how medical technology, including the use of keyhole

surgery and prostheses, is enabling those with injuries and disabilities
to participate in sports, eg cruciate ligaments repair using keyhole
surgery and knee joint replacement using prosthetics.
Modern imaging techniques such as MRI and CT scans are able to diagnoses
injuries accurately and quickly
Keyhole surgery:
A fibre optic tube with a small camera and light attached is used to look
inside the joint
Small incisions are made around the joint to fit in small surgical instruments
Less recovery time than with normal surgery

Prosthetics:
Damaged joints can be completely replaced
This frees patients from pain and restores mobility
 Replacement joints wear out more quickly if you exercise a lot
For athletes, prosthetics are designed so they are able to give good
performance. For example, the dynamic prosthetic foot changes shape as the
body weight presses down on it, returning back to shape as it lifts off the
ground.
Unaffected by bodily fluids

20 Outline two ethical positions relating to whether the use of

performance-enhancing substances by athletes is acceptable.
Against:

They can lead to early death or health problems of an athlete for example
due to heart attack later on in life or liver damage
They have a competitive advantage over those who do not use
performance-enhancing drugs making competition unfair
For:

There is no ban on nutritional substance such as vitamins so where do

we draw the line on what is allowed and not allowed
It is impossible for all drugs to be detected it is too difficult for regulators
to keep up with making new tests quickly enough to regulate the use of
performance enhancing drugs
Ethical absolutists- believe it is either never acceptable or always acceptable to
use performance enhancing drugs
Ethical relativists - take into account different people and circumstances and
believe it is wrong to use performance enhancing rugs but in some cases it may
be acceptable
Anabolic steroids these bind to receptors on a molecule which takes it directly
to the nucleus of a cell. They act as transcription factors and bind to the
promotor region of a gene which allows RNA Polymerase to start transcription- as
a result more protein synthesis takes place in cells (for example testosterone
increases protein synthesis in muscle cells)
Peptide hormones- bind with receptors on the cell surface membrane which
starts a process that results in the activation of a transcription factor within the
nucleus (for example erythropoietin stimulates production of red blood cells
which means the blood can carry more oxygen)