Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat

Engineering

CHAPTER 6

Earthworks Quantities and Mass-Haul Diagram

Introduction
Earthwork for any road construction like (railway, landing and different types of highway) involves
excavation and movement of a portion of the earth's surface from one location to another. Earthwork in
a new position is an embankment being formed and created into a desired shape and physical grade
formation or disposed of as spoil. Excavation of earth material is the removal of the layer of soil
immediately under the topsoil and on top of rock for grade formation. Earth material is usually used to
construct embankments and foundations and can be easily moved with scrapers or other types of
earthmoving equipment for grade formation.

Excavation of topsoil is the removal of the exposed layer of the earth's surface, including vegetation.
Rock excavation is the removal of a formation that cannot be excavated without drilling and blasting.

Earth Work Includes

Clearing
Grubbing - clear off roots
Excavation of drainage channels & trenches
Excavation of structures
Borrows
Haul & Overhaul
Grading
Preparation of Side Slopes
Reconditioning of roadway
Other operations for preparing the subgrade for highway or runway pavement construction
(Highway Eng. II)

1 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Types of excavation
Excavation may be classified by type of material

1. Topsoil excavation
2. Earth excavation

3. Rock excavation

4. Muck excavation

5. Unclassified excavation

Topsoil excavation

Topsoil excavation

Topsoil excavation

Muck excavation Unclassified excavation

2 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
Excavation may be classified by the purpose

Stripping
Roadway excavation

Drainage or structure excavation

Bridge excavation

Channel excavation

Footing excavation

Borrow excavation

Dredge excavation

Underground Excavation

Estimation of Earthwork Quantities:-

Establishing of the Vertical Alignment:

Determination of the grade for each section depends on:
Type of highway.

Location.
Types of material
The grade may be chosen so as to balance the quantities of excavation (CUT) & embankment
(FILL).
Calculated.
Located on the profile. The (-ve) sign indicates an
embankment
Checked to ensure adequate sight distance.

3 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

The (+ve) sign indicates an excavation

Cut and fill

In earthmoving, cut and fill is the process of constructing a railway, road or canal whereby the amount
of material from cuts roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments, so
minimizing the amount of construction labor.

Areas of Cross-sections

For the purpose of calculating the quantity of earth work, the areas of cross-sections and the distance
between them must be known
Methods For regular/level ground simple geometry

4 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
For irregular ground, there are different methods to calculate for example
Graphical or plan meter method, Coordinate or other approximate method
Example For irregular ground
Offsets from a straight line
(a) Regular spaced offsets
Offsets at regularly spaced intervals are shown in fig 1 for this case, the area is found by the
formula

Where b is the length of a common interval between offsets, and ho , h1 hn are the offsets . The
regular interval for the example of fig 1 is a half station or 50 m

Fig 1

(b) Irregular spaced offsets

For irregularly curved boundaries like that in fig 4 the spacing of offsets along the reference line
varies spacing should be select so that the curved boundary is accurately defined when adjacent offset
points on it are connected by straight lines. A formula for calculating area for this case

5 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Example
Compute the area of the tract shown in fig 2

Fig 2Area by offsets for a tract with a curved boundary

Calculating volumes of Earthwork

To determining the earthwork volumes, there are several ways of calculating earthwork

1. average end are method

2. Pyramid formula

3. Prismoidal formula

1. average end are method

This method consists of averaging the cut and fill quantities of adjacent stations and multiplying by
the distance between stations to produce cubic meters of excavation and embankment between the two
stations. This procedure is followed when manual methods are used. Projects designed by computer
will be tabulated on the mass plot listing and these calculations are integral parts of the alignment
design program.

6 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Where

A1 and A2 are the end areas

L is the distance between them.

This method is entirely accurate only if the two end areas are equal. If one end area is zero, the
earthwork volume is a pyramid.

2. Pyramid formula

Thus, as the area of one end of the earthwork volume approaches zero, the error in the volume
calculated by the average end area method approaches 50 percent. A more accurate formula, known as
the Prismoidal formula, is available. This is:-

3. Prismoidal formula

Am is the area of a plane surface midway between cross-sections with areas A1 and A2.
But use of the average end area method is more common because only approximate volumes are
required for purposes of estimation.

7 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Distribution of the Earthworks Quantities

Example

Given the end areas below, calculate the volumes of cut and fill between stations 351+00 and 352+50

8 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

9 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Earthmoving
In civil engineering, a cut or cutting is where soil or rock material from a hill or mountain is cut out to
make way for a canal, road or railway line.
In cut and fill construction it keeps the route straight and/or flat, where the comparative cost or
practicality of alternate solutions (such as diversion) is prohibitive. Contrary to the general meaning of
cutting, a cutting in construction is mechanically excavated or blasted out with carefully placed
explosives. The cut may only be on one side of a slope, or directly through the middle or top of a hill.
Generally, a cut is open at the top (otherwise it is a tunnel). A cut is (in a sense) the opposite of an
embankment.

Road cutting

There are 3 principle of earthmoving

1. The Earthmoving Process

2. Equipment Selection

3. Production of Earthmoving Equipment

1. The Earthmoving Process

Earthmoving is the process of moving soil or rock from one location to another and processing it so
that it meets construction requirements of location, elevation, density, moisture content, and so on

10 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
Activities involved in this process include:

excavating,
loading,
hauling,
placing (dumping and spreading),
compacting,
grading, and
Finishing.

Efficient management of the earthmoving process requires:

accurate estimating of work quantities and job conditions,
proper selection of equipment, and
Competent job management.
2. Equipment Selection
The choice of equipment to be used on a construction project has a major Influence on the
efficiency and profitability of the construction operation.

Although there are a number of factors that should be considered in selecting equipment for a
project, the most important criterion is the ability of the equipment to perform the required work.

Among those items of equipment capable of performing the job, the principal criterion for
selection should be maximizing the profit or return on the investment produced by the equipment.

Other factors that should be considered when selecting equipment for a project include:

possible future use of the equipment,

its availability,

the availability of parts and service, and

The effect of equipment downtime on other construction equipment and operations.

After the equipment has been selected for a project, a plan must be developed for efficient
utilization of the equipment.

The final phase of the process is, of course, competent job management to assure compliance
with the operating plan and to make adjustments for unexpected conditions.

3. Production of Earthmoving Equipment

11 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
The basic relationship for estimating the production of all earthmoving equipment is:

Production = Volume per cycle Cycles per hour ( Eq.1)

The term "volume per cycle" should represent the average volume of material moved
per equipment cycle.

Thus the nominal capacity of the excavator or haul unit must be modified by an
appropriate fill factor based on the type of material and equipment involved.

The term "cycles per hour" must include any appropriate efficiency factors, so that it
represents the number of cycles actually achieved (or expected to be achieved) per
hour.

The cost per unit of production calculated as follows:

Cost per unit of production = Equipment cost per hour Equipment production per hour. (Eq. 2)

Soil Identification and Classification

Soil is considered to consist of five fundamental material types:

gravel,

sand,

silt,

clay, and

Organic material.

Soil Volume-Change Characteristics

1. Soil Conditions

2. Swell

3. Shrinkage

4. Load and Shrinkage Factors

12 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
1. Soil Conditions
There are three principal conditions or states in which earthmoving material may exist or Three States
of Material

bank,

loose, and

Compacted.

Bank:

Material in its natural state before disturbance. Often referred to as "in-place" or "in situ."

A unit volume is identified as a bank cubic yard (BCY) or a bank cubic meter (BCM)

Loose:

Material that has been excavated or loaded.

A unit volume is identified as a loose cubic yard (LCY) or loose cubic meter (LCM).

Compacted:

Material after compaction.

A unit volume is identified as a compacted cubic yard (CCY) or compacted cubic meter (CCM)

2. Swell
A soil increases in volume when it is excavated because the soil grains are loosened during
excavation and air fills the void spaces created.

As a result, a unit volume of soil in the bank condition will occupy more than one unit volume
after excavation. This phenomenon is called swell.

Material volume increases during excavation

Swell may be calculated as follows

Swell (%) = (Weight/bank volume Weight/loose volume -1) 100 (Eq.4)

13 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
Example 1

Find the swell of a soil that weighs 1661 kg/m3 in its natural state and 1186 kg/m3 after excavation.

Solution

Swell =(1661/1186 - 1) 100=40%]

That is, 1 bank cubic meter of material will expand to 1.4 loose cubic meters after excavation.

3. Shrinkage
When a soil is compacted, some of the air inside of the soil is forced out. As a result the soil occupies
less volume than it does either in bank or loose conditions. This is the reverse of swell and called as
shrinkage

Shrinkage Factors
Shrinkage depends on:
materials characteristics method of placing
Moisture content; soil type
Climatic conditions; fill height and cut depth

Shrinkage of compacted fills

Shrinkage of compacted fills Material % of shrinkage

Light excavated soil (on ordinary ground) 10 20%
Light excavated soil (on swampy ground) 20 40%
Heavy Excavated soil Up to 10%
Excavated Rock (Swell) 5 25%

Shrinkage: multiply the fill quantity by 1+ %sh

Swelling: divide the fill quantity by 1 + %sw
1. If the Subgrade soil is sand, silt, or clay then shrinkage (5-15) 10%.

2. If the Subgrade soil is rock, sand stone or lime stone then swell (bulking) (25-35) 30%.
14 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

When a soil is compacted, some of the air is forced out of the soil's void spaces.

As a result, the soil will occupy less volume than it did under either the bank or loose
conditions.

This phenomenon, which is the reverse of the swell phenomenon, is called shrinkage

The value of shrinkage may be determined as follows:

Shrinkage (%) = (1-Weight/bank volume Weight/compacted volume) 100 (Eq.5)

Soil volume change due to excavation and compaction is illustrated in Figure below

Note that both swell and shrinkage are calculated from the bank (or natural) condition

15 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Example

Given the end areas below, calculate the volumes of cut and fill between stations 351+00 and 352+50.
If the material shrinks 12 percent, how much excess cut or fill is there?

16 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Example

Find the shrinkage of a soil that weighs 1661 kg/m3 in its natural state and 2077 kg/m3 after
compaction.

17 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
Solution

Shrinkage = (1- 1661/ 2077) 100 = 20%

Hence 1 bank cubic meter of material will shrink to 0.8 compacted cubic meters as a result of
compaction.

4. Load and Shrinkage Factors

In performing earthmoving calculations, it is important to convert all material volumes to a common
unit of measure.

Need a common unit of measure for earthwork (get rid of calculations)

Can use any of the three measures

Called pay measure in contract

Load factor

Shrinkage factor = 1- shrinkage

Because haul unit and spoil bank volume are commonly expressed in loose measure, it is
convenient to have a conversion factor to simplify the conversion of loose volume to bank
volume.

The factor used for this purpose is called a load factor.

A soil's load factor may be calculated by use of Equation Eq 6 or Eq.7.

Load factor = Weight/loose unit volume Weight/bank unit volume (Eq.6)

or

Load factor = 1/ (1+swell) (Eq.7)

Loose volume is multiplied by the load factor to obtain bank volume.

A factor used for the conversion of bank volume to compacted volume is sometimes referred to
as a shrinkage factor.

18 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
The shrinkage factor may be calculated by use of Equation 8 or 9.

Shrinkage factor = Weight/bank unit volume Weight/compacted unit volume (Eq.8)

or

Shrinkage factor = 1 - shrinkage (Eq.9)

Bank volume may be multiplied by the shrinkage factor to obtain compacted volume or
compacted volume may be divided by the shrinkage factor to obtain bank volume.

Example

A soil weighs 1163kg/LCM, 1661kg/BCM, and 2077 kg/CCM.

a) Find the load factor and shrinkage factor for the soil.

b) How many bank cubic meters (BCM) and compacted cubic meters (CCM) are contained in
593,300 LCM of this soil?

Solution

(a) Load factor =1163/1661 =0.70

Shrinkage factor =1661/2077 = 0.80

(b) Bank volume = 593300 x 0.70 = 415310 BCM

Compacted volume = 415310 0.80 = 332248 CCM

Typical values of unit weight, swell, shrinkage, load factor, and shrinkage factor for some common
earthmoving materials are given in Table 2-5.

19 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Estimating Earthwork Volume

When planning or estimating an earthmoving project it is often necessary to estimate the volume of
material to be excavated or placed as fill.

The procedures to be followed can be divided into three principal categories:

1. Pit excavations (small, relatively deep excavations such as those required for basements and
foundations)

2. Trench excavation for utility lines,

3. Excavating or grading relatively large areas.

1. Pit Excavations

For these cases simply multiply the horizontal area of excavation by the average depth of
excavation (Equation 10).

Volume = Horizontal area Average depth Eq.10

To perform these calculations,

First divide the horizontal area into a convenient set of rectangles, triangles, or circular segments.

After the area of each segment has been calculated, the total area is found as the sum of the
segment areas.

The average depth is then calculated.

For simple rectangular excavations, the average depth can be taken as simply the average of the
four corner depths.

20 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
For more complex areas, measure the depth at additional points along the perimeter of the
excavation and average all depths.

Example 4

Estimate the volume of excavation required (bank measure) for the basement shown in Figure. Values
shown at each corner are depths of excavation. All values are in meters

146.6

Solution

Area = 7.63 x 9.15 = 69.8 m2

Average depth = (1.9+ 2.5 + 1.7 + 1.5)/4= 1.9 m

Volume = 69.8 1.9 = 132.62BCM

2. Trench Excavations

The volume of excavation required for a trench can be calculated as the product of the trench
cross-sectional area and the linear distance along the trench line (Eq.11).

Volume = Cross-sectional area Length Eq.11

For rectangular trench sections where the trench depth and width are relatively constant, trench
volume can be found as simply the product of trench width, depth, and length.

When trench sides are sloped and vary in width and/or depth,

21 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
Cross sections should be taken at frequent linear intervals and the volumes between
locations computed.

These volumes are then added to find total trench volume.

Example 5

Find the volume (bank measure) of excavation required for a trench (0.92 m) wide, 1.83 m deep, and
152 m long. Assume that the trench sides will be approximately vertical.

Solution

Cross-sectional area = 0.92 x 1.83 = 1.68 m2

Volume = 1.68 152 = 255 BCM

3. Large Areas

To estimate the earthwork volume involved in large or complex areas, one method is

To divide the area into a grid indicating the depth of excavation or fill at each grid
intersection.

Assign the depth at each corner or segment intersection a weight according to its location
(number of segment lines intersecting at the point). Thus,

interior points (intersection of four segments) are assigned a weight of four,

exterior points at the intersection of two segments are assigned a weight of two, and

Corner points are assigned a weight of one.

Average depth is then computed using Equation 2-16 and multiplied by the horizontal
area to obtain the volume of excavation.

Note, however, that this calculation yields the net volume of excavation for the area.
Any balancing of cut and fill within the area is not identified in the result.

Average depth =(Sum of products of depthweight) / Sum of weights

22 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
Example 5

Find the volume of excavation required for the area shown below. The figure at each grid intersection
represents the depth of cut at that location. Depths in meters.

23 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Solution
Corner points =1.83 + 1.04 + 0.61 + 1.22 = 4.70 m

Border points = 1.77 + 1.59 + 1.40 + 0.92 + 0.85 + 0.92 + 1.07 + 1.46 + 1.46 + 1.68 =13.12 m

Interior points = 1.52+ 1.40+ 1.28+ 1.49+ 1.22+ 1.10=8.01 m

Average depth = {4.70 + 2(13.12) +4(8.01)}/48 = 1.21 m

Area =91.4 121.9 = 11,142 m2

Volume= 11,142 x 1.21 = 13,482 BCM

24 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

The Mass-Haul Diagram

Mass Diagram- A graphical representation of the cumulative amount of earthwork moved along the
centerline and distances over which the earth and materials are to be transported.

The mass-Haul diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earthworks involved in a

highway scheme & the manner in which they may be most economically handled. It shows
accumulated volume at any point along the center line.

Construction Use of the Mass Diagram

A mass diagram is a continuous curve representing the accumulated volume of earthwork plotted
against the linear profile of a roadway or airfield.

Mass diagrams are prepared by highway and airfield designers to assist in selecting an alignment
which minimizes the earthwork required to construct the facility while meeting established limits
of roadway grade and curvature.

The mass diagram is intended as a design aid, it is not normally provided to contractors as part of a
construction bid package.

The mass diagram can provide very useful information to the construction manager and it is
usually available to the contractor upon request.

A typical mass diagram and corresponding roadway profile are illustrated in Figure below

25 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Characteristics of a Mass Diagram

Some of the principal characteristics of a mass diagram include the following.

The vertical coordinate of the mass diagram corresponding to any location on the roadway
profile represents the cumulative earthwork

Volume from the origin to that point.

Within a cut, the curve rises from left to right.

Within a fill, the curve falls from left to right. A peak on the curve represents a point where
the earthwork changes from cut to fill.

A valley (low point) on the curve represents a point where the earthwork changes from fill to
cut.

26 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
When a horizontal line intersects the curve at two or more points, the accumulated volumes
at these points are equal. Thus, such a line represents a balance line on the diagram.

The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:

Proper distribution of excavated material

Amount and location of waste

Amount and location of borrow

Amount of overhaul in kilometer-cubic meters

Direction of haul.

Terms of Mass-Haul Diagram

1. Haul:
Haul: is the sum of the product of each volume of material and the distance through which it is
moved. On the mass-haul diagram, it is the area contained b/n the curve and the balance line
Distance over which material is moved (m or station).
Volume-distance (m3.m or m3.sta.).
Haul Distance: distance from point of excavation to point where the material is to be tipped

2. Free-Haul Distance (FHD): - The distance within which a contractor is paid a fixed amount per
cubic meter of material irrespective of actual distance price, (free-haul charge=Birr.D./m3).

Usually specified in the contract over which a charge is paid only for the volume of earth
excavated and not for its movement (300m). Free-haul is part of the haul which is contained within
the free haul distance

3. Over-Haul Distance (OHD):- Distance beyond free-Haul for which extra charges are required for
each (m3. sta.), (over-haul charge=Birr.D./m3.sta.).

27 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

4. Limit of Economical Haul Distance (LEHD): - The maximum Over-Haul distance plus Free-
Haul distance beyond which it is more economical to waste & borrow than to pay for over hauling.

5. Waste: is the volume surplus or unsuitable material which must be exported from a section of the
site.
6. Borrow: is the volume of material which must be imported in to a section of the site due to
deficiency of suitable material

Economic Haul Limit (LEHD) = FHD + L

COH = cost of Over-Haul / m3. sta.

CB = cost of borrow material / m3.
FHD = Free-Haul distance.
L = Maximum Over-Haul distance.

28 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering
The curve starts with zero-accumulated earthworks and the baseline is the zero balance line, i.e. when
the curve intersects this line again the total cut and fill will balance. A line that is drawn parallel to the
baseline so as to cut a loop is called a 'balancing line, and the two intersection points on the curve are
called balancing points as the volumes of cut and fill are balanced between them.

AB = FHD
CD = FHV (volume)
EF = LEHD
GH = OHV (volume)
EK = Waste (volume)
FP = Borrow (volume)

29 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Example 5

Given the following end area for cut & fill. Complete the earthworks using shrinkage10% OR 90%
compacted then prepare the M.H.D. & find the following: interval of the sation m and if cut and fill in
one station the distance is 50 meter for each

a) Limit of economical haul.

b) Free-Haul volume. Area(m2)
station
cut fill
c) Over-Haul volume. 0 10
d) Waste volume. 1 12
2 14
e) Borrowing volume.
3 16
4 15
Giving 5 9
6 11
Cost of Over-Haul = 30 Birr.D./m3.sta. 7 19
8 7
Cost of Free-Haul = 70 Birr.D./m3 9 13
10 18
Cost of borrow = 120 Birr.D./m3 11 10

Free-Haul distance = 200 m.

30 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

Station Area(m2) Volume Corrections Cumulated

Cut Fill volume
Fill
Cut Fill
0 10 0

1100
1 12

2 14 2400

3 16 3900

4 15 5450

5 15 5425

6 11 3995

7 19 2345

8 7 915

9 13 -185

10 18 -122

11 10 1278

Solution

31 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

32 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

This chart only for training

33 Highway I (2016/17)
 Defence Engineering College Department of Civil and combat
Engineering

This chart only for class work activity

34 Highway I (2016/17)