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Study Guide - Exam 1

Note: Any and all material discussed in lecture can be used for questions on the exam. The outline below
contains the main points that I expect everyone to understand if they wish to pass the exam and
subsequently pass the course. Use this study guide as well as the objectives to organize your studying.

Introduction to Biochemistry

I. Precursors
A. What four classes of molecules are considered precursors?
B. What are the primary function(s) of each?
C. Other than precursors, what else does a cell need to survive?
II. Structural Complementarity
A. What is Structural Complementarity?
B. What is the function of Structural Complementarity?
C. What forces stabilize Structural Complementarity?

Carbohydrates Chapter 16

I. What are carbohydrates?


A. How are they defined?
1. What functional groups must be present on the monosaccharides?
B. Be able to define and/or use the following terms alone or in combination when describing a
monosaccharide:
1. Aldose
2. Ketose
3. Triose
4. Tetrose
5. Pentose
6. Hexose
7. Heptose
8. Octose
9. Nonose
II. Monosaccharides
A. What is the general formula of a monosaccharide?
B. Which monosaccharides exhibit stereoisomerism?
1. Which monosaccharides contain one or more chiral carbon atoms?
2. Which enantiomeric form of the monosaccharides occurs most often in nature?
C. The ten (10) monosaccharides of biological importance.
1. Be able to recognize their name when used.
a) Which are aldoses?
b) Which are ketoses?
c) What distinguishes the different monosaccharides with the same number of carbon atoms?
2. What are Epimers?
a) Which monosaccharides are epimers of each other?

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b) Which monosaccharides are diastereomers of each other?
c) Which monosaccharides are constitutional (structural) isomers of each other?
3. Be able to recognize the structures of the ten important monosaccharides in the straight chain
form (Fischer projection).
a) Be able to identify the D and L forms of a monosaccharide in the straight chain form.
4. How do the monosaccharides form cyclic structures?
a) Which of the monosaccharides cyclize?
b) Be able to recognize their structures in the cyclic form.
c) Be able to recognize the hemiacetal or hemiketal functional group.
d) Be able to identify the atoms / functional groups involved in the hemiacetal formation.
e) Be able to identify the atoms / functional groups involved in the hemiketal formation.
f) What are anomers?
g) Be able to distinguish the structures of the two anomeric ( & ) forms.
h) What is Mutarotation?
i) Be able to identify the anomeric carbon of a cyclic monosaccharide.
j) Be able to identify the anomeric hydroxyl group of a cyclic monosaccharide.
D. Know the modifications that a monosaccharide can under go.
1. Oxidation of aldehyde group of the aldoses - Aldonic acids.
2. Oxidation of hydroxyl group on the last carbon - Uronic acids.
3. Reduction of aldehyde or ketone functional group - Sugar Alcohols.
4. Reaction of hydroxyl group with carboxylic or mineral acids - Esterified Sugars.
5. Reduction of a hydroxyl group - Deoxysugars
6. Substitution of an amino group for a hydroxyl group - Aminosugars
7. Modified amino sugars
a) Amide sugars, e.g., N-acetylglucosamine
E. Chemical properties
1. Oxidation
a) Know the difference between a reducing sugar and a nonreducing sugar.
b) Know what simple tests are performed to determine if the sugar is reducing or
nonreducing.
c) Know which sugars are reducing sugars
2. Glycoside bond formation
a) Know how monosaccharides react with each other to form disaccharides, oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides
b) Know how glycosidic bonds form.
i) involvement of the anomeric carbon.
c) Be able to identify the atoms/groups involved in the (acetal) glycosidic bond.
d) Be able to identify the atoms/groups involved in the (ketal) glycosidic bond.
e) Can a glycosidic bond form if both monosaccharide units are in the linear form?
III. Disaccharides
A. The three biologically important disaccharides.
1. Be able to name them.
a) Common name as well as the more precise chemical name.
2. Be able to recognize their structures.
3. Be able to identify the sugars that make them up.

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4. Be able to recognize and identify the orientation and direction of the glycosidic linkage
between monosaccharide units (e.g., 1 4).
5. Be able to determine if the disaccharide is a reducing or nonreducing sugar.
a) Two of the three important disaccharides are reducing sugars.
b) Which two are reducing disaccharides?
c) Why are they reducing disaccharides?
6. Be able to work with / describe / identify the parts of an unknown disaccharide or
oligosaccharide.
a) What monosaccharides are present in the molecule?
b) What is the orientation and direction of the glycosidic linkages present in the unknown
disaccharide or oligosaccharide?
c) Is it reducing or nonreducing?
IV. Polysaccharides
A. Polysaccharides can be homopolysaccharides (homopolymers) or heteropolysaccharides
(heteropolymers).
1. Know the difference between homopolymers and heteropolymers.
B. The three biologically important homopolysaccharides.
1. Be able to name them.
2. Be able to recognize their structures.
3. Be able to identify the monosaccharides that make them up.
4. Know the difference between the linear polysaccharides and the branched polysaccharides.
5. Be able to recognize and identify the type of glycosidic linkage joining the polysaccharide.
a) The type of linkage involved in the linear region(s) of the molecule.
b) The type of linkage at the branch points.
6. Know their functions
C. Heteropolysaccharides
1. Realize that there are 1000s of possible heteropolysaccharides.
2. Know the possible functions of the heteropolysaccharides as a group.
3. Know the two sugars present and functions of the different glycosaminoglycans.
a) Chondroitin sulfate
b) Dermatin sulfate
c) Heparin
d) Hyaluronic acid
e) Keratan sulfate
4. Realize that the blood group substances (A, B, O) are heteropolysaccharides.
5. Have a general idea regarding the differences between the blood group heteropolysaccharides.
a) A group ends with the sequence galactose N-acetylgalactosamine.
b) B group ends with the sequence galactose galactose.
c) O group also ends with galactose. It is missing the terminal sugar.

Lipids - Chapter 17

I. General comments
A. Know what makes lipids different from the other biomolecules and why.
B. Be able to define the term Saponification.

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C. Know the products that form when a saponifiable lipid is saponified.
D. Know the products that form when a nonsaponifiable lipid is saponified.
E. Know the functions of lipids in plants and animals.
F. Know the general classifications of the various lipids.
II. The Precursors of the Saponifiable Lipids or The Component Parts of the Saponifiable Lipids or The
Products of Saponification
A. Know the names of the various small molecules that are the component parts of the saponifiable
lipids.
1. The fifteen (15) important fatty acids
a) number of carbon atoms.
b) saturated versus unsaturated.
c) configuration of carbon-carbon double bonds.
d) essential versus nonessential.
e) -6 and -3 fatty acids.
f) be able to recognize a structure and put a name to it or match a name to a structure.
2. Trans fatty acids
a) how are the man made trans fatty acids formed?
3. Soaps
a) what is a soap?
b) how are they prepared / manufactured?
c) how do they function?
4. The small polar alcohols
a) glycerol
b) ethanolamine
c) serine
d) choline
e) inositol
f) be able to recognize their structures and put names to them
5. Phosphate
6. Sphingosine
a) be able to recognize its structure and put a name to it
7. Long chain alcohols
a) characteristics of a vinyl alcohol versus a long chain saturated alcohol.
8. Carbohydrates
III. Waxes
A. What are their major functions in plants and animals?
B. Be able to assign the component parts of a wax to the correct group of organic molecules.
1. From a description be able to identify a lipid as a wax. (e.g., A saponifiable lipid composed of
a long chain alcohol and a long chain fatty acid.)
C. Be able to recognize the structure of a wax.
IV. Triacylglycerols (neutral lipids or simple lipids)
A. What are their major functions?
B. Be able to assign the component parts of a triacylglycerol to the correct group of organic
molecules.
1. From a description be able to identify a lipid as a triacylglycerol (e.g., A saponifiable lipid

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composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.)
C. Be able to recognize the structure of a triacylglycerol.
D. Know about hydrogenation.
1. A reaction of alkenes where H2 is added across the carbon-carbon double bond.
2. What will hydrogenation do to a saturated, monounsaturated, or a polyunsaturated
triacylglycerol?
a) Which could possibly form trans fats (trans fatty acids)?
b) Why do trans fats form (trans fatty acids)?
V. Phosphoglycerides
A. What are their major function(s)?
B. Be able to assign the component parts of a phosphoglyceride to the correct group of organic
molecules.
1. From a description be able to identify a lipid as a phosphoglyceride (e.g. A saponifiable lipid
composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate, and a polar alcohol {choline, ethanolamine,
serine, inositol, glycerol}.)
C. Be able to recognize the structure of the phosphoglycerides.
D. Be able to distinguish between the various phosphoglycerides.
1. phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) vs. phosphatidylethanolamine vs. phosphatidylserine vs.
phosphatidylinositol vs. diphosphatidylglycerol (cardiolipin),
VI. Ether Lipids
A. What are their major function(s)?
B. Be able to assign the component parts of an ether lipid to the correct group of organic molecules.
1. From a description be able to identify a lipid as an ether lipid (e.g. A saponifiable lipid
composed of glycerol, a fatty acid, a long chain alcohol, phosphate, and choline or
ethanolamine)
C. Be able to recognize the structure of the ether lipids.
D. What distinguishes a plasmalogen from other ether lipids?
1. a vinyl alcohol
a) long chain alcohol with a carbon-carbon double bonds between carbon 1 & 2
VII. Sphingolipids
A. Ceramides
1. What is their major function?
2. Be able to name the component parts present in a ceramide.
3. From a description be able to identify a lipid as a ceramide.
4. Be able to recognize the structure of a ceramide.
B. Sphingomyelins
1. What is their major function?
2. Be able to name the component parts present in a sphingomyelin.
3. From a description be able to identify a lipid as a sphingomyelin.
4. Be able to recognize the structure of a sphingomyelin.
C. Cerebrosides
1. What is their major function?
2. Be able to name the component parts present in a cerebroside.
3. From a description be able to identify a lipid as a cerebroside.
4. Be able to recognize the structure of a cerebroside.

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D. Gangliosides
1. What is their major function?
2. Be able to name the component parts present in a ganglioside.
3. From a description be able to identify a lipid as a ganglioside.
4. Be able to recognize the structure of a ganglioside.
5. Realize that the blood group substances (A, B, O) can be the heteropolysaccharide of a
ganglioside.
VIII. The Fat soluble Vitamins
A. What molecule is the precursor molecule?
B. Biological function of Vitamin A
1. functional differences between the three forms
C. Biological function of Vitamin D
D. Biological function of Vitamin E
E. Biological function of Vitamin K
IX. The Eicosanoids - Thromboxanes, Prostaglandins & Leukotrienes
A. Which fatty acid is used to synthesize this class of compounds?
1. Which fatty acid is the precursor for the eicosanoids?
B. Have an idea as to the possible functions of these compounds -
1. cause smooth muscle contractions.
2. cause smooth muscle relaxation.
3. inhibit the secretion of HCl by the stomach.
4. inhibit the use of fatty acids for energy.
5. inhibit blood clotting.
6. stimulate blood clotting.
7. regulate the synthesis of steroids
8. regulate nervous transmission.
9. mediate (increase or decrease) the sensation of pain.
10. mediate (increase or decrease) the inflammatory response.
X. Cholesterol
A. What is its major function(s) in animals?
B. Know the bile acids, bile salts and bile esters are and their function.
C. The steroid hormones
1. Be able to recognize the names of the hormones that are derived from cholesterol.
2. Be able to match a specific hormone with its function in the body.
XI. Membranes
A. What class or classes of lipids are present in membranes?
B. What is a lipid bilayer?
1. How are the lipids arranged in the bilayer?
2. Which end of the molecule is in contact with water?
3. Which end of the molecule is in contact with the other lipids?
4. Which lipids are present in higher concentration in the outer leaflet of the bilayer?
5. Which lipids are present in higher concentration in the inner leaflet of the bilayer?
6. Where is cholesterol found?
C. Other than lipids what else in present in a biological membranes
1. What is an intrinsic protein?

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2. What is an integral protein?
3. What is a transmembrane protein?
4. What is an extrinsic protein?
5. What is a peripheral protein?
6. What is a lipid linked protein?
7. Which are possibly glycoproteins?
D. What forces stabilize the very complex membrane structure?
E. What molecules can freely pass through / across a membrane
F. What is the fluid mosaic model of a membrane?
1. What is membrane fluidity?
2. What component(s) of the membrane modulate the fluidity?
a) saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acids.
b) cholesterol

Protein Structure and Function Chap 18


I. General Comments.
A. Know the functions of proteins in the body.
1. Enzymes.
2. Protective.
3. Transport.
4. Regulatory.
5. Structural.
6. Motility.
7. Nutrient or Storage.
8. Exotic and/or Miscellaneous.


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