4/10/2017 WhataretheModernSourcesofMuslimLaw?

ADVERTISEMENTS:

What are the Modern

Sources of Muslim Law?
ArticlesharedbySanjyotC

ItisnotcustomarytotalkofmodernsourcesofMuslimlaw,since
theMuslimjuristsadmitofnomodificationoftheirlawbyany
earthlyagency.ButthefactofthematteristhatMuslimlawhas
undergonemodificationsthroughouttheperiodofBritishrule.

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Thevehiclesofthesemodificationshavebeenthree:(a)doctrine
ofequity,justiceandgoodconscience,(b)precedent,and(c)
legislation.Thefirsttwohaveprovedtobeveryeffectivemodes
ofchange,whiletheroleofthelasthasbeenperipheral.

Equity,JusticeandGoodConscience:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

Inmostsystemsoflaw,somethingakintotheEnglishdoctrineof
equity,justiceandgoodconsciencehasexisted.Muslimlawisno
exceptiontothisuniversalphenomenon.IstihsanoftheHanafi
School,andthedoctrineofmaselihulmursalaofMalik,arenear
totheEnglishdoctrineofequity,justiceandgoodconscience.

IstihsanisusedtooverridetheKiyas.InthewordsofAbdul
Rahim:Itmayhappenthatthelawanalogicallydeducedfailsto
commenditselftothejurist,owingtoitsnarrownessand
inadaptabilitytothehabitsandusagesofthepeopleandbeing
likelytocausehardshipsandinconveniences.Inthateventalso,
accordingtotheHanafis,ajuristisatlibertytorefusetoadoptthe
lawtowhichanalogypoints,andtoacceptinsteadarulewhichin
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hisopinionwouldbetteradvancethewelfareofmenandthe
interestsofjustice.Thus,istihsanmeansequityorjuristic
preference.Schachtsaysthatistihsancametosignifyabreach
ofstrictanalogyforreasonofpublicinterest,convenienceor
similarconsideration.

ThisisessentiallyadoctrineoftheHanafis,andotherschoolsof
Sunnisdidnotlookatitkindly.MasalihuMursalaaspropounded
byMalikallowedthejuriststodeducelawonthebasisofgeneral
considerationofpublicgood,butthefollowersoftheMalikischool
couldnotmakemuchuseofitastheythoughtittobetoovague
topermitanydeductionofrulesoflaw.

AnothersourceofMuslimequityisreadbyFyzeeinthe
directionsgiventotheKazitomitigate,incertaincircumstances,
therigorousofalegalisticinterpretationofthelaw.Itisobvious
thatwhateverdirectionswereissuedtotheKazi,ortowhatever
extentthedoctrinesofjuristicpreferenceandpublicgoodmight
bestretched,theycouldnotbeutilizedtooverridethetextofthe
KoranortheSunna.Theywere,atbest,usedtooverridethe
Kiyas.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Initsmodernversion,thedoctrineofequity,justiceandgood
conscienceisessentiallyaproductoftheBritishadministrationof
justiceinIndia.ItsearliestformisfoundintheLettersPatentof
GeorgeIoftheyear1726whichenjoineduponthecourtstogive
judgmentsaccordingtojusticeandright.Then,itcametomean
theEnglishnotionsofjusticeandrightasunderstoodbyEnglish
lawyers.

TheRegulationsof1781laiddownthatincases,forwhichno
specificdirectionshadbeenlaiddowntheadalatwastoact
accordingtoequity,justiceandgoodconscience.Thus,was
introducedthedoctrineofequity,justiceandgoodconscience
whichwasinterpretedtomeantheapplicationofrulesofEnglish
lawasmodifiedtosuittheIndianconditionsandcircumstances.

ThisledtotheopeningofanareawheretherulesofMuslimlaw
wereblendedwiththerulesofEnglishlaworwhereareasof
EnglishlawweresuperimposedontherulesofMuslimlaw.By
thisprocess,severalrulesofMuslimlawweremodifiedand
broughtatparwiththechangedsocialconditionsinIndiaand
withtheEnglishnotionsofequityandjustice.

Forinstance,theMuslimlawofpardanashinlady,of
guardianship,ofdivorce,ofwakf,etc.hasundergone
considerablemodifications.Theinterferenceinthelawhasbeen
madeavowedlyinthosecaseswheretherulesofMuslimlaw
havebeenfoundwanting,ortobetoorigorous,ortobenotin
consonancewiththenotionsofEnglishjusticeandequity.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

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4/10/2017 WhataretheModernSourcesofMuslimLaw?

Oneremarkableinstanceofthisisthelawofpreemption.Some
HighCourtsholdthatthelawofpreemptionisinconsonance
withequity,justiceandgoodconscience,therefore,enforcedit,
whileotherstookthecontraryview.

WherethecourtshavebeenexpresslydirectedtoapplyMuslim
law,thedoctrineofequity,justiceandgoodconsciencecannotbe
utilizedtomodifythelaw.

Precedent:
Thecommonlawdoctrineofprecedenthasneverbeenapartof
MuslimlawthedecisionsofaKazineverconstitutedaprecedent
intheEnglishlawsense.Thenearestapproachtothisdoctrinein
Muslimlawisfatawa,opinionsofthejurists,whichhavegreat
persuasiveforce.Thefatawapossessnotmerelymoralsanctions
butalsolegalauthority.

Themuftiwhosefunctionwastosearchoutthelawapplicablein
agivencase,wassupposedtolookaftertheinterestofthe
peoplenotmerelyinthisworldbutintheworldhereafter.Thus,a
fatawapronouncedbyamuftiorascholar,hadgreatauthorityas
wellassanctity,yetthekaziwasnotboundbyit.

Itwasdiscretionaryforhimtofollowthefatawa,orifhethoughtit
fitinhisjudgment,hecouldignoreitandrenderanindependent
decision.

Thereexistvariouscollectionsoffatawa,ofwhichtheFatawaal
alamgiriyyaisthemostfamous.

ThecommonlawdoctrineofprecedentbecamepartofMuslim
lawduringtheBritishperiod.Thesetwindoctrines,equity,justice
andgoodconscienceandprecedent,wereusedbyjudgesto
modifyrulesofMuslimlaw,andthusabodyofnewrules
developedwhichwaschristianedbysomewesternscholarsas
AngloMohammedanlaw.

Theexpressionmaynotbeveryprecise,butitveryaptly
designatestheactualposition.Schachtobservesthatinthis
manner,morethanbypositivechangeswhichwerefew,Islamic
lawinBritishIndiahasdevelopedintoanindependentlegal
system,substantiallydifferentfromthestrictIslamiclawofthe
shariat,and,therefore,properlycalledAngloMuhammedanlaw.

Headds,outofthislawtherehasgrownanewAnglo
Muhammedanjurisprudence.Thislaw,andthejurisprudence
basedonit,isauniqueandamostsuccessfulandviableresult
ofthesymbiosisofIslamicandofEnglishlegalthoughtinBritish
India.

DuringtheBritishperiod,theEnglishcourtswereenjoinedunder
statutesandregulationstoascertainandadministerthepersonal

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lawoftheMusliminmattersrelatingtomarriage,dower,divorce,
inheritance,etc.

Theytriedtheirbesttodoso.Inmostcases,theywere
successful,butattimestheywerenot.SomerulesofMuslimlaw
wereinterpretedbythemintheirownlight,trainedastheywere
inthecommonlawtraditions.

Inthisprocess,somerulesofEnglishlawgotblendedwithrules
ofMuslimlaw,andsomerulesofMuslimlawgotmodified.
Undoubtedly,somemodificationswerejustified.(GovindDayalv.
Inayatullaisaninstanceofthelatter).

Bytheuseofthedoctrineofhiyal(subterfuge),themedieval
juristsdiscoveredawaybywhichtherightofpreemptionofa
contiguousownercouldbedefeatedthiswasdonebynotselling
asmallstripoflandadjoiningtothecontiguousowner.

AfullBenchoftheAllahabadHighCourtrefusedtoenforcethis
rule,andheldthatsuchtricksandartificescouldnotbe
permitted.Inthesameway,theMuslimlawofgiftandwakfhas
beenmodifiedsoastoaccordprotectiontoapardanashinlady.

AbdulFataMohamedIshakv.DhurChowdhryisanother
illustrationofthisjudicialtendency.Inthiscase,awakfforalal
auladwasheldvoidbeingviolativeofEnglishrulesagainst
perpetuityandfamilyaggrandisement.Itisadifferentmatterthat
thelegislatureintervenedtorestorethisruleofMuslimlaw.

Today,thedoctrineofstaredecisisisasmuchapartofMuslim
lawasitisofanyotherbranchofIndianlaw.

Legislation:
Obviously,Islamiclawhasnotknownanythinglikethemodern
legislativeassemblies.TheHanbalisdidrecognizeadministrative
regulations,sidebysidewiththesharia,whichwerecalledby
themnizam(ordinance,ormarsumordecree).

Therehaveexistedotheradministrativeregulationscalled
Farmansanddasturalamalswhichrelatedtogiftoflandunder
feudaltenures.NeithernizamandmarsumnorFarmansand
dasturalamalsrelatedtothepersonallaw.

DuringtheBritishperiod,itwastheproclaimedpolicyofthe
foreignrulersnottointerferewiththepersonallawoftheIndians.
Theresultwas,asDanialLatifiputsit,thatundertheBritish
imperialistruleinIndia,Muslimlawsuffered,bothfromtheapathy
andindifferenceoftherulersbasedontheirpoliticalexigencies,
andfromtheartificiallybuttressedorthodoxyoftheulama.

Obviously,legislativemodificationsofMuslimlawhavebeenvery
few.SomewereadoptedtostrengthenMuslimlaw.Thus,the
ShariatAct,1937,waspassedwithaviewtomakingMuslimlaw
applicabletotheMuslimsinthosematterswheretheywere
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governedbyadifferentlaw.Similarly,theMussalmanWakf
ValidatingAct,1913waspassedtovalidatethewakfforalal
aulad.

However,thereweresomestatuteswhichaffectedandchanged
Muslimlawtosomeextent.TheCasteDisabilitiesRemovalAct,
1856laysdownthatsomuchofanylaworusageasinflictson
anypersonforfeitureofanyrightorproperty,ormaybeheldin
anywaytoimpairoraffectanyrightofinheritance,byreasonof
hisorherrenouncingorhavingbeenexcludedfromthe
communionofanyreligionorcaste,shallceasetobeenforcedas
law.

Thisremovesthedisabilityofanheirarisingonaccountofhis
apostasyorexcommunication,butnotofhisdescendents.The
ChildMarriageRestraintAct,1929,affectstheMuslimruleof
puberty,inasmuchasitlaysdownthattheminimumageof
marriageforgirlsiscompletionof18yearsandforboys
completionof21years.Section112oftheIndianEvidenceAct,
1872affectstheMuslimlawofgestation.

Thesectionlaysdownthatachildbornwithin280daysofthe
dissolutionofmarriageshallbepresumedtobethelegitimate
childofhisfather.TheSpecialMarriageAct,1954,appliesonlyto
thoseMuslimswhosolemnizetheirmarriageundertheAct.
However,ifaMuslimsolemnizesorregistershismarriageunder
theAct,successiontohispropertyisgovernednotbyMuslim
law,butbytheIndianSuccessionAct,1925.

Thereareseveralotherstatuteswhichmodifysomeorother
aspectsofMuslimlaw.Thus,Ss.107108,EvidenceAct,1872
modifytheMuslimlawofpresumptionofdeath,MajorityAct,
1875affecttheMuslimlawofmajority,GuardiansandWardsAct,
1890modifytheMuslimlawofguardianship,theprovisionsofthe
SuccessionAct,1925relatingtoadministrationofestatesapply
toMuslimswiththeexecutionofChaptersIIandVII.

SomeprovisionsoftheTransferofPropertyAct,1872andthe
DowryProhibitionAct,1961applytoMuslims.Ss.125128ofthe
CriminalProcedureCode,1973modifytheMuslimslawof
maintenance,theAdministratorGeneralsAct,1913applyto
Muslims.

ThefollowingstatuteseithermodifyorcodifytheMuslimlawof
Wakfs:MussalmanWakfValidatingAct,19131930,WakfAct,
1954,theWakfsActsofBengal(1934),Bihar(1947),Uttar
Pradesh(1960)andJammuandKashmir(1959)andtheDargah
KhawajaSahebAct,1955.ThentherearetheKazisAct,1880
andHajCommitteeAct,1959.

ThereareseveralStatestatuteswhicheithermodifyorabrogate
theMuslimlawofpreemption:thesearetheBhopalPreemption
Act,1934,BerarLandRevenueCode,1928,RewaPreemption
Act,1946,AgraPreemptionAct,1922,OudhLawsAct,1876,
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4/10/2017 WhataretheModernSourcesofMuslimLaw?

RajasthanPreemptionAct,1956,JammuandKashmirPre
emptionAct.

TheDissolutionofMuslimMarriageAct,1939makesan
innovationinMuslimlaw,sinceitconfersarightofjudicialdivorce
onaMuslimwifeoncertaingrounds.TwoStatestatutesaffect
theMuslimlawofdowerbyfixingthemaximumlimitofdower.
Thesestatuteslaydownthatwhenacourtfindsthatthe
stipulateddowerisbeyondthemeansofthehusband,itcanfixa
reasonableamountofdowerwithreferencetothemeansofthe
husband.

TheBengalMuhammadanMarriagesandDivorcesRegistration
Act,1876,AssamMuslimRegistrationAct,1935andtheOrissa
MarriageandDivorceRegistrationAct,1949provideforthe
registrationofMuslimmarriagesanddivorces.However
registrationisnotobligatory.

Article44oftheIndianConstitutionmakesitaprincipleofState
policythattheStateshallendeavourtosecureforthecitizena
uniformcivilcodethroughouttheterritoryofIndia.AndtheState
didendeavourtoreformtheMuslimpersonallaw,whenin1963a
proposalwasmovedinParliamentforreformingMuslimpersonal
law.

Althoughtheproposalhadthebackingoftheprogressive
sectionsofMuslims,itwasopposedbytheorthodox,andthe
communitysprotestwasconveyedthroughnolessapersonthan
ZakirHusain,thethenVicePresidentofIndia.

TheIndianMuslimMajliseMushawaratledtheagitationagainst
thecontemplatedreforms.In1970,theAllIndiaMuslimPolitical
ConventionsoughtanassurancefromtheGovernmentofIndia
thatnoattemptwouldbemadetochangethepersonallawof
anycommunityandspeciallythatoftheMuslims.AndtheUnion
Governmenthas,fromtimetotime,assuredtheMuslim
communityaccordingly.Andforthepresent,thematterrests
there.

However,judicialactivisminthedirectionofhavingauniform
CivilCodecontinues.In1985,Md.AhmedKhanv.ShahBano
Begum,theSupremeCourtsaid:Itisalsoamatterofregretthat
Article44ofourConstitutionhasremainedadeadletter.InMs.
JordanDiengdebv.S.S.Chopra,O.ChinnappaReddy
expressedthesamesentiments.

Onceagainin1995,theSupremeCourtinSarlaMudgalv.Union
ofIndiavoicedthesamesentiments,thistimeinastronger
language.KuldeepSingh,J.said,successivegovernmentstill
datehavebeenwhollyremissintheirdutyofimplementingthe
constitutionalmandateunderArticle44.

Therefore,theSupremeCourtrequestedtheGovernmentof
India,throughthePrimeMinisterofthecountrytohaveafresh
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lookatArticle44oftheConstitutionofIndiaandendeavoursto
secureforitscitizensauniformCivilCodethroughouttheterritoiy
ofIndia.

R.M.Sahai,J.,agreeingwithhislearnedbrotherJudgesaid:

OurisaSecularDemocraticRepublic.Freedomofreligionisthe
coreofourculture.Butreligiouspractices,violativeofhuman
rightsanddignityandsacredotalsuffocationofessentiallycivil
andmaterialfreedoms,arenotautonomybutoppression.
Therefore,aunifiedcodeisimperativebothforprotectionofthe
oppressedandpromotionofnationalunityandsolidarity.

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