A STUDY FOR THE STRENGTHENING OF STEEL SILOS WITH ACTIVE CFRP

HOOPS

Francesco MICELLI
Assistant Professor
University of Salento - Dept. of Innovation Engineering
Via per Monteroni 73100 Lecce, Italy
francesco.micelli@unisalento.it

Abstract
The structural analysis of six circular steel silos 12,75 m high with 9 m diameter, used for
wheat storage in an industrial plant of southern Italy, was conducted due to an uncontrolled
hoop strain, shown by the silos in correspondence with the walls of the lower regions after
twenty years of service conditions. Analytical results were obtained in three steps, a
simplified model based on the elastic theory of tanks was constructed using a cylindrical
shell. However, the solutions resulted in insufficient accuracy due to the lack of accurate
hypothesis. Subsequently, the theory of Janssen was applied in accordance to the Eurocode
equations given for the design of steel silos. The presence of three CFRP (Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Polymer) external rings were tensioned and modelled in order to apply an active
external confining stress. A numerical finite element analysis (FEA) was also pursued and
analytical results were found to be in good accordance with each other. The effectiveness of
the design strategy (external confinement) was confirmed by the theoretical analysis. The
application is then presented, three CFRP pultruded plates were placed as external belts and
post-tensioned along the perimeter of the silos by using a simple dedicated device.
Keywords: carbon, composites, confinement, finite element analysis, silos, steel
1. Introduction
The use of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) strengthening systems is now widely accepted
since it was largely experienced in concrete and masonry construction, while a lower number
of cases is known in the field of steel structures. In the present research, a study is presented
in order to show an existing case history of FRP-strengthened steel silos. The mechanics of
steel silos has been studied, using different structural analysis starting from a mechanistic
simplified approach to numerical analysis using the finite element method. Prior to the
strengthening process it was necessary to study the mechanics of the silos involved in this
research. According to the scientific literature, the mechanical behaviour of steel silos has
been studied using different approaches. A well known study [1] presented theoretical and
numerical studies on the behaviour of steel shells subjected simultaneously to internal
pressures and frictional forces (distributed forces tangential to the shell surface). The type of
combined loading used for the analysis (horizontal pressure and wall frictional pressure which
occur in the silos) was taken from Eurocodes, and numerical results were found to be in
accordance with the proposed mechanical formulae. The problem of the patch load applied to
steel silos was studied in [2] in which it is shown that a patch load has the potential to produce
significant Von Mises stresses and compressive membrane stresses within the wall of a steel
silo. This suggests that patch loads could cause structural failure by either plastic collapse or
elastic buckling. Another study [3], contemporary to the previous one, was focused on the
presence of possible discharge eccentricity in the dynamic phases, it was concluded that the
patch loads specified in existing silo loading codes are inadequate in representing the effect of
discharge eccentricity if this effect is important in reality, when the specified loads are used in
a non-linear buckling analysis. If this effect is as small as shown by the non-linear buckling
loads presented in the paper, then this effect can be easily covered by a small increase in the
primary wall loads which represents a much simpler approach. Another critical issue due to
possible local buckling failure conditions is represented by imperfections, this effect was
studied in [4], where it is found that the strength of thin-walled cylindrical shell structures is
highly dependent on the nature and magnitude of imperfections. Most importantly,

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circumferential imperfections have been reported to have an especially detrimental effect on
the buckling resistance of shells under axial load. In this paper it will be shown that the theory
that is in accordance to the recommendations of Eurocodes 1 and 3 [5, 6] allowed to
individuate an accurate load profile that was used for the implementation of a numerical
model based on a finite element analysis. Analytical and numerical results were obtained and
compared for the different service conditions (stationary, filling and emptying) that generate
non linear stress distribution in the steel walls along the height of the silos.
The paper also illustrates the results of the design process, the construction details and
implementation of the strengthening system. Using a steel tailored mechanical device, the
laminates were manually post-tensioned to the desired load level, measured indirectly using
electric strain gages. Active strengthening allowed the laminates to compensate for part of the
existing deformation of the walls, and to optimize the state of stress in the steel structure by
tailoring the post-tensioning level.
2. Structural analysis of the steel silos
From a static point of view the structural scheme modelled for cylindrical silos, created by the
assembly of corrugated steel sheets stiffened by cold formed steel profiles, arranged
longitudinally along the entire height of the building, can be related to the case of cylindrical
tanks with small thickness. For such structures the internal action (pressure of the silage
material on the walls of the structure) produces a state that is predominantly a membrane. The
study conducted through the theory of linear elastic shells with a cylinder axis, which is a
special case of the theory of cylindrical tanks of small thickness, has a degree of
simplification that leads to results that do not really take into account the real effect of the
type of material contained within and the actual load conditions on the walls. Considering a
cylindrical tank having a bottom edge perfectly stuck to the ground or any other structure
containing material specific weight , the solution in terms of displacement along the contour
of the wall (the theory of tanks axis vertical), was obtained by solving a differential equation
of the elastic line, or the use of elastic coefficients. It will be shown that results obtained by
this rough approach appear to be far from the real static conditions.
A more accurate analysis of the forces on the silo must take into account more accurately the
service conditions. Janssen [7, 8] and, shortly thereafter, Koenen [9] showed that for the
vertical translational equilibrium of a grain portion (cell) at a generic height y the vertical
pressures at the base are equally distributed over the whole surface. This theory, although
lacking in specific guidance regarding grain materials observed in [10], remains the basis for
the design approach found in the Eurocodes. The forces inside the structure, and therefore the
regime of stress, are governed by two main aspects: the first is the internal friction between
the granular material and the wall (in this case, corrugated wall) and the second is the load
condition due to the presence of two phases that characterize the functional characteristics of
these types of buildings, filling and emptying. The weight of the material produces a vertical
pressure pv which increases from top to bottom whose value is calculated by solving a
differential equation obtained by writing the equilibrium of a portion of the material contained
in the thickness dy, at a depth y from the free boundary. As visible in figure 1 the equilibrium
of a single cell may be written as a function of geometric and mechanic parameters, A and L
which are respectively the area of the section and the length of the internal perimeter of the
cell. According to Koenen [9] the values of the stresses were expressed as a function of two
friction parameters, which are:
p0 1 sin 2
(1)
pV 1 sin
where is the angle of internal friction, and f=0/p0 that is the friction coefficient at the silos
walls. The expression (1) becomes the well known Rankine expression =tan2(45-/2) when
the angle w of friction between grain material and steel wall is null. From experimental
evidence it was found that the value of generally increases significantly when the emptying
is in place. The limit value of p0 does not depend on ; a positive increase in the value of

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leads to higher values of p0, increased at every point, but more sensitive at the top of the cell.
It may also be appropriate to mention the fact that the value of can increase greatly when
unloading and filling are performed simultaneously.

AVERAGE VALUE

Figure 1. Stresses in the elementary cell of the Janssen model

The equilibrium equation for the grain cell is presented in equation 2 which has been derived
from figure 1:
dpv f L
pv 0 (2)
dy A
The solution may be expressed as (constant term equal to 1 because pv=0 for y=0):
f L
pv 1 exp (3)
f L A y

A
When , f and (specific mass of the grain material) remain unchanged along the height y it is
possible to define a specific depth called herein as y0 and a function (y) that may be
expressed as a function of the ratio y/y0, which are used in design and structural analysis:
A
y0 (4)
f L

y
y 1 exp1 (5)
y0
The value of the pressure on the silos values are furnished by:
pV y0 y (6)
A
p0 pv y (7)
f L
In this way the values of pv and p0 (horizontal pressure on the boundary) may be computed at
different quotes, in order to know their maximum values and the minimum value of pv which
corresponds to the maximum stress transmitted to the wall due to the friction forces that
generate high values of the vertical axial stress nv that may result in local buckling for a small
thickness steel shell.
According to the extended Janssen theory the values of the stresses during the filling and
emptying phases were computed by using the Eurocode 3 design formulae [11]. Section 5 of
the EC-1 was used, since the studied case refers to short silos with moderate slenderness.
Symmetric loads during the filling and emptying phases were computed. Due to the

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corrugated steel walls, the effective friction coefficient eff was computed by the following
equation (8):
eff 1 aW tan aW w (8)
where aw (contact factor) is a geometrical ratio depending on the local curvature of the wall
surface, w and were already defined. The following paragraph will show the pressure
profiles and the stress values found in the analysis.
3. Geometry of steel silos and results of the analytical study
The silos, built in the 80s, presented visible deformations in the lower part, due to different
causes. During the emptying out of the silos, a vertical component of the hoop pressure is
generated due to friction. Under such component, the vertical profiles, if under-designed, may
eventually buckle and the sheet may consequently undergo large deformations. This was
especially evident in the lower part, where the normal pressure is maximum and so is also the
vertical component, proportional to it. Moreover, the presence of openings in the lower part of
the silos, used for inspection and maintenance, further worsened the state of stress. In fact, it
was just around the openings that the deformations were more evident, represented by hoop
extensive deformation accompanied by slippage of the connecting bolts. The geometrical and
structural characteristics of the silo allowed the use of the Janssen theory already discussed.
The walls of the silos, 12.75 m high with 9.00 m diameter, are made of 1.5-mm thick and 850
mm wide wrinkled steel sheets bolted to each other. The vertical stiffeners were 30 steel C-
profiles at 930-mm distance bolted to the circumferential sheets (Figure 2). The filling
material was wheat whose specific gravity is g=800 kg/m3. Steel was considered to have an
elastic modulus E=200 GPa and a Poisson's ratio is =0.3.
In the first step of the analysis, using the cylindrical tank theory it was considered the silos
completely full; it will be shown that results are not able to describe the engineering problem
since they were found to be very far from the results of the numerical model in static
conditions. In the second phase the Eurocode provisions were applied by considering three
different loading conditions: static phase, filling phase, emptying phase. The values of the
forces along the silos walls obtained in this analysis were used in the third step of the study as
load input in the finite element model. The values of eff which is the effective friction
coefficient was computed equal to 0.48, since and w were respectively 34 and 0.38
(category D-2 wall according to Eurocodes). When the silos is full in static conditions the
ratio between horizontal and vertical pressure was found to be 0.54. When the silos was not
completely filled the stresses changed as shown in the stress profile diagrams of figure 3

Figure 2. Steel silos

During the filling phase the vertical pressures remain the same while the horizontal stresses
are computed by adding the "static" pressures and those resulting from the filling patch load
as reported in the Eurocode 1. The results for the filling phase are shown in Figure 4. During
the emptying phase the maximum horizontal stresses (that caused the undesired deformation

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of the silos) are at their maximum values. In this phase the ratio between horizontal and
vertical pressure was found to be 0.90, which was almost doubled in respect to the static case.

Figure 3. Results of structural analysis (static phase)

Horizontal stresses (filling phase) Circumferencial stresses (filling phase)

0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
silos height (m)
silos height (m)

4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
- - - - - - static condition - - - - - - static condition
12 12

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000

stress (kN/m 2) stress (kN/m 2)

Figure 4. Results of structural analysis (filling phase)

Vertical stresses (emptying phase) Compression stresses (emptying phase)

0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
silos height (m)

4 4
silos height (m)

5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
- - - - - - static condition
12 12

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000

stress (kN/m 2) stress (kN/m 2)

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 Figure 5. Results of structural analysis (emptying phase)

4. Numerical model and comparison between the obtained results

The numerical model was implemented by using shell elements for a structural representation
of the curved thin walls of the silos, and frame elements for the longitudinal stiffening cold-
formed C-profiles. The discretization of the silos walls was performed by taking into account
the pressure profiles, which are constant along the parallels and have a non linear trend along
the height. According to an optimized computation time, experienced during the numerical
simulations, the dimension of the shell along the longitudinal direction of the silos was taken
as 100 mm while the width of the shell in the circumferential direction was 930 mm. In this
way the knots at the edge of the shell were integrated with the vertical axis of the steel frames
along the height. At the bottom of the silos a fixed end was considered, where rotation and
translation were fixed and replicated the conditions of the concrete foundation; at the top of
the silos the presence of a weight due to a steel roof was considered by assuming vertical
forces upon the knots at the top level, including the effects of snow loading. The wrinkled
shape of the steel walls was considered by assuming modified values of the flexural and
membrane stiffness of the shells along the longitudinal and transverse directions and
computing an equivalent thickness according to Eurocode 3. The presence of the CFRP hoops
was modelled by considering imposed displacements (as same as a negative temperature
gradient effect) in correspondence with the knots where the three CFRP rings were put in
contact with the silos. This approach represented the real mechanical conditions applied in the
field as it will be seen later. In this way, the confinement action resulted in an elastic force
which was added to those already present in the mechanical problem. The three CFRP rings
were designed to be placed at the following quotes starting from the ground base of the silos:
h1=850 mm, h2=1700 mm, h3=2550 mm. In order to find the forces, stresses and
displacements the different conditions were simulated according to a linear elastic analysis:
empty silos full silos in static conditions, half filled silos in static and dynamic
(filling/emptying) conditions, full silos at the filling phase, full silos at the emptying phase.
Also the effects of a temperature increase in the steel walls due to seasonal changes was
considered, but results will not be shown herein. A representation of the structural model is
illustrated in Figure 6.

contact knots
contact knots between
between
silos and
silos andFRP ringring
FRP

Figure 6. Finite element model

The values of the maximum circumferential stresses computed by using the three different
analyses are reported in Table 1. It results that the cylindrical tank theory that uses the elastic
coefficients and boundary conditions that are not accurate as requested by the problem,
furnishes values far from the numerical analysis, which is in good accordance with a manual
computation that applies the Janssen theory.
In terms of displacements the numerical model furnished the following results: when an
imposed displacement of 2 mm was placed at the quotes of CFRP rings: a reduction of 2.2

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mm (h1=85 mm), 2.1 mm (h2=170 mm) and 2.0 mm (h3=2550 mm) of the silos radius was
computed during the emptying phase; a reduction of 1.2 mm (h1=85 mm), 1.1 mm (h2=170
mm) and 1.0 mm (h3=2550 mm) of the silos radius was computed during the static phase. In
correspondence of a 2 mm imposed displacement a tensile stress of 75 N/mm2 is present in
the CFRP plate, which is negligible respect to its ultimate strength. Using this procedure
different service conditions were simulated, which are not reported herein, for the
computation of the transverse displacement values and stress/strain conditions in the CFRP
plates in order to prescribe the strain values that should be read during the tensioning process
in the field.

Table 1. Circumferential stresses computed with different methods at the quotes of the CFRP hoops
ANALYTICAL METHODS FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Quotes from
the base of
Cylindrical tank theory Janssen theory (EC) Numerical model (shell+frames)
the silos
(mm)
Circumferential stresses (MPa) Circumferential stresses (MPa) Circumferential stresses (MPa)

850 285.3 159.0 158.1

1700 264.9 152.0 151.1

2550 244.4 145.0 146.3

Results of the numerical analysis in terms of circumferential stresses are shown as

representative conditions for the case of empty silos and full silos during the filling phase, in
which is evident the action of the three CFRP rings.

empty silos full silos-filling phase

Figure 7. Circumferential stresses computed by the numerical analysis (kN/m2)

5. Application of the strengthening system

Among different products available on the market, the choice was based on results of
laboratory tests performed on bonded joints [12]. The chosen carbon pultruded plate had 100-
mm width, 1.4-mm thickness, 170-GPa elastic modulus, and 3100-MPa tensile strength. The
strengthening operation was conducted in the following phases: 1) the steel supporting plates,
each covered by a TeflonTM layer, were bolted to the vertical profiles. Such plates were
realized with a slight curvature, in order to follow the surface of the CFRP laminate upon
tensioning and better distribute the pressure; 2) the CFRP hoop was positioned with

Page 7 of 9
temporary clips, using wooden dowels to avoid damage to the laminate; 3)the overlap portion
was bonded with the epoxy paste. In order to ensure proper contact of the bonded surfaces
during hardening, clips (along with wooden dowels) were applied along the joint. Moreover,
heaters were placed close to the joint to accelerate curing and, at the same time, to obtain a
higher degree of polymerisation and hence higher tensile strength and glass transition
temperature for the epoxy adhesive. The heaters were kept in place for about 24 hours and
guaranteed a temperature of about 30C around the bonded joint; 4) after 7 days curing, a
transverse wrapping was applied with the hand lay-up technique to provide a further
anchorage in the overlapping region; 5) after 7 days curing, the tensioning devices were put in
place (Figure 8) and the post-tensioning was performed. The load level in the CFRP hoops
was known indirectly by means of strain measurements. Each CFRP hoop was instrumented
with three 6-mm electric strain gages on their surface situated at 120 degrees along the
circumference. The strain gages were connected to an electronic data acquisition system. The
tensioning operation was conducted by screwing the bolts in sequence around the perimeter of
the silo (Figure 8), and monitoring continuously the strain readings until the value
corresponding to the desired load level was attained in all strain gages. The trend of the
readings was always reasonable during post-tensioning in the various regions along the
perimeter of the silo, and the readings were typically very consistent with each other. A few
days after post-tensioning, a protective epoxy top coating was applied on the hoops, to
improve durability of the system.

Figure 8. Post-tensioning of CFRP confining plates

6. Conclusions
A research study on the active confinement of six circular steel silos used for wheat storage
was illustrated. Since the lateral strains of the silos were exceeding the design values after 20
years of service conditions it was decided to apply three CFRP plates as confining rings at the
bottom region of the silos. Analytical results obtained using the Janssen theory and EC design
equations were found to be in accordance with the values computed by a numerical finite
element model. The field application was easily performed and controlled thanks to the use of
simple post-tensioning steel devices and electrical strain gages bonded to CFRP. Durability
issues were considered, as same as the safety coefficients to be applied for the ultimate
strength of the bonded overlapping region that was computed by testing joint samples in
laboratory.

7. Acknowledgements
The precious support of MAPEI S.p.A. is appreciated for the material supply in the
experimental phase.

Page 8 of 9
8. References
[1] KHELIL A., BELHOUCHET Z., ROTH J.C., Analysis of elastic behaviour of steel
shell subjected to silo loads Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 57, 2001,
pp. 959969.
[2] SONG C.Y., TENG J.G., Buckling of circular steel silos subject to code-specified
eccentric discharge pressures, Engineering Structures Vol.25, 2003, pp.13971417.
[3] GILLIE M., ROTTER J.M., The effects of patch loads on thin-walled steel silos,
Thin-Walled Structures Vol. 40, 2002, pp.835852.
[4] PIRCHER M., BERRY P.A., DING X., BRIDGE R.Q., The shape of circumferential
weld-induced imperfections in thin-walled steel silos and tanks Thin-Walled Structures
Vol. 39, 2001, pp.9991014.
[5] EN 1991-4: 2006 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 4: Silos and tanks
[6] EN 1993-4-1:2007 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 4-1: Silos
[7] JANSSEN H.A., "Versuche ber Getreidedruck in Silozellen" Zeitschr. d. Vereines
deutscher Ingenieure, Vol. 39, 1895, p.1045.
[8] SPERL M., "Experiments on corn pressure in silo cells translation and comment of
Janssen's paper from 1895" Granular Matter, Volume 8, N. 2, 2006, pp. 59-65.
[9] KOENEN, M., "Berechnung des Seiten und Bodendrucks in Silozellen" Centralblatt
der Bauverwaltung, Vol.16, 1896, pp. 446-449.
[10] DI FELICE R., SCAPINELLO C., "On the interaction between a fixed bed of solid
material and the confining column wall: the Janssen approach", Granular Matter,
Volume 12, N.1, 2010, pp.49-55.
[11] EUROCODE 3: Design of steel structures Part 4-1: Silos, tanks and pipelines Silos
[12] DE LORENZIS L., MICELLI F., LA TEGOLA A., Fiber Reinforced Polymer for
Structural Strengthening: post-tensioning of steel silos, Structural Engineering
International IABSE, Vol.13 N.2, 2003, pp.124-127.

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