1

15
BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW
15.1 Introduction
When a solid body is immersed in a flowing fluid as shown in Fig 15.1, there is a
narrow region of the fluid in the neighbourhood of the solid body, where the velocity of
the fluid varies from zero to free stream velocity. This narrow region of the fluid is called
boundary layer.
U
u Boundary layer

U= free stream u
velocity Velocity profile

Solid body U

Fig 15.1: Boundary Layer Flow

Further away from the boundary, the velocity will be higher, hence velocity
du du
gradient does exist (i.e. = ) and the fluid exerts shear stress on the wall in the
dy dy
direction of the motion. Outside the boundary layer, there is no variation in velocity
du
(i.e. = 0, and = 0 ).
dy
15.2 Boundary Layer Definitions and Characteristics
Consider the flow of water over a plate as shown in Fig 15.2.
Turbulent boundary layer
G

U= Free stream
Velocity F
E u~logy
Y
Parabolic
X A o u~y Laminar sub-layer

Leading edge Laminar Transition Turbulent zone Trailing edge

zone zone Smooth plate

Fig 15.2: Boundary Layer Definitions

For the smooth flat plate shown in Fig 15.2; the leading edge is the edge facing the
direction of flow, while the trailing edge is the rear edge of the plate.
The following are the characteristics of a boundary layer:
(i) is the thickness of the boundary layer, and increases as the distance from
the leading edge x increases. also increases as kinematic viscosity ()
increases, but decreases as U increases.

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 2

U
(ii) 0 = ; so that 0 decreases as x increases. However, when the boundary

becomes turbulent, 0 shows a sudden increase and then decreases with
increasing x.
(iii) When U increases in the downward direction, boundary layer growth is
reduced. However, when U decreases in the downward direction, flow near
the boundary is further retarded, and the boundary layer growth is faster and
is susceptible to separation.
(iv) The various characteristics of the boundary layer on the flat plate (e.g.
variation of , 0 or force F) are governed by inertial and viscous forces;
U x U L
hence they are functions of either or .

U x
(v) If < 5 105 , the boundary layer is said to be laminar, and velocity

distribution is parabolic.
U x
If > 5 105 , the boundary layer is said to be turbulent on that portion

and velocity distribution is follows Log Law or a Power Law and is
logarithmic.
Ux
(vi) The critical value of at which boundary layer changes from laminar to

turbulent depends on; surface roughness, turbulence in ambient flow,
pressure gradient, plate curvature, and temperature difference between fluid
and boundary.
(vii) Though the velocity distribution would be parabolic in the laminar sub-layer
zone, it can reasonably be assumed to be linear in view of the very small
thickness and hence the velocity gradient can be considered constant.
Major parameters associated with boundary layer flow are defined as follows:
(a) Laminar boundary layer: This is said to occur at the leading edge of the plate if
vx
Reynolds number of the flow defined as Re = is less than 5 10 5 , where =

kinematic viscosity, x=distance from the leading edge of the plate and v= free stream
velocity.
(b) Turbulent boundary layer: This is said to occur if Reynolds number of the flow
vx
defined as by Re = is greater than 5 10 5 .

(c) Laminar Sub-layer: This is defined as the region in the turbulent boundary
layer zone, adjacent to the surface of the plate in which velocity variation is only
influenced by viscous effects. Velocity variation is very small and may reasonably be
assumed to be linear, so that velocity gradient can be considered constant. Hence shear
stress would also be constant and equal to the boundary shear stress o . i.e.
u u u u
o = = (for linear variation, = ).
y y = 0 y y y
(d) Boundary layer thickness ( ) : This is defined as the distance from the
boundary of the solid body measured in the y-direction to the point where the velocity of

h.m.m.
 3

the fluid is approximately 0.99 free stream velocity (U) of the fluid. The thickness
increases with the distance from the leading edge x, as more and more fluid is slowed
down by the viscous boundary.
0.99U

Fig 15.3: Boundary Layer Thickness

(e) Displacement thickness ( *) : This is defined as the distance measured

perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be
displaced to compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer
formation.
15.3 Derivation of Boundary Layer Equations
Consider the flow of water over a flat plate as shown in Fig 15.4, and assume the
fluid to be incompressible.

1 Velocity distribution
C
u dy
Fluid flow
y
(Velocity, U) B
A
x 1 Smooth plate

Fig 15.4: Boundary Layer

15.3.1 Displacement thickness ( *) :

Consider the flow of a fluid having free stream velocity U, over a thin flat
horizontal plate as shown in Fig 15.4. At section 1-1, distance x from leading edge, let
velocities at B=0 and C (on boundary layer) =U. Distance BC = .
For an elemental strip at the section, let:
y = distance of elemental strip from plate
dy = thickness of elemental strip
u = velocity of fluid at elemental strip
b = width of plate
Area of elemental strip, dA= b.dy
Mass of fluid/s flowing through elemental strip,
= velocity area of elemental strip
= u dA = u b dy (i)
If the plate is removed, fluid would flow with a constant velocity equal to free
stream velocity U. At section 1-1, mass of fluid/s flowing through elemental strip

h.m.m.
 4

would be,
= velocity area of elemental strip
= U b dy (ii)
As U is greater than u due to the presence of the plate and formation of boundary
layer, there is a reduction in mass flowing/s through elemental strip.
Reduction in mass/s through elemental strip,
= mass given by Eq. (ii)-mass /s given by Eq. (i),
= = U b dy u b dy = b(U u )dy
Total reduction in mass/s of fluid through BC due to plate,

0

b(U u )dy = b (U u )dy
0
(iii)

Let the plate be displaced by distance * and velocity of flow for the
distance * assumed equal to free stream velocity U.
Loss of mass of fluid/s flowing through distance * ,
= velocity area
= U dA = U b * (iv)
Equate Eq. (iii) and Eq. (iv):

b (U u )dy = U * b
0

1 (U u )dy
* =
U (U u )dy =
0 0
U
(U is constant and can be taken inside the integral)

u
* = 1 dy (1)
0
U
u
where = velocity distribution.
U
15.3.2 Momentum thickness ( ) : This is defined as the distance measured
perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be
displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation.
Consider elemental strip at section 1-1, at a distance x from the leading edge of
the plate as shown in Fig 15.4.
As derived from displacement thickness, reduction in mass/s of fluid flowing
through elemental strip {Eq. (iii)},

= b (U u )dy (v)
0

Reduction in momentum/s through elemental strip,

= reduction in mass velocity of flow

= b (U u )dy u =bu
0
(U u )dy
0

Total reduction in momentum/s through boundary layer,

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 5

= bu (U u )dy
0
(vi)

Let = distance by which the plate is displaced when the fluid is flowing with
constant velocity U.
Loss of momentum/s of fluid flowing through distance with velocity U,
= mass of fluid through velocity
= ( ( area velocity ) U
= (bU ) U = bU 2 (vii)
Equate Eq. (vii) and Eq. (vi):

bU 2 = bu (U u )dy = b u (U u )dy
0 0

or U 2 = u (U u )dy
0

1 u (U u )
= 2
U u(U u )dy =
0 0
U2
dy

u u
= U 1 U dy
0
(2)

15.3.3 Energy thickness ( * *) : This is defined as the distance measured perpendicular

to the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation.
Consider elemental strip at section 1-1, at a distance x from the leading edge of the
plate as shown in Fig 15.4. Mass of fluid flowing/s through elemental strip of thickness
dy at distance y from the plate as given by Eq. (i) = u b dy .
1 1
Kinetic energy (K.E.) of fluid = mv 2 = (ubdy )u 2
2 2
Kinetic energy of this fluid in the absence of boundary layer,
1
(ubdy )U 2
=
2

1
Loss of K.E. through BC =
2
ub U 2 u 2 dy ( ) (viii)
0

Let * * = distance by which the plate is displaced to compensate for the reduction
in K.E.
Loss of K.E. through * * of fluid flowing with velocity U,
1 1
= mv 2 = ( area velocity) velocity 2
2 2
1 1
= ( b * * U ) U 2 = b * *U 3 (ix)
2 2
Equate Eq. (viii) and Eq. (ix):

1 1
2 (
b * *U 3 = b u U 2 u 2 dy
2 0
)

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 6

1
u (U )
2
** = 3 u 2 dy
U 0

u u2

or ** =
0

U
1 dy
U2
(3)

15.4 Velocity Distribution Laws:

The following general law as suggested by Pohlhausen is used for velocity
distribution in laminar boundary layer flow:
2 3 4
u y y y y
= C1 + C 2 + C 3 + C 4 (4)
U
where u = velocity of stream in the boundary layer at distance y from the boundary
U = approach velocity of stream
= thickness of boundary layer
The following velocity distribution laws are generally used, besides others;
2
u y y
(a) = 2
U
3
u 3 y 1 y
(b) =
U 2 2
3 4
u y y y
(c) = 2 2 +
U
n
u y
(d) =
U
u y
(e) = sin
U 2
Example 15.1: Determine the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness and
energy thickness for the velocity distribution in the boundary layer given by:
u y
=
U
*
Also determine the value of .

Solution
(a) Displacement thickness * :
Velocity distribution is given by;
u y
=
U
Displacement thickness * is given by

u
0

* = 1 dy
U

y
0

= 1 dy

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 7

y2
= y
2 0
2
=
2

* =
2
(b) Momentum thickness :

u u
= U 1 U dy
0

y y
= 1 dy
0

y2 y3
= 2
2 3 0

=
6
(c) Energy thickness * * :
u u2
* * = 1 dy
0 U U
2

y y2
=
0
1
2
dy

y2 y4
= 3
2 4 0

** =
4
*
(d) Value of :

*
= = 3.0
2 6
Example 15.2: The velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over a flat plate is
assumed to be given by second order polynomial u=a+by+cy2.. Determine its form using
the necessary boundary conditions.
Solution
Velocity distribution is given by; u=a+by+cy2 The following boundary conditions
must be satisfied;
(i) At y=0, u=0
0=a+0+0 or a=0
(ii) At y=, u=U
U=b+c2 (i)
du
(iii) At y=, =0
dy

h.m.m.
 8

du d
= ( )
a + by + cy 2 = b + 2cy = b + 2c = 0 (ii)
y=
dy dy
Substituting the value of b ( = 2c ) from (ii) in (i), we get
U = ( 2c ) + c2 = 2c2 + c2 = c2
U
Or c =
2
U 2U
b = -2c = -2 2 =

Hence form of velocity distribution is,
2U U
u= y 2 y2

2
u y y
Or = 2 -
U
15.5 Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due to Boundary Layer
When a body is placed in a fluid moving at velocity U, it will exert a force F on the
body which can be resolved into two components, namely Drag force (or shear force) Fd
in the direction of motion, and lift force Fl, normal to the direction of motion as shown in
Fig 15.5.
Fl
U

Fd

Fig 15.5: Drag Force

The drag force acts on the body, tending to drag it in the direction of motion.
Conversely, when a body moves through the fluid, the force acts as a resistance to the
motion of the body.
Consider the flow of a fluid having free stream velocity equal to U, over a thin
plate as shown in Fig 15.6.
C
Boundary layer Outer edge of
C boundary layer
U D

D dy
A B Trailing edge
u y
Let: u = x
velocity
at dx
any
punt within the boundary layer o
Leading edge L A B
b = width of plate x
L = length of plate Fig 15.6
For a small length x of the plate, at a distance x from the leading edge of the
plate, also shown on an enlarged view, shear stress o is given by;

h.m.m.
 9

du du
o = where is the velocity distribution near the plate, at
dy y = 0 dy y = 0
y=0.
The drag force on small distance x is given by,
FD = shear stress area
= o x b (i)
The drag force FD must also be equal to the rate of change of momentum over
distance x.
For the flow over the small distance x, let A,B,C,D be the control volume of the
fluid over the distance x.
Then mass rate of flow entering through side AD,

= velocity area of strip of thickness dy
0

= u bdy
0
Mass rate of flow leaving side BC,

= Mass through AD + (mass through AD) x
x

= ubdy +
0
x 0

(ubdy ) x

From continuity equation for steady incompressible flow,

Mass rate of flow entering AD + mass rate of flow entering DC
= mass rate of flow leaving BC
Mass rate of flow entering DC,
= Mass rate of flow through BC- mass rate of flow through AD

= ubdy +
0


x 0
( ubdy )

x

0
ubdy

=
x 0
(ubdy ) x

The fluid is entering through DC with a uniform velocity U.
Now, let us calculate momentum flux through control volume;
Momentum of flux entering side AD,

= momentum flux through strip of thickness dy
0

= mass through strip velocity
0

(ubdy) u = u bdy
2
=
0 0
Momentum leaving side BC,

h.m.m.
 10

= u 2 bdy +
2
u bdy x
0
x 0
Momentum of flux entering side DC,
= Mass rate through DC velocity


=
x 0
ubdy x U

( velocity = U )

=
x 0
uUbdy x

as U is constant and it can be taken inside the differential and integral.
Rate of change of momentum of control volume,
= Momentum flux through BC- momentum flux through AD
- momentum flux through DC

= u 2 bdy +
2 2
u bdy x u bdy uUbdy x
0
x 0 0
x 0

2
= u bdy x uUbdy x
x 0 x 0

( )
2
= b u uU dy x
x 0
For incompressible flow, is constant.
Rate of change of momentum of control volume

( )
2
= b u uU dy x (ii)
x 0
But rate of momentum on control volume ABCD must equal the total force on the
control volume in the same direction according to the momentum principle.
p
Also for a flat plate, = 0 (no external pressure force on control volume)
x
The force on side DC is negligible as velocity is constant and velocity gradient zero
approximately. The only the external force acting on the control volume is the shear
force, acting on side AB, from B to A as shown in Fig 15.5.
The value of this force is given by Eq. (i) as,
FD = o x b
Total external force in the direction of the rate of change of momentum,
= o x b (iii)
According to momentum principle, Eq. (iii) and (ii) should be equal;

( )
2
o x b = b u uU dy x
x 0

( )
2
o = uU u dy x
x 0

h.m.m.
 11

u2

2 u
=
x 0
U 2 dy x
U U
u u

2
= U 1 dy x
x 0 U U

u u

o
or
U 2
=
1 dy x
x 0 U U
(5)

u u
In Eq. (5), the expression U 1 U dy
0
is equal to momentum thickness , hence

the equation can also be written as,

o
2
= (6)
U x
Equation (6) is known as Von Karman momentum equation for boundary layer flow,
and is used to determine the frictional drag on smooth flat plate for both laminar and
turbulent boundary layers. The equation is applied to:
(a) Laminar boundary layer flow
(b) Transition boundary layers
(c) Turbulent boundary layer flows
For a given velocity profile in anyone of the above zones, the shear stress o is
obtained from Eq. (5) and (6).
The drag force on small distance x of the plate is obtained from Eq. (i) as,
FD = o x b
The total drag on the plate of length L on one side is;
L

FD = FD = o b dx
0
( x = dx )dx (7)

(i) Local coefficient of drag (CD *) is defined as the ratio of the shear stress o to the
1
quantityU 2 .
2

CD* = o (8)
1
U 2
2
(ii) Average coefficient of drag (CD ) is defined as the ratio of the total drag force to
1
the quantity AU 2
2
FD
CD = (9)
1
AU 2
2
where A= area of surface of the plate
U= free stream velocity
=mass density of fluid
(iii) Boundary conditions for the velocity profiles
The following boundary conditions have to be satisfied by any velocity profile,

h.m.m.
 12

whether laminar, or turbulent boundary layer zone.

u
(a) At y = 0, U = 0 and has some finite value
y
(b) At y = , u = U
u
(c) At y = , =0
y
15.6 Laminar Boundary Layer Analysis for the Various Velocity Distribution Laws

Example 15.3: Derive expressions for the boundary layer thickness ( ), boundary shear
stress ( o ), coefficient of drag (CD)and local coefficient of drag (CD*) in terms of
Reynolds number (Re) if velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer is given by;
2
u y y
(a) = 2
U
2
u 3 y 1 y
(b) =
U 2 2
3
u 3 y 1 y
(c) =
U 2 2
3 4
u y y y
(d) = 2 2 +
U
u y
(e ) = sin
U 2

Solution For Case (a):

2
u y y
Velocity distribution, = 2
U
(i) Boundary layer thickness ( ) :
u
Substitute value of in Equation (5);
U
u u

o
U 2
=
x 0 U
1 dy x
U

2 y y 2 2 y y 2

=
2 1
x 0
dy
2

2y 4y 2 2y 3 y 2 2y 3 y 4
= 2 + 3 2 + 3 4 dy
x 0

2y 2 4y 3 2y 4 y3 2y 4 y5
= + +
x 2 3 2 4 3 3 2 4 3 5 4 0
2 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 5
= 2 + 3 2 + 3 4
x 2 3 4 3 4 5

h.m.m.
 13

4 1 1 1 1 2
= + + =
x 3 2 3 2 5 x 15
2
o = U 2 [] (i)
15 x
Shear stress at the boundary in laminar flow is given by Newtons law of viscosity;
du
o = (ii)
dy y = 0
2y y2
But u = U (from equation of velocity profile)
2
du 2 2y
= U 2 (U is constant)
dy
du 2 2 0 2U
= U 2 =
dy y = 0
Substitute value in equation (ii);
2 U 2U
o = = (iii)

Equating the two values of o in Eq. (i) and (iii);

o =
2
U 2 [] = 2U
15 x
15U 15
[ ] = =
x U 2 U
15x
or [] =
U
As boundary layer thickness ( ) is a function of x only, partial derivative can be
changed to total derivative.
15dx
d[ ] =
U
2 15x
= +C = cons tan t
2 U U
At x = 0, = 0, C = 0
2 15x
=
2 U
2 15x 30x x
= = = 5.477 (iv)
U U U
x x x2 x Ux
or = 5.477 = 5.477 = 5.477 where R e = (v)
U x Ux / Re
In Eq. (iv), , , and U are constants, hence thickness of boundary layer is
proportional to the square root of the distance from the leading edge.
Equation (v) gives the thickness of laminar boundary layer in terms of Reynolds
number, ( R e ).

h.m.m.
 14

(ii) Shear stress ( o ) in terms of Reynolds number ( R e )

From equation (iii), we have
2U
o =

Substitute value of from equation (v);
2U 2U R e 0.365U R e
o = = = (vi)
x 5.477 x x
5.477
Re
(ii) Coefficient of drag (CD)
1
From equation (9), CD = FD AU 2
2
FD is given by equation (7) as,
L

FD = o b dx
0
L
U R e

= 0.365
0
x
b dx

L
U Ux
= 0.365
0
x
b dx

L
Ux
= 0.365U
0

b x 1 / 2 dx

L
U x1/ 2
= 0.365U b
1/ 2 0
U
= 0.365U b2 L

UL 1
CD = 0.73bU AU 2 where A= area of plate = length of plate width =
2
Lb
UL 1 1.46 UL 1.46 1.46
CD = 0.73bU L b U2 = = =
2 LU LU LU

1.46
CD = (vii)
Re

The coefficients are often tabulated as shown in Table 15.1. for each of the laws listed
above;

h.m.m.
 15

Table 15.1.
Velocity distribution law Coefficients for
o CD CD*
2
u y y
(a) = 2 5.477 0.365 1.460 0.730
U
2
u 3 y 1 y
(b) = 4.353 0.345 1.38 0.654
U 2 2
3
u 3 y 1 y
(c) = 4.641 0.323 1.292 0.646
U 2 2
3 4
u y y y
(d) = 2 2 + 5.835 0.343 1.371 0.686
U
u y
(e ) = sin 4.795 0.327 1.308 0.654
U 2

15.7 Turbulent Boundary Layer

When compared to laminar boundary layers, turbulent boundary layers are
thicker. The velocity is also more uniform in a turbulent boundary layer than a laminar
boundary layer, due to intermixing of fluid particles between different layers. The
velocity distribution in turbulent boundary layer follows a logarithmic law i.e. u~log y,
which can also be represented by a power law.
For turbulent flow in boundary layer, the shear stress is due to the momentum
exchange between the various layers of the fluid. The velocity of the fluid at a distance y
from the boundary layer is taken to follow the law,
1/ 7
u o y
= 8.74 (i)
o
If y = when u =U,
1/ 7
U o
= 8.74 (ii)
o
Divide Eq. (i) by (ii):
1/ 7
u y
= , known as one-seventh power law. (iii)
U

n
u y 1
Compare to = , where n = for Re < 107 but > 5 105
U 7
Equation (iii) cannot however be applied to he boundary itself because at y=0,
u 1 1/ 7 6 / 7
= U y = . This difficulty is overcome by considering the velocity in the
y 7
viscous laminar sub-layer to be linear and tangential to the seveth-root profile at the
point, where he laminar sub-layer merges with the turbulent part of the boundary layer.
Rearranging Eq. (ii);

h.m.m.
 16

U7
( o ) 7/2
[
= 8.74 7 ( o )
1/ 2
( ) ]1 / 77

U 7 = 8.74 7 ( o ) ( o ) ( )
1/ 2 7/2

= 8.74 ( o ) ( )
7 4

1/ 4
1
o = U 7/4

8.74 7 / 4
1/ 4
U1/ 4
o = U 7/4
U 1/ 4
0.0225 after multiplying by 1/ 4
U U
1/ 4

o = 0.0225U2 (15.7)
U
The relation in Eq. (i) is called Blasius one-seventh power law of velocity
distribution.
Assuming turbulent boundary layer for the entire length of the plate and using
the momentum method, the following relations are obtained in terms of Reynolds
number, Re.
= 0.377 x R 1e / 5
o = 0.0296U 2 R 1e / 5
CD = 0.0735 R 1e / 5
15.8 Total Drag Due to Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers
When the leading edge is not very rough, the turbulent boundary layer does not
begin at the leading edge and it is usually preceded by the laminar boundary layer. The
point of transition from laminar to turbulent layer depends upon the intensity of
turbulence. The distance xc of the transition from the leading edge can be obtained from
critical Reynolds number which normally ranges from 3105 to 3106.
C
U Transition

A
Laminar layer Turbulent layer
Leading edge xc
L

Fig 15.7: Drag due to laminar and turbulent

h.m.m.