Anatomical Terminology

Dorsal and ventral. Dorsal refers to the back of an organism and

ventral to the belly.

Cranial and caudal. Cranial refers to the head end and caudal to
the tail end.

Anterior and posterior. Anterior is used to indicate the ventral

surface and posterior to indicate the dorsal surface.

Superior and inferior. These terms are the equivalents of cranial

and caudal in Homo. Superior means toward the head and inferior
toward the feet.

Right and left. Although these may seem obvious, remember that
these terms always refer to the specimen's right or left.

Proximal and distal. Proximal refers to the end of a structure

nearest a major point of reference and distal to the end furthest
from a point of reference. The point of reference is usually the origin
of a structure (such as a limb) or the ventral midline of the body.
Proximal and distal are relative terms. These terms are correctly
used to describe relative positions of structures in the limbs.

Medial and lateral. Medial means nearer the midline of the body
and lateral means further from the midline; these are relative terms.
They may also refer to the midline and "sides" of a major organ. The
"outer" surface of a limb is the lateral surface and the "inner" the
medial.

Superficial and deep. Superficial refers to structures nearer the

skin, and deep to structures further away from the skin; these are
relative terms. They should be used instead of the colloquial "on top
of" (superficial to) or "underneath" (deep to).

Planes

A sagittal plane divides the body into right and left parts. A median
sagittal plane divides the body into equal right and left halves.

A frontal (or coronal) plane passes from right to left and divides the
body into dorsal and ventral parts.
A transverse plane (or cross section) passes perpendicular to the long
axis of the body (or of a limb).

Muscles: Terminology and Function

Muscles consist of a fleshy belly which is usually attached to bone at each

end by a region of dense connective tissue. In most cases this connective
tissue forms a cord-like structure called a tendon. In large, flat muscles
the tendon is often a flattened sheet called anaponeurosis. Cords of
connective tissue also bind bone to bone across joints; these are
called ligaments. The two attachments of a muscle are called the origin
and the insertion. The end of a muscle which is nearer to the midline of
the body, which is more proximal, or less movable is called the origin.
The end of a muscle furthest from the dorsal midline, more distal or more
movable is called the insertion.

Movements

Because a muscle can move the bone to which it is attached in only one
direction, muscles are found in opposing pairs; such opposing pairs are
called antagonists. In some cases two muscles may perform the same
action; two such muscles are called synergists.

Protraction and retraction. Movements of the humerus and femur.

Protraction refers to anterior movements and retraction to posterior
movements.

Abduction and adduction. These terms refer to the movements of

the whole limb or parts of a limb (especially the ends of the femur
and humerus) toward or away from the ventral midline of the body.
Adduction refers to movements toward the ventral midline and
abduction refers to movements away from the ventral midline.
Adduction and abduction may also refer to the closing and opening
of the jaws, respectively.

Flexion and extension. These terms usually apply to movements in

the distal portions of the limbs. Flexion is movement of a limb
segment toward the next proximal segment, decreasing the angle of
a joint. Extension is movement of a distal segment away from the
next proximal segment, increasing the angle of a joint.
Joints

The movements of bones are limited by the morphology of the joints

which connect them. Some joints allow movement in only one plane;
these joints are uniaxial.

Biaxial joints allow movements in two planes. These joints may be

of several different types. The wrist is a good example of a biaxial
 joint. It allows movement of the hand from side to side (adduction
and abduction), and forward and backward (flexion and extension).

Multiaxial joints allow movement in any plane. Unlike biaxial

joints, rotation may take place at these joints. The shoulder is a
good example of a multiaxial joint which allows true rotation.