Calligraphy

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"Calligrapher" redirects here. For the novel, see The Calligrapher.

Further information: Handwriting and Script typeface

Calligraphy
Arabic
Chinese

Georgia
n
Indian
Islamic

Japanes
e
Korean

Mongoli
an
Persian
Tibetan
Western

vte

Calligraphy of the German word "Urkunde" (deed)

Calligraphy (from Greek: ) is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and
[1]:17
execution of lettering with a broad tip instrument, brush, among other writing instruments.
A contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as, "the art of giving form to signs in an
[1]:18
expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner".

Modern calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art pieces where the
[1][pageneeded]
letters may or may not be readable. Classical calligraphy differs from
[2][3][4][5]
typography and non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may practice both.

Calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms of wedding and event invitations, font design and
typography, original hand-lettered logo design, religious art, announcements, graphic design and
commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone inscriptions, and memorial documents. It is also used for
props and moving images for film and television, testimonials, birth and death certificates, maps,
[6][7]
and other written works.

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Tools[edit]
A calligraphic pen head, with parts names.
The principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen and the brush. Calligraphy pens write with nibs
[8][9][10]
that may be flat, round, or pointed. For some decorative purposes, multi-nibbed pens
steel brushescan be used. However, works have also been created with felt-tip and ballpoint
pens, although these works do not employ angled lines. There are some styles of calligraphy,
like Gothic script, which require a stub nib pen.

Writing ink is usually water-based and is much less viscous than the oil-based inks used in
[clarification needed]
printing. High quality paper, which has good consistency of absorption,
[11]
enables cleaner lines, although parchment or vellum is often used, as a knife can be used to
erase imperfections and a light-box is not needed to allow lines to pass through it. Normally, light
boxes and templates are used to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from
the work. Ruled paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half
inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used. This is the case with litterea unciales (hence
[12]
the name), and college-ruled paper often acts as a guideline well.

Common calligraphy pens and brushes are:

Quill
Dip pen
Ink brush
Qalam
Fountain pen
World traditions[edit]
Europe[edit]
Main article: Western calligraphy

History[edit]

Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Gospels (c.700) contains the incipit from the Gospel
of Matthew.
Western calligraphy is recognizable by the use of the Latin script. The Latin alphabet appeared
[clarification needed]
about 600 BC, in Rome, and by the first century developed into Roman
imperial capitals carved on stones, Rustic capitals painted on walls, and Roman cursive for daily
use. In the second and third centuries the uncial lettering style developed. As writing withdrew to
monasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying the Bible and other religious texts.
It was the monasteries which preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifth
[13]
centuries, when the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered the Dark Ages.

At the height of the Empire, its power reached as far as Great Britain; when the empire fell, its
literary influence remained. The Semi-uncial generated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-
Saxon. Each region developed its own standards following the main monastery of the region (i.e.
Merovingian script, Laon script, Luxeuil script, Visigothic script, Beneventan script), which are
mostly cursive and hardly readable.

Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of 1407 on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire,

England. This bible was hand written in Belgium, by Gerard Brils, for reading
aloud in a monastery.
Christian churches promoted the development of writing through the prolific copying of the Bible,
[14]
particularly the New Testament and other sacred texts. Two distinct styles of writing known
as uncial and half-uncial (from the Latin "uncia," or "inch") developed from a variety of Roman
[15]
bookhands. The 7th-9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated
[16]
manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow, Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells.

Charlemagne's devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of "a crowd of

[17]
scribes", according to Alcuin, the Abbot of York. Alcuin developed the style known as the
Caroline or Carolingian minuscule. The first manuscript in this hand was the Godescalc
[18]
Evangelistary (finished 783) a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc. Carolingian
[19]
remains the one progenitor hand from which modern booktype descends.

In the eleventh century, the Caroline evolved into the Gothic script, which was more compact and
[20]:72
made it possible to fit more text on a page. The Gothic calligraphy styles became
dominant throughout Europe; and in 1454, when Johannes Gutenberg developed the first
[20]:
printing press in Mainz, Germany, he adopted the Gothic style, making it the first typeface.
141

The Georgian calligraphy is centuries-old tradition of an artistic writing of the

Georgian language with its three scripts.
In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of the
humanist minuscule or littera antiqua. The 17th century saw the Batarde script from France, and
the 18th century saw the English script spread across Europe and world through their books.

In the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied
levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The
Office of the Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the
Coulee, the Rhonde, (known as Round hand in English) and a Speed Hand sometimes simply
[21]
called the Bastarda.

While there were many great French masters at the time, the most influential in proposing these
hands was Louis Barbedor, who published Les Ecritures Financire Et Italienne Bastarde Dans
[21]
Leur Naturel circa 1650.

With the destruction of the Camera Apostolica during the sack of Rome (1527), the capitol for
writing masters moved to Southern France. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a
technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde
[21]
and later English Roundhand.

In England, Ayres and Banson popularized the Round Hand while Snell is noted for his reaction
to them, and warnings of restraint and proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his
[21]
copybooks 40 years before the aforementioned.

Style[edit]

Modern Western calligraphy

Sacred Western calligraphy has some special features, such as the illumination of the first letter
of each book or chapter in medieval times. A decorative "carpet page" may precede the
literature, filled with ornate, geometrical depictions of bold-hued animals. The Lindisfarne
[22]
Gospels (715720 AD) are an early example.

As with Chinese or Islamic calligraphy, Western calligraphic script employed the use of strict
rules and shapes. Quality writing had a rhythm and regularity to the letters, with a "geometrical"
order of the lines on the page. Each character had, and often still has, a precise stroke order.

Unlike a typeface, irregularity in the characters' size, style, and colors increases aesthetic value,
[dubious discuss]
though the content may be illegible. Many of the themes and variations of
today's contemporary Western calligraphy are found in the pages of The Saint John's Bible. A
particularly modern example is Timothy Botts' illustrated edition of the Bible, with 360 calligraphic
[23]
images as well as a calligraphy typeface.

Influences[edit]
Several other Western styles use the same tools and practices, but differ by character set and
stylistic preferences. For Slavonic lettering, the history of the Slavonic and consequently Russian
writing systems differs fundamentally from the one of the Latin language. It evolved from the 10th
century to today.

East Asia[edit]
See also: Chinese calligraphy, Japanese calligraphy, Korean calligraphy, and Vietnamese
calligraphy
The Chinese name for calligraphy is shf ( in Traditional Chinese, literally "the method or
[24]
law of writing"); the Japanese name shod (, literally "the way or principle of writing");
the Korean is seoye (Korean: /, literally "the art of writing"); and the Vietnamese is Th
php (, literally "the way of letters or words"). The calligraphy of East Asian characters is an
important and appreciated aspect of East Asian culture.

History[edit]
A Vietnamese calligrapher writing in Hn-Nm in preparation for Tt, at the
Temple of Literature, Hanoi (2011)
In ancient China, the oldest Chinese characters existing are Jigwn() characters carved
on ox scapulae and tortoise plastrons, because the dominators in Shang Dynasty carved pits on
such animals' bones and then baked them to gain auspice of military affairs, agricultural harvest,
or even procreating and weather. During the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made,
the characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved.(Keightley, 1978).
With the development of Jnwn (Bronzeware script) and Dzhun (Large Seal Script) "cursive"
signs continued. Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.

In Imperial China, the graphs on old stelessome dating from 200 BC, and in Xiaozhuan style
are still accessible.

About 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin,
imposed several reforms, among them Li Si's character unification, which created a set of 3300
[25]
standardized Xiozhun characters. Despite the fact that the main writing
implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main
examples of this style are on steles.
The Lsh style (clerical script) which is more regularized, and in some ways similar to
[26]
modern text, have been also authorised under Qin Shi Huangdi.
Kish style (traditional regular script)still in use todayand attributed to Wang Xizhi (,
[26]
303361) and his followers, is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged by
Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang (926933), who ordered the printing of the classics using new
wooden blocks in Kaishu. Printing technologies here allowed a shape stabilization. The Kaishu
[26]
shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China.
But small changes have been made, for example in the shape of which is not absolutely the
same in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716 as in modern books. The Kangxi and current shapes have
[27]
tiny differences, while stroke order is still the same, according to old style.

Styles which did not survive include Bfnsh, a mix made of Xiaozhuan style at 80%, and Lishu
[26]
at 20%. Some variant Chinese characters were unorthodox or locally used for centuries.
They were generally understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox
variants, in addition to some newly created characters, compose the Simplified Chinese
character set.

Technique[edit]

On Calligraphy by Mi Fu, Song Dynasty

Traditional East Asian writing uses the Four Treasures of the Study (/): the ink
brushes known as mob () to write Chinese characters, Chinese ink, paper, and inkstone,
known as the Four Friends of the Study (Korean: ) in Korea. In addition to these four
tools, desk pads and paperweights are also used.
The shape, size, stretch, and hair type of the ink brush, the color, color density and water density
of the ink, as well as the paper's water absorption speed and surface texture are the main
physical parameters influencing the final result. The calligrapher's technique also influences the
result. The calligrapher's work is influenced by the quantity of ink and water he lets the brush
take, then by the pressure, inclination, and direction he gives to the brush, producing thinner or
bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, accelerations,
decelerations of the writer's moves, turns, and crochets, and the stroke order give the "spirit" to
the characters, by greatly influencing their final shapes.

Styles[edit]
Cursive styles such as xngsh (semi-cursive or running script) and cosh (cursive or grass
script) are less constrained and faster, where more movements made by the writing implement
are visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms.
They are descended from Clerical script, in the same time as Regular script (Han Dynasty), but
xngsh and cosh were used for personal notes only, and never used as a standard. The
[26]
cosh style was highly appreciated in Emperor Wu of Han reign (140187 AD).

Examples of modern printed styles are Song from the Song Dynasty's printing press, and sans-
serif. These are not considered traditional styles, and are normally not written.

Influences[edit]
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Japanese calligraphy, the word "peace" and the signature of the Meiji period
calligrapher ura Kanetake, 1910
Japanese and Korean calligraphies were greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy. The
Japanese and Korean people have also developed specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy.
For example, Japanese calligraphy go out of the set of CJK strokes to also include local
alphabets such as hiragana and katakana, with specific problematics such as new curves and
[28]
moves, and specific materials (Japanese paper, washi , and Japanese ink). In the case
of Korean calligraphy, the Hangeul and the existence of the circle required the creation of a new
technique which usually confuses Chinese calligraphers.

Temporary calligraphy is a practice of water-only calligraphy on the floor, which dries out within
minutes. This practice is especially appreciated by the new generation of retired Chinese in
public parks of China. These will often open studio-shops in tourist towns offering traditional
Chinese calligraphy to tourists. Other than writing the clients name, they also sell fine brushes as
souvenirs and lime stone carved stamps.

Since late 1980s, a few Chinese artists have branched out traditional Chinese calligraphy to a
new territory by mingling Chinese characters with English letters; notable new forms of
calligraphy are Xu Bing's square calligraphy and DanNie's coolligraphy or cooligraphy.

Mongolian calligraphy is also influenced by Chinese calligraphy, from tools to style.

Calligraphy has influenced ink and wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and
techniques. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including ink and wash
painting, a style of Chinese, Korean, Japanese painting, and Vietnamese painting based entirely
on calligraphy.

South Asia[edit]
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for verification. Please help improve this
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sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (October 2013)
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message)

India[edit]
Main article: Indian calligraphy

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lengthy quotations for an encyclopedic
entry. Please help improve the article by
editing it to take facts from excessively
quoted material and rewrite them as
sourced original prose. Consider
transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote.
(October 2013)
[29]
On the subject of Indian calligraphy, writes:

A Calligraphic design in Oriya script

Aoka's edicts (c. 265238 BC) were committed to stone. These inscriptions are stiff and angular
in form. Following the Aoka style of Indic writing, two new calligraphic types appear: Kharo
and Brhm. Kharo was used in the northwestern regions of India from the 3rd century BC to
the 4th century of the Christian Era, and it was used in Central Asia until the 8th century.

In many parts of ancient India, the inscriptions were carried out in smoke-treated palm leaves.
[30]
This tradition dates back to over two thousand years. Even after the Indian languages were
put on paper in the 13th century, palm leaves where considered a preferred medium of writing
owing to its longevity (nearly 400 years) compared to paper. Both sides of the leaves were used
for writing. Long rectangular strips were gathered on top of one another, holes were drilled
through all the leaves, and the book was held together by string. Books of this manufacture were
common to Southeast Asia. The palm leaf was an excellent surface for penwriting, making
possible the delicate lettering used in many of the scripts of southern Asia.
[citation needed]
Burnt clay and copper were a favoured material for Indic inscriptions. In the
[citation
north of India, birch bark was used as a writing surface as early as the 2nd century AD.
needed]

Nepal[edit]
Main article: Nepalese calligraphy
Ranjana script is the primary form of Nepalese calligraphy. The script itself, along with its
derivatives (like Lantsa, Phagpa, Kutila) are used in Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Leh, Mongolia, coastal
Japan, and Korea to write "Om mani padme hum" and other sacred Buddhist texts, mainly those
derived from Sanskrit and Pali.

Thailand[edit]
Main article: Thai calligraphy
Sanskrit is the primary form of Thai calligraphy. Historically Thai calligraphy has been limited to
sacred texts of the Pali Canon with few wider artistic applications where graphic calligraphy
representing figures and objects is produced. Calligraphy appears on the personal flag of each
member of the Thai royal family bearing its owner's initials in calligraphy. The most obvious place
in the country where calligraphy is present is in graffiti. A few books have been published with
calligraphic compositions.

Tibet[edit]
Main article: Tibetan calligraphy

A Bn text
Calligraphy is central in Tibetan culture. The script is derived from Indic scripts. The nobles of
Tibet, such as the High Lamas and inhabitants of the Potala Palace, were usually capable
calligraphers. Tibet has been a center of Buddhism for several centuries, and that religion places
a great deal of significance on written word. This does not provide for a large body of secular
pieces, although they do exist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism). Almost
all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by the Dalai Lama and other
religious and secular authority. Calligraphy is particularly evident on their prayer wheels,
although this calligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy
is often found on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use
chisel tipped pens and markers as well.

Islamic world[edit]
Main article: Islamic calligraphy
The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman
region.
Islamic calligraphy (calligraphy in Arabic is khatt ul-yad ) has evolved alongside Islam and
the Arabic language. As it is based on Arabic letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy". However
the term "Islamic calligraphy" is a more appropriate term as it comprises all works of calligraphy
by the Muslim calligraphers from Andalusia in modern Spain to China.

Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (arabesque) on the walls and ceilings
of mosques as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the
heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions.

Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy for Muslims is a visible
expression of the highest art of all, the art of the spiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become
the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the
Muslims with the religion of Islam. The Qur'an has played an important role in the development
and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet.
Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an are still sources for Islamic calligraphy.
[by whom?]
It is generally accepted that Islamic calligraphy excelled during the Ottoman era.
Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in
mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc.

Persia[edit]
Main article: Persian calligraphy

Bowl with Kufic Calligraphy, 10th century. Brooklyn Museum.

Example showing Nastaliq's proportional rules

The history of calligraphy in Persia dates back to the pre-Islam era. In Zoroastrianism beautiful
and clear writings were always praised.

It is believed that ancient Persian script was invented by about 600500 BC to provide
monument inscriptions for the Achaemenid kings. These scripts consisted of horizontal, vertical,
and diagonal nail-shape letters, which is why it is called "script of nails/cuneiform script" (khat-e-
mikhi) in Persian. Centuries later, other scripts such as "Pahlavi" and "Avestan" scripts were
used in ancient Persia.

Contemporary scripts[edit]
The Nasta'liq style is the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy
scripts; Persian calligraphers call it the "bride of calligraphy scripts". This calligraphy style has
been based on such a strong structure that it has changed very little since. Mir Ali Tabrizi had
found the optimum composition of the letters and graphical rules so it has just been fine-tuned
during the past seven centuries. It has very strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and for
combination of the letters, words, and composition of the whole calligraphy piece.

Mayan civilization[edit]
Mayan calligraphy was expressed via Mayan hieroglyphs; modern Mayan calligraphy is mainly
used on seals and monuments in the Yucatn Peninsula in Mexico. Mayan hieroglyphs are rarely
used in government offices; however in Campeche, Yucatn and Quintana Roo, Mayan
[clarification needed]
calligraphy is written in Latin letters. Some commercial companies in
southern Mexico use Mayan hieroglyphs as symbols of their business. Some community
associations and modern Mayan brotherhoods use Mayan hieroglyphs as symbols of their
groups.

Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such as Chichen Itza, Labna, Uxmal, Edzna,
Calakmul, etc. have glyphs in their structures. Carved stone monuments known as stele are
common sources of ancient Mayan calligraphy.

Modern calligraphy[edit]
Revival[edit]

Edward Johnston, founder of modern western calligraphy, at work in 1902.

After printing became ubiquitous from the 15th century, the production of illuminated manuscripts
[31] [32]
began to decline. However, the rise of printing did not mean the end of calligraphy.

The modern revival of calligraphy began at the end of the 19th century, influenced by the
aesthetics and philosophy of William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement. Edward
[33][34][35]
Johnston is regarded as being the father of modern calligraphy. After studying
published copies of manuscripts by architect William Harrison Cowlishaw, he was introduced to
William Lethaby in 1898, principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts,who advised him to
[36]
study manuscripts at the British Museum.

This triggered Johnston's interest in the art of calligraphy with the use of a broad edged pen. He
began a teaching course in calligraphy at the Central School in Southampton Row, London from
September 1899, where he influenced the typeface designer and sculptor Eric Gill. He was
commissioned by Frank Pick to design a new typeface for London Underground, still used today
[37]
(with minor modifications).

He has been credited for reviving the art of modern penmanship and lettering single-handedly
through his books and teachings - his handbook on the subject, Writing & Illuminating, &
Lettering (1906) was particularly influential on a generation of British typographers and
calligraphers, including Graily Hewitt, Stanley Morison, Eric Gill and Anna Simons. Johnston also
devised the simply crafted round calligraphic handwriting style, written with a broad pen, known
today as the Foundational hand. Johnston initially taught his students an uncial hand using a flat
[38]
pen angle, but later taught his hand using a slanted pen angle. He first referred to this hand
as "Foundational Hand" in his 1909 publication, Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and
[39]
Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen.

Subsequent developments[edit]
Graily Hewitt taught at the Central School of Arts and Crafts and published together with
Johnston throughout the early part of the century. Hewitt was central to the revival of gilding in
calligraphy, and his prolific output on type design also appeared between 1915 and 1943. He is
attributed with the revival of gilding with gesso and gold leaf on vellum. Hewitt helped to found
the Society of Scribes & Illuminators (SSI) in 1921, probably the world's foremost calligraphy
society.

An example of Graily Hewitt's calligraphy.

[40] [41]
Hewitt is not without both critics and supporters in his rendering of Cennino Cennini's
[42]
medieval gesso recipes. Donald Jackson, a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso
[43]
recipes from earlier centuries a number of which are not presently in English translation.
Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing the award to Prince Philip of the title of Duke of
[44]
Edinburgh on November 19, 1947, the day before his marriage to Queen Elizabeth.

Johnstons pupil, Anna Simons, was instrumental in sparking off interest in calligraphy in
[33]
Germany with her German translation of Writing and Illuminating, and Lettering in 1910.
Austrian Rudolf Larisch, a teacher of lettering at the Vienna School of Art, published six lettering
books that greatly influenced German-speaking calligraphers. Because German-speaking
countries had not abandoned the Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had a powerful effect on
their styles.

Rudolf Koch was a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and
teaching made him one of the most influential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern
Europe and later in the U.S. Larisch and Koch taught and inspired many European calligraphers,
[45]
notably Karlgeorg Hoefer, and Hermann Zapf.

Contemporary typefaces used by computers, from word processors like Microsoft Word or Apple
Pages to professional designers' software like Adobe InDesign, owe a considerable debt to the
[1][4][46]
past and to a small number of professional typeface designers today.

Unicode provides "Script" and "Fraktur" Latin alphabets that can be used for calligraphy. See
Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols.

See also[edit]
Asemic writing
Brhm script
Sofer
Concrete poetry
Cursive
 List of calligraphers
Micrography
Penmanship
Paleography
Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols
Notes[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:
abcd Mediaville, Claude (1996). Calligraphy: From Calligraphy to
Abstract Painting. Belgium: Scirpus-Publications. ISBN9080332518.
2. Jump up
^ Pott, G. (2006). Kalligrafie: Intensiv Training [Calligraphy: Intensive
Training] (in German). Verlag Hermann Schmidt. ISBN9783874397001.
3. Jump up
^ Pott, G. (2005). Kalligrafie: Erste Hilfe und Schrift-Training mit Muster-
Alphabeten (in German). Verlag Hermann Schmidt.
ISBN9783874396752.
4. ^ Jump up to:
ab Zapf, H. (2007). Alphabet Stories: A Chronicle of technical
developments. Rochester, New York: Cary Graphic Arts Press.
ISBN9781933360225.
5. Jump up
^ Zapf, H. (2006). The world of Alphabets: A kaleidoscope of drawings
and letterforms. CD-ROM
6. Jump up
^ Propfe, J. (2005). SchreibKunstRaume: Kalligraphie im Raum Verlag (in
German). Munich: Callwey Verlag. ISBN9783766716309.
7. Jump up
^ Geddes, A.; Dion, C. (2004). Miracle: a celebration of new life.
Auckland: Photogenique Publishers. ISBN9780740746963.
8. Jump up
^ Reaves, M.; Schulte, E. (2006). Brush Lettering: An instructional manual
in Western brush calligraphy (Revised ed.). New York: Design Books.
9. Jump up
^ Child, H., ed. (1985). The Calligrapher's Handbook. Taplinger Publishing
Co.
10. Jump up
 ^ Lamb, C.M., ed. (1976) [1956]. Calligrapher's Handbook. Pentalic.
11. Jump up
^ "Paper Properties in arabic calligraphy". calligraphyfonts.info. Retrieved
2007-06-01.
12. Jump up
^ "Calligraphy Islamic website". Calligraphyislamic.com. Retrieved
2012-06-18.
13. Jump up
^ Sabard, V.; Geneslay, V.; Rbna, L. (2004). Calligraphie latine:
Initiation [Latin calligraphy: Introduction] (in French) (7th ed.). , Paris.
pp.811. ISBN978-2215021308.
14. Jump up
^ de Hamel 2001a
15. Jump up
^ Knight 1998: 10
16. Jump up
^ Trinity College Library Dublin 2006; Walther & Wolf 2005; Brown &
Lovett 1999: 40; Backhouse 1981
17. Jump up
^ Jackson 1981: 64
18. Jump up
^ Walther & Wolf 2005; de Hamel 1994: 46-48
19. Jump up
^ de Hamel 1994: 46
20. ^ Jump up to:
ab Lovett, Patricia (2000). Calligraphy and Illumination: A History and
Practical Guide. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN978-0810941199.
21. ^ Jump up to:
abcd Joyce Irene Whalley (c. 1980). The Art of Calligraphy, Western
Europe & America.
22. Jump up
^ Brown, M.P. (2004). Painted Labyrinth: The World of the Lindisfarne
Gospel (Revised ed.). British Library.
23. Jump up
^ The Bible: New Living Translation. Tyndale House Publishers. 2000.
24. Jump up
^ (Taiwanese) being here used as in (Cantonese) or
(Taiwanese), meaning "writing style".[clarification needed]
25. Jump up
^ Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987). Chinese Calligraphy: From Pictograph to
Ideogram: The History Of 214 Essential Chinese/Japanese Characters.
Calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York: Abbeville Press. p.13.
ISBN0896597741. And so the first Chinese dictionary was born, the Sn
Chng, containing 3,300 characters
26. ^ Jump up to:
abcde R. B. Blakney (2007). A Course in the Analysis of Chinese
Characters. Lulu.com. p.6. ISBN978-1-897367-11-7.
27. Jump up
^ [Kangxi Zidian] (in Chinese). 1716. p.41.. See, for example,
the radicals , , or . The 2007 common shape for those characters
does not clearly show the stroke order, but old versions, visible on p. 41,
clearly allow the stroke order to be determined.
28. Jump up
^ Suzuki, Yuuko (2005). An introduction to Japanese calligraphy.
Tunbridge Wells: Search. ISBN978-1844480579.
29. Jump up
^ Anderson, D. M. (2008). "Indic calligraphy". Encyclopdia Britannica
2008..
30. Jump up
^ "Memory of the World | United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization". UNESCO. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
31. Jump up
^ de Hamel 2001a; de Hamel 1986
32. Jump up
^ Zapf 2007; de Hamel 2001a; Gilderdale 1999; Gray 1971
33. ^ Jump up to:
ab "The Legacy of Edward Johnston". The Edward Johnston Foundation.
34. Jump up
^ Cockerell 1945; Morris 1882
35. Jump up
 ^ "Font Designer Edward Johnston". Linotype GmbH. Retrieved 5
November 2007.
36. Jump up
^ such as the Ramsey Psalter, BL, Harley MS 2904
37. Jump up
^ The Eric Gill Society: Associates of the Guild: Edward Johnston
38. Jump up
^ Gilderdale 1999
39. Jump up
^ Baines & Dixon 2003: 81
40. Jump up
^ Tresser 2006
41. Jump up
^ Whitley 2000: 90
42. Jump up
^ Herringham 1899
43. Jump up
^ Jackson 1981: 81
44. Jump up
^ Hewitt 1944-1953
45. Jump up
^ Cinamon 2001; Kapr 1991
46. Jump up
^ Henning, W.E. (2002). Melzer, P., ed. An Elegant Hand: The Golden
Age of American Penmanship and Calligraphy. New Castle, Delaware:
Oak Knoll Press. ISBN978-1584560678.
References[edit]
Diringer, D. (1968). The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind. 1 (3rd ed.). London:
Hutchinson & Co. p.441.
Fraser, M.; Kwiatowski, W. (2006). Ink and Gold: Islamic Calligraphy. London: Sam Fogg
Ltd.
Johnston, E. (1909). "Plate 6". Manuscript & Inscription Letters: For schools and classes
and for the use of craftsmen. San Vito Press & Double Elephant Press. 10th Impression
Marns, F.A (2002) Various, copperplate and form, London
Mediavilla, Claude (2006). Histoire de la calligraphie franaise (in French). Paris: Michel.
ISBN978-2226172839.
Shepherd, Margaret (2013). Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese,
 Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan
Calligraphy, and Beyond. Crown Publishing Group. p.192. ISBN978-082308230-8.
Schimmel, Annemarie (1984). Calligraphy and Islamic Culture. New York University
Press. ISBN9780814778302.
Wolfgang Kosack: Islamische Schriftkunst des Kufischen Geometrisches Kufi in 593
Schriftbeispielen. Deutsch - Kufi - Arabisch. 380 Seiten. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel
2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-10-3.
External links[edit]
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