Computer architecture - refers to those
attributes of a system visible to a programmer or,
put another way, those attributes that have a
direct impact on the logical execution of a
program.
Computer organization - refers to the
operational units and their interconnections that
realize the architectural specifications.
Moores Law - In 1965, Gordon Moore made a
prediction The number of transistors that can be
integrated on a die would double every 18 to 24
months. It has become the guiding principle for
the semiconductor industry to deliver ever-more
powerful chips while decreasing the cost.
7.2 billion transistors - 22-core Intel Broadwell-
EP Xeon (2016).
Jack St. Clair Kilby designer of Integrated
Circuit. Works at Texas Instrument. Receives
Nobel Prize last 2000. Also invented the hand
calculator.
Desktop computers - characterized by the
personal computer.
Servers - are the modern form of what was once
mainframes, Mini computers, and
supercomputers, and are usually accessed only
via a network.
Embedded computers - include the
microprocessors found in your washing machine
and car, the computers in a cell phone or
personal digital assistant, the computers in a
video game or digital television, and the networks
of processors that control a modern airplane or
cargo ship.
System Layers
Application Software written in high
level language
System Software Compiler: translates
high level language code to match
machine code. Operating System:
service code.
Hardware processor, memory, I/O
controllers
Instructions the words of a computer
language. Users command to a computer. Which
are just collections of bits that the computer.
Assembler a programs to translate from
symbolic notation to binary.
Compiler - translates programs in such
languages into instructions.
Levels of Program Code
High-level language level of
abstraction closer to problem domain.
Provides for productivity and portability.
Assembly Language textual
representation of instructions.
Hardware Representation binary
digits; encoded instruction and data.
Basic components of a computer
Input
Output
Memory
Datapath (+ Control = Processor)
Control (+ Datapath = Processor)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) - performs the
computers data processing functions.
Control Unit - controls the operation of the CPU.
Registers provides storage internal to CPU.
CPU Interconnection some mechanism that
provides for communication among control unit,
ALU, registers.
Instruction set - the vocabulary of the language.
It is a group of instructions that can be given to
the computer. These instructions direct the
computer in terms of data manipulation. A typical
instruction consists of two parts:
Opcode
Operand
Architecture of Central Processing Unit -
drives its working capability from the instruction
set architecture upon which it is designed.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) - can be
defined as an interface to allow easy
communication between the programmer and the
hardware.
Types of Computer Architecture:
Complex Instruction Computer (CISC)
- approach attempts to minimize the
number of instructions per program,
sacrificing the number of cycles per
instruction.
Reduced Instruction Set Computer
(RISC) - reduces the cycles per
 instruction at the cost of the number of
instructions per program
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) -
hardware designing is more complex but software
coding would be relatively easy.
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) -
hardware to be simple and easy and software to
take the major role.
Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline
Stages (MIPS) - only one operation and must
always have exactly three variables.
Evolution of Computer
increasing processor speed
decreasing component size
increasing memory size
increasing I/O capacity and speed
Increasing Processor Speed
shrinking size of microprocessor
components
caches
wider data paths from memory to
processor
more intelligent memory chips
Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC) - worlds first general
purpose electronic digital computer.
John Mauchly
John Eckert
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer (EDVAC) - which pioneered the
stored program
John Mauchly
John Eckert
John von Neumann
Institute of Advanced Study (IAS) Computer
new stored program computer; is the prototype of
all subsequent general-purpose computers.
Stored-program Computer (von Neumann
Machine)
main memory - stores both data and
instructions
arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) -
capable of operating on binary data
control unit - interprets the instructions
in memory and causes them to be
executed
Input and output (I/O) equipment -
operated by the control unit
Registers storage locations of control unit and
ALU
Memory Buffer Register (MBR) -
Contains a word to be stored in memory
or sent to the I/O unit, or is used to
receive a word from memory or from the
I/O unit.
Memory Address Register (MAR) -
Specifies the address in memory of the
word to be written from or read into the
MBR.
Instruction Register (IR) - Contains the
8-bit opcode instruction being executed.
Instruction buffer register (IBR) -
Employed to hold temporarily the right
hand instruction from a word in memory.
Program Counter (PC) - Contains the
address of the next instruction-pair to be
fetched from memory.
Accumulator (AC) and Multiplier
Quotient (MQ) - Employed to hold
temporarily operands and results of ALU
operations.
Instructions - The IAS computer had a total of
21 instructions. These can be grouped as follows:
Data transfer - Move data between
memory and ALU registers or between
two ALU registers
Unconditional branch - Normally, the
control unit executes instructions in
sequence from memory. This sequence
can be changed by a branch instruction,
which facilitates repetitive operations.
Conditional branch - The branch can be
made dependent on a condition, thus
allowing decision points.
Arithmetic - Operations performed by
the ALU.
Address modify - Permits addresses to
be computed in the ALU and then
inserted into instructions stored in
memory. This allows a program
considerable addressing flexibility.
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) -
was the first successful commercial computer. It
was intended for both scientific and commercial
applications matrix algebraic computations,
statistical problems and premium billings for a life
insurance company.
Speed up of Processing
Branch prediction
Data flow analysis
 Speculative execution
Memory-Processor Gap
Increase the number of bits that are
retrieved at one time
Change the DRAM interface to make
it more efficient
Reduce the frequency of memory
access
Increase the interconnect bandwidth
between processors and memory
Strategies to Increase Performance
An increase in cache capacity.
More complex instruction execution
logic within the processor to enable
parallel execution.
Data types - The various types of data
upon which operations are performed
Instruction format - Instruction length
(in bits), number of addresses, size of
various fields, and so on
Program Counter (PC) Addres of instruction
Instruction Counter (IR) instruction being
executed
Accumulator (AC) temporary storage
MAR Memory Address Register
MBR Memory Buffer Register
I/O AR Input/Output Address Register

Fundamental Approach I/O BR Input/Ouput Buffer Register

placing multiple processors on the
same chip, with a large shared cache.
Multicore Approach
use two simpler processors on the
chip rather than one more complex
processor.
with two processors, larger caches
are justified.
Computer Families
Intel x86 CISC design
ARM (Advanced RISC Machine)
architecture RISC based system
Operations of Processor
Fetch
Decode
Execute
Quartz Crystal generates clock signals
Opcode
Instruction
Operand
Addresses
Numbers
Characters
Logic data
Instruction count - is the number of machine
instructions executed for that program

Fundamental design issues

Operation repertoire - How many and
which operations to provide, and how
complex operations should be