1. What is Hub ?

hub is the simplest of these devices. Any data packet coming from one port is sent to all other
ports. It is then up to the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for it. Imagine packets
going through a hub as messages going into a mailing list. The mail is sent out to everyone and it
is up to the receiving party to decide if it is of interest.

The biggest problem with hubs is their simplicity. Since every packet is sent out to every
computer on the network, there is a lot of wasted transmission. This means that the network can
easily become bogged down.

Hubs are typically used on small networks where the amount of data going across the network is
never very high.

2. What is Bridge ?

A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the destination of the packet before
sending. If the destination address is not on the other side of the bridge it will not transmit the
data.

A bridge only has one incoming and one outgoing port.

To build on the email analogy above, the bridge is allowed to decide if the message should
continue on. It reads the address bob@smith.com and decides if there is a bob@smith.com on the
other side. If there isn't, the message will not be transmitted.

Bridges are typically used to separate parts of a network that do not need to communicate
regularly, but still need to be connected.

3. Explain about Switch ?

A switch steps up on a bridge in that it has multiple ports. When a packet comes through a switch
it is read to determine which computer to send the data to.

This leads to increased efficiency in that packets are not going to computers that do not require
them.

Now the email analogy has multiple people able to send email to multiple users. The switch can
decide where to send the mail based on the address.
Most large networks use switches rather than hubs to connect computers within the same subnet.

4. Router :

A router is similar in a switch in that it forwards packets based on address. But, instead of the
MAC address that a switch uses, a router can use the IP address. This allows the network to go
across different protocols.
The most common home use for routers is to share a broadband internet connection. The router
has a public IP address and that address is shared with the network. When data comes through
the router it is forwarded to the correct computer.

This comparison to email gets a little off base. This would be similar to the router being able to
receive a packet as email and sending it to the user as a fax.

5. What is mac address and why it is required?

MAC address is a number created by the manufacturer to identify the computer on the network.

6. Define Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a required TCP/IP standard defined in RFC 826, "Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP)." ARP resolves IP addresses used by TCP/IP-based software to
media access control addresses used by LAN hardware. ARP provides the following protocol
services to hosts located on the same physical network:

Media access control addresses are obtained by using a network broadcast request in the
form of the question "What is the media access control address for a device that is
configured with the enclosed IP address?"
When an ARP request is answered, both the sender of the ARP reply and the original
ARP requester record each other's IP address and media access control address as an
entry in a local table called the ARP cache for future reference.

7. What is the use of Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)?

The function of Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is to prevent Layer 2 switching loop and
broadcast storms in a Local Area Network (LAN). The Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) allows
redundant links in a network to prevent complete network failure if an active link fails, without
the danger of Layer 2 Switching loops.

8. What is the difference between STP and RSTP?

The main difference between Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP IEEE 802.1W) and Spanning
Tree Protocol (STP IEEE 802.1D) is that Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) assumes the
three Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) ports states Listening, Blocking, and Disabled are same
(these states do not forward frames and they do not learn MAC addresses). Hence RSTP places
them all into a new called Discarding state. Learning and forwarding ports remain more or less
the same.

In Spanning Tree Protocol (STP IEEE 802.1D), bridges would only send out a BPDU
when they received one on their root port. They only forward BPDUs that are generated
by the Root Bridge. Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP IEEE 802.1W) enabled
switches send out BPDUs every hello time, containing current information.
 Spanning Tree Protocol (STP IEEE 802.1D) includes two port types; Root Port and
Designated Port. Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP IEEE 802.1W) includes two
additional port types called as alternate ports and backup ports. Analternate port is a port
that has an alternative path or paths to the root but is currently in a discarding state (can
be considered as an additional unused root port). A backup port is a port on a network
segment that could be used to reach the root switch, but there is already an active
designated port for the segment (can be considered as an additional unused designated
port).

9. What is the difference between broadcast and collision domain?

Broadcast Domain:

A logical set of computer systems those are reachable without using a router.
Broadcast Domain is limited to the specific IP sub network for all the IP broadcasts.
Broadcast domain uses a switched environment to broadcast.
The network systems will have 255 at the end of the IP addresses.

Collision Domain:

It refers a set of devices in which packet collision could occur.

The devices can include the devices of another IP sub networks.
There is a potential packet collision as multiple devices transmit data on one wire / link.
A collision can occur on cable , hub or repeater.

10. What is path cost?

It is an arbitrary value, based on hop count, bandwidth, or another calculation, that is typically
assigned by a network administrator and used by the routing protocol to compare different routes
through an internetwork. Routing protocols use cost values to select the best path to a certain
destination. The lowest cost identifies the best path. Also known as path cost.

11. Types of Bridge Protocol data units (BPDU).

Three types of Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs) are Configuration BPDU (CBPDU),
Topology Change Notification(TCN) BPDU and Topology Change Notification
Acknowledgment (TCA).

12. What is the purpose of STA and BPDU ?

The basic purpose of the Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs) and the Spanning Tree Algorithm
(STA) is to avoid Layer 2 Switching loops and Broadcast storms.
13. Define selection criteria of STP root bridge.
If a Switch has multiple paths to reach the Root Bridge (Switch), it must select one path and the
associated port as theRoot Port. Following are the different steps for selecting the Root Bridge
(Switch).

If there are two or more paths to reach the Root Bridge (Switch) select the path with the
lowest accumulated path cost.
Select the neighboring switch with the lowest Switch ID value to reach the Root Bridge
(Switch).
Select the port with the lowest Port Priority value, if you have multiple paths to reach the
Root Bridge (Switch) via same neighbor switch.
If all the ports are configured with same priority number (32 by default), select the lowest
port number on the switch.

14. what are the Port states of spanning tree protocol ?

Blocking
listening
learning
Forwarding
disabled.

15. How to enable or disable spanning tree protocol ?

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is enabled by default on modern switches. It is possible to disable
or enable theSpanning Tree Protocol (STP) when required.

To enable Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) on an IOS based switch, use the "spanning-tree vlan
vlan_number" command from global configuration mode as shown below.

switch01>
switch01>enable
switch01#configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
switch01(config)#spanning-tree vlan 1
switch01(config)#exit
switch01#
To disable Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) on an IOS based switch use "no spanning-tree vlan
vlan_number" commandfrom global configuration mode as shown below.

switch01>enable
switch01#configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
switch01(config)#no spanning-tree vlan 1
switch01(config)#exit
switch01#
16. What is UDLD and why it is required?
UDLD is a Layer 2 protocol that enables devices connected through fiber-optic or twisted-pair
Ethernet cables to monitor the physical configuration of the cables and detect when a
unidirectional link exists. All connected devices must support UDLD for the protocol to
successfully identify and disable unidirectional links. When UDLD detects a unidirectional link,
it administratively shuts down the affected port and alerts you. Unidirectional links can cause a
variety of problems, including spanning-tree topology loops.

17. Explain about three functions of a Switch .

There are three distinct functions of layer 2 switching : address learning, forward/filter decisions,
and loop avoidance.

Address learning :
Layer 2 switches and bridges remember the source hardware address of each frame received on
an interface, and they enter this information into a MAC database called a forward/filter table.

Forward/filter decisions :
When a frame is received on an interface, the switch looks at the destination hardware address
and finds the exit interface in the MAC database. The frame is only forwarded out the specified
destination port.

Loop avoidance :
If multiple connections between switches are created for redundancy purposes, network loops
can occur. Spanning Tree Protocol is used to stop network loops while still permitting
redundancy.

18. Define Root bridge.

The root bridge is the bridge with the best bridge id. With STP, the key is for all the switches in
the network to elect a root bridge that becomes the focal point in the network. All other decisions
in the network such as which port is to be blocked and which port is to be put in forwarding
mode are made from the perspective of this root bridge.

19. Define BPDU.

BPDU : All the switches exchange information to use in the selection of the root switch as well
as in subsequent configuration of the network. Each switch compares the parameters in the
Bridge protocol Data Unit that it sends to one neighbor with the one that it receives from another
neighbor.

20. Define Bridge ID.

The bridge ID is how STP keeps track of all the switches in the network. It is determined by a
combination of the bridge priority (by default 32,768) and the base MAC address. The bridge
with the lowest bridge ID becomes the root bridge in the network.
21. Define Port cost :

Port cost determines the best path when multiple links are used between two switches and none
of the links is a root port. The cost of a link is determined by the bandwidth of a link.

22. What is Root Port ?

The root port is always the link directly connected to the root bridge, or the shortest path to the
root bridge. If more than one link connects to the root bridge, then a port cost is determined by
checking the bandwidth of each of link. The lowest-cost port becomes the root port. If multiple
links have the same cost, the bridge with the lower advertising bridge ID is used.

23. What is Designated Port ?

A designated port is one that has been determined as having the best cost. A designated port will
be marked as a forwarding port.

24. What is Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol ?

The convergence time for legacy Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) IEEE 802.1D standard is 30 to
50 seconds. When the network is converging on a topology change, no traffic is forwarded to or
from any of the network bridges and switches. In modern networks this convergence time gap is
not acceptable and Cisco enhanced the original Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) 802.1D
specification with features such as PortFast, UplinkFast and BackboneFast to speed up the
convergence time. But these were proprietary enhancements.

The Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) IEEE 802.1W standard is available to address the
convergence time gap issue. Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) enables root ports and
designated ports to change from the blocking to forwarding port state in a few seconds.

25. Per-VLAN Spanning Tree (PVST) and Per-VLAN Spanning Tree Plus (PVST+)

The type of a single instance Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is known as Common Spanning Tree
(CST). Delay in receiving BPDUs is common in large switched Common Spanning Tree (CST)
networks. The delay in receiving BPDUs can cause problems like convergence time problems.
Per-VLAN Spanning Tree (PVST) is a solution for these problems. Per-VLAN Spanning Tree
(PVST) is a Cisco proprietary Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) which operates a separate instance
of Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) for each individual VLAN. A separate instance of Spanning
Tree Protocol (STP) for each VLAN helps VLAN to be configured independently and also can
perform better. Per-VLAN Spanning Tree (PVST) requires Inter-Switch Link (ISL).

Per-VLAN Spanning Tree+ (PVST+) is an extension of the PVST standard. Per-VLAN

Spanning Tree+ (PVST+) allows interoperability between CST and PVST in Cisco switches and
support the IEEE 802.1Q standard.
26. Spanning Tree Protocol Convergence ?

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) convergence (Layer 2 convergence) happens when bridges and
switches have transitioned to either the forwarding or blocking state. When layer 2 is converged,
Root Switch is elected and Root, Designated and Non-Designated ports in all switches are
selected. At Converged condition, the Root and Designated are in forwarding state, and all other
ports are in blocking state.

The time it usually takes to change from blocking to forwarding state is 50 seconds (Blocking to
listening is 20 seconds; Listening to learning is 15 seconds; Learning to forwarding is 15
seconds), when Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) timers are in their default values. Until the port
reaches forwarding state, no user traffic is forwarded through the port and the end user may feel
that there is no network connectivity.

27. what is Spanning Tree Protocol Port Fast ?

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) convergence (Layer 2 convergence) happens when bridges and
switches have transitioned to either the forwarding or blocking state. Normal Spanning Tree
Protocol (STP) convergence (Layer 2 convergence) time is 50 seconds and the end user traffic is
blocked until Root Port and/or Designated Port reach the forwarding state.

We can use the feature called PortFast to speed up convergence on ports which are connected to
a workstation or aserver (which will not cause layer 2 loops). PortFast feature should be used
only to connect a single workstation to a switch port to avoid layer 2 switching loop. Spanning-
tree PortFast feature causes a port to enter the forwarding state immediately, bypassing the
listening and learning states.

When Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is running, PortFast ports on the same switch can forward
traffic between each other, but need to wait for Spanning Tree Convergence to communicate
with a port on which the PortFast feature is disabled (normally a port connected to another
switch). .

28. what is non-designated port

A non-designated port is one with a higher cost than the designated port. Non designated ports
are put in blocking mode they are not forwarding ports.

29. SPT Blocking Port states :

A blocked port won't forward frames; it just listens to BPDUs. The purpose of the blocking state
is to prevent the use of looped paths. All ports are in blocking state by default when the switch is
powered up.
30. SPT Learning Port States :

The switch port listens to BPDUs and learns all the paths in the switched network. A port in
learning state populates the MAC address table but doesn't forward data frames. Forward delay
means the time it takes to transition a port from listeing to learning mode, which is set to 15
seconds by default and can be seen in the show spanningp-tree output.

1. what is zip ?

Zip means Zone Information Protocol. It is a session-layer protocol used by Apple-Talk to map
network numbers to zone names. NBP uses ZIP in the determination of networks containing
nodes that belong to a zone.

32. What is zip storm ?

A broadcast storm occurring when a router running AppleTalk reproduces or transmits a route
for which there is no corresponding zone name at the time of execution. The route is then
forwarded by other routers downstream, thus causing a ZIP storm.

33. What is Windows Socket Interface (WinSock)?

A software interface that makes it possible for an assortment of applications to use and share an
Internet connection. The WinSock software consists of a Dynamic Link Library (DLL) with
supporting programs such as a dialer program that initiates the connection.

34. What are the benefits of VTP : --

VTP provides the following benefits to a switched network:

Consistent configuration of VLANs across all switches in the network

Allowing VLANs to be trunked over mixed networks, like Ethernet to ATM LANE or
FDDI
Accurate tracking and monitoring of VLANs
Dynamic reporting when VLANs are added to all switches
Plug-and-play VLAN adding to the switched network

35. What is transparent mode in Switches?

Transparent mode Switches can run in transparent mode, which means that they will only
forward messages and advertisements, not add them to their own database. In version 1, the
switch will check the domain name and version before forwarding, but in version 2, the switches
will forward VTP messages without checking the version.
36. Explain store and forward :

Store-and-forward switching is one of three primary types of LAN switching. With the store-
and-forward switching method, the LAN switch copies the entire frame onto its onboard buffers
and computes the cyclic redundancy check (CRC). Because it copies the entire frame, latency
through the switch varies with frame length.

The frame is discarded if it contains a CRC error, if it's too short (less than 64 bytes including the
CRC), or if it's too long (more than 1,518 bytes including the CRC). If the frame doesn't contain
any errors, the LAN switch looks up the destination hardware address in its forwarding or
switching table and determines the outgoing interface. It then forwards the frame toward its
destination.

37. Briefly explain FragmentFree.

FragmentFree is a modified form of cut-through switching in which the switch waits for the
collision window (64 bytes) to pass before forwarding. If a packet has an error, it almost always
occurs within the first 64 bytes. FragmentFree mode provides better error checking than the cut-
through mode, with practically no increase in latency.

38. The Port Aggregation Protocol (PAgP)

The Port Aggregation Protocol (PAgP) is used to add more features to the EtherChannel
technology. This protocol is used to learn the capabilities of the neighbors' EtherChannel ports.
By doing this, it allows the switches to connect via Fast EtherChannel automatically.

The PAgP protocol groups the ports that have the same neighbor device ID and neighbor group
capability into a channel. This channel is then added to the Spanning Tree Protocol as a single
bridge port.

39. What is Proxy Address Resolution Protocol (Proxy ARP)?

Proxy Address Resolution Protocol (Proxy ARP) is a variation of the ARP protocol in which an
intermediate device, such as a router, sends an ARP response on behalf of an end node to the
requesting host.

40. Benefits of Proxy ARP :

No need to configure clients with a gateway

Load balancing, although this is somewhat random
Immediate fault tolerance for addresses not recently contacted
41. Disadvantages of Proxy ARP :

A lot of broadcast traffic

Must wait for ARP cache to time out in the event of failure
No control over which router is primary and secondary

42. What are the states of Hot Standby Routing Protocol (HSRP)?

Initial, Learn, Listen, Speak, Standby and Active

43. What is the use of ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP).

This will allow hosts to use the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to find a new path
when the primary router becomes unavailable.

44. Types of Distribution Trees:

Two types of trees exist in multicast:
Source trees: Source trees use the architecture of the source of the multicast traffic as the root of
the tree.
Shared trees Shared trees use an architecture in which multiple sources share a common
rendezvous point. Each of these methods is effective and allows sourced multicast data to reach
an arbitrary number of recipients of the multicast group.

45. What is Data encapsulation ?

Data encapsulation is the process by which the information in a protocol is wrapped, or

contained, in the data section of another protocol. In the OSI reference model, each layer
encapsulates the layer immediately above it as the data flows down the protocol stack.

46. What is AMI ?

AMAI means Alternate Mark Inversion. it is a line-code type on T1 and E1 circuits that shows
zeros as "01" during each bit cell, and ones as "11" or "00," alternately, during each bit cell. The
sending device must maintain ones density in AMI but not independently of the data stream.
Also known as binarycoded, alternate mark inversion.

47. Asynchronous transmission:

Digital signals sent without precise timing, usually with different frequencies and phase
relationships. Asynchronous transmissions generally enclose individual characters in control bits
(called start and stop bits) that show the beginning and end of each character.
48. What is ATDM ?

Asynchronous Time-Division Multiplexing: A technique for sending information, it differs from

normal TDM in that the time slots are assigned when necessary rather than preassigned to certain
transmitters.

49. Define Link state routing algorithm.

A routing algorithm that allows each router to broadcast or multicast information regarding the
cost of reaching all its neighbors to every node in the internetwork. Link-state algorithms provide
a consistent view of the network and are therefore not vulnerable to routing loops. However, this
is achieved at the cost of somewhat greater difficulty in computation and more widespread
traffic.

50. Multilayer switching:

Multilayer switching combines layer 2, 3, and 4 switching technology and provides very high-
speed scalability with low latency. This is provided by huge filter tables based on the criteria
designed by the network administrator.

1. What are the three layers of the Cisco Hierarchical Model?

The three layers of the Cisco Hierarchical Model are:

1. the access layer

2. The distribution layer
3. The core layer

2. In the Cisco Hierarchical Model, what is the function of the access layer?
Sometimes referred to as the desktop layer, the access layer is the point at which users connect to
the network through low-end switches. Some functions of the access layer include:

1. Connectivity into the distribution layer

2. Shared Bandwidth
3. MAC Address filtering (switching)
4. Segmentation

3. What is the function of the distribution layer in the Cisco Hierarchical Model?
The distribution layer is also known as the workgroup layer. It is the demarcation point between
the access and core layers of the network. Its primary function is to provide routing, filtering, and
WAN access. The distribution layer determines how packets access the core, so it is the layer at
which to implement policy-based connectivity.
Some functions include the following:

1. Collection point for access layer devices

2. Broadcast and multicast domain segmentation
3. Security and filtering services such as firewalls and access lists
 4. Providing translation between different media types
5. Inter-VLAN routing

4. What is the role of the core layer in the Cisco Hierarchical Model?
The core layer is the backbone of the network. Its main function is to switch traffic as fast as
possible. Therefore, it should not perform any filtering to slow down traffic. The ISO's OSI
Reference Model contains seven layers. What are they? Include the layer number and name of
each layer in your answer.

The seven layers of the OSI model are as follows:

1. Layer 7 - Application layer

2. Layer 6 - Presentation layer
3. Layer 5 - Session layer
4. Layer 4 - Transport layer
5. Layer 3 - Network layer
6. Layer 2 - Data link layer
7. Layer 1 - Physical layer

5. What are some reasons that the industry uses a layered model?
Here are some reasons why the industry uses a layered model:

1. It encourages industry standardization by defining what functions occur at each level.

2. It allows vendors to modify or improve components at only one layer versus rewriting the
whole protocol stack.
3. It helps interoperability by defining standards for the operations at each level.
4. It helps with troubleshooting.

6. What does the application layer (Layer 7) of the OSI model do, and what are some
examples of this layer?
The application layer is the layer that is closest to the user. This means that this layer interacts
directly with the software application. The application layer's main function is to identify and
establish communication partners, determine resource availability, and synchronize
communication.

Some examples include the following:

1. TCP/IP applications such as Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), WWW, and HTTP.
2. OSI applications such as Virtual Terminal Protocol, File
3. Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM), and Common Management Information
Protocol (CMIP).
7. In the OSI model, what are the responsibilities of the presentation layer (Layer 6)? Give
some examples of this layer.
The application layer is the layer that is closest to the user. This means that this layer interacts
directly with the software application. The application layer's main function is to identify and
establish communication partners, determine resource availability, and synchronize
communication.

Some examples include the following:

Also known as the translator, the presentation layer provides coding and conversion functions to
application layer data. This guarantees that the application layer on another system can read data
transferred from the application layer of a different system.
Some examples of the presentation layer are:

1. Compression, decompression, and encryption

2. JPEG, TIFF, GIFF, PICT, QuickTime, MPEG, and ASCII

8. What are the functions of the session layer (Layer 5)? Give some examples.
The session layer is responsible for creating, managing, and ending communication sessions
between presentation layer entities. These sessions consist of service requests and responses that
develop between applications located on different network devices. Some examples include
SQL, RPC, NFS, X Window System, ZIP, NetBIOS names, and AppleTalk ASP.

9. What is the transport layer (Layer 4) responsible for? Give some examples of transport
layer implementations.
The transport layer segments and reassembles data from upper-layer applications into data
streams. It provides reliable data transmission to upper layers. End-to-end communications, flow
control, multiplexing, error detection and correction, and virtual circuit management are typical
transport layer functions. Some examples include TCP, UDP*, and SPX.

Note: watch out for end-to-end on communications on the exam! Transport layer.

10. What is flow control, and what are the three methods of implementing it?
Flow control is the method of controlling the rate at which a computer sends data, thus
preventing network congestion.
The three methods of implementing flow control are

1. Buffering
2. Congestion avoidance
3. Windowing
4. Almost certain to be on the exam.
11. Describe the function of the network layer (Layer 3), and give some examples of
network layer implementations.
The network layer provides internetwork routing and logical network addresses. It defines how
to transport traffic between devices that are not locally attached. The network layer also supports
connection-oriented and connectionless service from higher-layer protocols. Routers operate at
the network layer. IP, IPX, AppleTalk, and DDP are examples of network layer implementations.

12. Are network layer addresses physical or logical?

Network layer addresses are logical addresses specific to the network layer protocol being run on
the network. Each network layer protocol has a different addressing scheme. They are usually
hierarchical and define networks first and then host or devices on that network. An example of a
network address is an IP address, which is a 32-bit address often expressed in decimal format.
192.168.0.1 is an example of an IP address in decimal format.

13. How do routers function at the network layer of the OSI model?
Routers learn, record, and maintain awareness of different networks. They decide the best path to
these networks and maintain this information in a routing table.
The routing table includes the following:

1. Network addresses, which are protocol-specific. If you are running more than one
protocol, you have a network address for each protocol.
2. The interface the router uses to route a packet to a different network.
3. A metric, which is the distance to a remote network or the weight of the bandwidth, load,
delay, and reliability of the path to the remote network.
4. Routers create broadcast domains. One interface on a router creates a single broadcast
domain and collision domain. However, an interface on a switch creates only a single
collision domain.

14. In addition to learning the remote network and providing a path to the network, what
other functions do routers carry out?
Routers perform these tasks:

1. Routers, by default, do not forward broadcasts or multicasts.

2. Routers can perform bridging and routing functions.
3. If a router has multiple paths to a destination, it can determine the best path to the
destination.
4. Routers forward traffic based on Layer 3 destination addresses.
5. Routers can connect Virtual LANs (VLANs).
6. Routers can provide quality of service for specified types of network traffic.

15. What is the responsibility of the data link layer (Layer 2)?
The data link layer provides functional and procedural means for connectionless mode among
network entities, and for connection mode entities it provides the establishment, maintenance,
and release of data link connections among network entities and for the transfer of data link
service data units. The data link layer translates messages from the network layer into bits for the
physical layer, and it enables the network layer to control the interconnection of data circuits
within the physical layer. Its specifications define different network and protocol characteristics,
including physical addressing, error notification, network topology, and sequencing of frames.
Data link protocols provide the delivery across individual links and are concerned with the
different media types, such as 802.2 and 802.3. The data link layer is responsible for putting 1s
and 0s into a logical group. These 1s and 0s are then put on the physical wire. Some examples of
data link layer implementations are IEEE 802.2/802.3, IEEE 802.5/802.2, packet trailer (for
Ethernet, the FCS or CRC), FFDI, HDLC, and Frame Relay.

16. The IEEE defines what two sublayers of the data link layer?

1. The two sublayers of the data link layer are

2. The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
3. The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer
4. These two sublayers provide physical media independence.

17. For what is the LLC sublayer responsible?

The Logical Link Control (802.2) sublayer is responsible for identifying different network layer
protocols and then encapsulating them to be transferred across the network. An LLC header tells
the data link layer what to do with a packet after it is received

18. What functions does the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer provide?

The MAC sublayer specifies how data is placed and transported over the physical wire. The LLC
layer communicates with the network layer, but the MAC layer communicates downward
directly to the physical layer. Physical addressing (MAC addresses), network topologies, error
notification, and delivery of frames are defined at this sublayer.

19. What are some network devices that operate at the data link layer?

Bridges and switches are network devices that operate at the data link layer. Both devices filter
traffic by MAC addresses.

20. What is the function of the OSI model's physical layer (Layer 1)? Give some examples
of physical layer implementations.

The physical layer defines the physical medium. It defines the media type, the connector type,
and the signaling type (baseband versus broadband). This includes voltage levels, physical data
rates, and maximum cable lengths. The physical layer is responsible for converting frames into
electronic bits of data, which are then sent or received across the physical medium. Twisted pair,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable operate at this level. Other implementations at this layer are
repeaters/hubs, RJ-45.
21. The Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 standards define what three physical wiring standards
that operate at 10 Mbps?

These physical wiring standards operate at 10 Mbps:

1. 10Base2
2. 10Base5
3. 10BaseT

22. What are collision domains?

In Ethernet segments, devices connect to the same physical medium. Because of this, all devices
receive all signals sent across the wire. If two devices send a packet at the same time, a collision
occurs. In the event of a collision, the two devices run a backoff algorithm and resend the packet.
The devices retransmit up to 15 times. The first station to detect a collision issues a jam signal.
When a jam signal is sent from a workstation, it affects all of the machines on the segment, not
just the two that collided; when the jam signal is on the wire, no workstations can transmit data.
The more collisions that occur in a network, the slower it will be, because the devices will have
to resend the packet. A collision domain defines a group of devices connected to the same
physical medium.

23. What are broadcast domains?

A broadcast domain defines a group of devices that receive each others' broadcast messages. As
with collisions, the more broadcasts that occur on the network, the slower your network will be.
This is because every device that receives a broadcast must process it to see if the broadcast is
intended for it.

24. What devices are used to break up collision and broadcast domains?

Switches and bridges are used to break up collision domains. They create more collision domains
and fewer collisions. Routers are used to break up broadcast domains. They create more
broadcast domains and smaller broadcast areas.

25. How do the different layers of the OSI model communicate with each other?

Each layer of the OSI model can communicate only with the layer above it, below it, and parallel
to it (a peer layer). For example, the presentation layer can communicate with only the
application layer, session layer, and presentation layer on the machine it is communicating with.
These layers communicate with each other using protocol data units (PDUs). These PDUs
control information that is added to the user data at each layer of the model. This information
resides in fields called headers (the front of the data field) and trailers (the end of the data field).
26. What is data encapsulation?

A PDU can include different information as it goes up or down the OSI model. It is given a
different name according to the information it is carrying (the layer it is at). When the transport
layer receives upper layer data, it adds a TCP header to the data; this is called a segment. The
segment is then passed to the network layer, and an IP header is added; thus, the data becomes a
packet. The packet is passed to the data link layer, thus becoming a frame. This frame is then
converted into bits and is passed across the network medium. This is data
encapsulationApplication layer -- Data

1. Transport layer -- Segment

2. Network layer -- Packet
3. Data link layer -- Frame
4. There is also the Physical Layer -- Bits

27. What is the difference between a routing protocol and a routed protocol?

Routing protocols determine how to route traffic to the best location of a routed protocol.
Examples of routing protocols are RIP, EIGRP, OSFP, and BGP. Examples of routed protocols
are IP and IPX.

28. What 3 devices are used to segment a LAN?

1. Router
2. Switch
3. Bridge