Material Deformation and

Theory of Elasticity
 Objectives

Material deformation and measures of deformation

Develop linear stress-strain relationships for material under

elastic deformation

Discuss elastic constants

Related concepts are developed

Material
Deformation
 Elastic Deformation

Deals with
Elastic stresses / strains
Their relationships
External forces that cause elastic stress /strain

Elastic strain
Strain that disappears instantaneously once the forces that
cause it are removed

Theory of elasticity applies to Hookean solids

Stress is proportional to strain
 Mechanical Testing

Geometry and loading situations commonly employed in mechanical testing of

materials

Tension

Indentation Cantilever
hardness bending
Compression

Three-point Torsion
bending Four point bending
 Classes of Mechanical Test
Specimens

Three classes of test specimen: (a) smooth, (b) notched, and (c) precracked
 Tensile Test Specimen

Standard geometry of specimen

Dog bone flat cross section
Button head circular cross section
Several standards
ASTM E8
ASTM D638
 Tensile Test

Most common test to assess mechanical behaviour of a material

Primarily used for ductile materials

Output is
force vs
displacement

Use to assess
strength and
deformability
 Load-Displacement Curve of a
Ductile Material

What happens if cross

Curve 2 section is increased but
not gauge length?
Load / Force

F required to deform
increases
L decreases at fixed F
Curve 1

Is Curve 2 real?

What if gauge
length is
increased?
Displacement
Elastic Deformation

For linear elastic deformation F = k L

After application of force (F), sample length increases from

Lo to Lo + L

If force (F) and area (Ao) is constant, but gauge length is

doubled (L1 = 2Lo), then extension (L) doubles

If force (F) and length (Lo) is constant, but area is doubled

(A1 = 2Ao), then extension (L) is halved
Engineering Stress

= =

Also known as nominal stress. Represents average stress in objects

Units:

psi 1 lb/in2
ksi 1000 lb/in2 = 6.895 MPa
MPa 1 MN/m2 = 1 N/mm2 = 1 x 106 N/m2
Atm 1 Atm = 0.1 MPa = 0.01 kg/mm2 = 14.7 psi
Engineering Strain

= =

Represents average linear strain in objects

Units: unitless

Expressed as fraction or percentage

= 0.02 is same as 2% strain
= 0.10 is same as 10% strain
= 1.00 is same as 100% strain

Stretch Ratio: Term is referred to as extension or

stretch ratio. Used for large deformations such as =1

rubbery materials
Engineering Stress Strain Curve
in Tension

Elastic deformation up to
elastic limit
Plastic deformation after
elastic limit
Uniform plastic deformation
between elastic limit and
ultimate tensile stress (UTS)
Non-uniform plastic
deformation after UTS
In tension, this non-uniform
deformation is called
necking
Total Strain

Total Strain
=
Elastic Strain
+
Plastic Strain

= +
 True Stress / Strain

Tensile extension causes lateral contraction of specimen

Thus shape changes during deformation

True Stress: True Strain:

= = = =

 True Stress / Strain

Relationship between engineering / nominal stress / strain and true

stress / strain

True Stress:

= = = ( + 1)

True Strain:


= = = = ln = ln( + 1)

Should we use engineering stress/strain or true stress/strain ?

True Stress-Strain Curve in Tension

True stress-strain
curve shifts up and
to the left of the
engineering stress-
strain curve

Beyond the UTS,

the flow curve is
linear
 Relationships between True and
Engineering Stress and Strain

Fundamental
Parameter Before Necking After Necking
Definition

Engineering
= = =
Stress,

True Stress, = = =

Engineering
= = =
Strain,

True Strain, = = = =

Compression Testing

Used for all types of

materials

Yields same strength

information as tensile test

Care should be taken to

minimise friction between
platen and specimen

Length to diameter ratio

should be low to avoid
buckling
Compression Testing
 True Stress-Strain Curve in
Compression

Plastic instability manifests itself

in form of barrelling as opposed
to necking
Barrelling can be considered to
be the compressive analogue
to necking
Results from friction between
the specimen and plates
Barrelling limits the test range to
0.3-0.4% strain in ductile
materials
 True Stress-Strain Curve in
Compression

Zone 1
Dead metal zones that have
little movement relative to the
platens

Zone 2 (a) Free compression of a circular cylinder

of initial height to diameter (H0/D0) ratio
Region where plastic greater than unity with dead metal zones
deformation occurs (D.M.Z.) present due to friction at the
specimen/platen interface; (b) schematic

Zone 3 representation of the zones which can be

Annular region that moves
primarily in a radial direction
identified and barrelling that occurs during
the free compression of a circular cylinder
in the presence of friction at the specimen-
platen interfaces (H0/D0 1)
 Comparison of Stress-Strain Curves
in Tension and Compression

True stress-strain curves

in compression and
tension generally lie on
top of each other

The arrows indicate the

relative shift of the
engineering curves to
the true curve
Elastic
Behaviour of
Materials
 Elastic Behaviour of Materials

Classification of Elastic Behaviour

Linear Elasticity
Hyper Elasticity (Rubber Elasticity Elastomers mostly)
Focus will be linear elasticity and crystallise materials
Microscopically, elastic behaviour is inherently anisotropic for
individual grains or single crystals
Macroscopically, most polycrystalline materials are elastically
isotropic
Origins of elasticity are from long range attractive forces which
draws atoms together
Thus elastic behaviour depends quantitatively on the magnitude of
the interatomic forces
 Elastic Constants

Youngs Modulus (E) or Tensile Modulus

Stiffness ( )

Compliance ( )

Shear Modulus (G) or Modulus of Rigidity

Bulk Modulus (K)

Poissons ratio ()
 Bulk Modulus

Also known as volumetric elastic modulus

1
= = = =

=
+ +
= =
3
= = + +

=
 Poissons Ratio

Tensile stress applied in z direction

Extension in z-axis, contraction in x and y-axis

, =


, = , =

Poissons Ratio
 Poissons Ratio

The strain resulting from this stress state must be the sum of the strains
associated with loading along each individual axis

Axial Stretch = = Lateral Contraction = = =

Axial Stretch = = Lateral Contraction = = =

 Poissons Ratio

Total Strain

= + =

= + =

 Elastic Stress-Strain Relations in 3D

Applied Stress Strain in x direction Strain in y direction Strain in z direction

= = =


= = =


= = =

Elastic strain for an isotropic solid accounting for the Poissons effect
1
= +

1
= +

1
= +

 Limits of Poissons Ratio

What are the maximum and minimum values for Poissons

ratio?

For an isotropic material, the two extreme conditions are

Volume remains constant

There is no lateral contraction

 Limits of Poissons Ratio

Case where volume remains constant

Initial volume and final volume are equal

= 1
= (1 + 11 )(1 + 22 )(1 + 33 )

= 1 + 11 + 22 + 33 (neglecting the
products of strains)
=
11 + 22 + 33 = 0
11 = 22
211 = 33
11
= = 0.5
33
 Limits of Poissons Ratio

Case where there is no lateral contraction

0

=
2(1 + )
1
= 0
2(1 + )

1.0

Thus values of Poissons ration can be

0.5 1.0
Limits of Poissons Ratio
Limits of Poissons Ratio
Stent Deployment

0.0atm

0.40Mpa

1.0Mpa

-0.01Mpa
Relationships Between Elastic Constants
 Elastic Strain Energy

Work is done to deform a body

elastically

It is stored as elastic strain

energy

It is recovered when elastic

forces are released

Strain energy is proportional to

the area under the load-
deformation curve
 Elastic Strain Energy

From first law of thermodynamics

=

=
=
=

For most solids, elastic work produces insignificant amount of heat, thus

=
=

Work is stored in the body and is recovered upon unloading

 Elastic Strain Energy

Consider an elemental cube under uniaxial tension. The work done,

W, is given by

1
= ()()
2
1 1 1
= = 11 11 1 =
2 2 2 11 2 3 11 1 3
2
1 1
= 11 11 1 2 3
2
11 2 3
1 , 2 , 3

Force
So, work done per unit volume
1
11 = 11 11 11 1
2 Displacement
 Elastic Strain Energy

Energy stored per unit volume is known as Strain Energy Density

1
11 = 11 11
2

Similarly, we can obtain expressions for other components of stress.

For shear stress 31

1
31 = 31 31
2
 Elastic Strain Energy

For total work done per unit volume or strain energy density
1
= + 22 22 + 33 33 + 212 12 + 223 23 + 212 31
2 11 11

In indicial notation
1
= /3 or /3
2

Using Hooks law, we have = , thus

1 1 2 1 2
= = = =
2 2 2
 ANISOTROPIC
Hookes Law ELASTICITY
 Anisotropic Elasticity

Isotropic Solids same properties in all directions

=

Anisotropic Solids properties are directional

Hookes law needs to be defined differently as elastic constants are
directional
Each stress component needs to be related to each strain component
Thus we define two new elastic constants

= =

Thus Hooks law can be written as

= =
Anisotropic Elasticity

Stiffness is 4th rank tensor

= 81 terms

Stress Elastic Strain

tensor Stiffness tensor
 Anisotropic Elasticity

From equilibrium considerations, the number of constants reduce

from 81 to 36

= = = =

Stress Elastic Strain

tensor Stiffness tensor
 Anisotropic Elasticity

Matrix notation (contracted notation, Voigt Notation) can be used

instead of indices for stress and strains for simplicity

11 1 23 4 1 6 5
22 2 13 5 2 4
33 3 12 6 3
Numbers 1, 2, 3 are associated with normal stresses and strains
Number 4, 5, 6 are associated with shear stresses and strains

In matrix notation Hooks law is written as

= =
 Anisotropic Elasticity

In matrix notation

=




Becomes
1 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 =
2 21 22 23 24 25 26 2
3 31 32 33 34 35 36 3
4 = 4
41 42 43 44 45 46 Stress Strain
5 51 52 53 54 55 56 5
6 61 62 63 64 65 66 6
 Which Notation to Use?

Matrix (contracted) notation is simple and convenient for

conducting matrix inversions

For coordinate transformation or invariant determination, it is

better to use indicial (tensor) notation
 Anisotropic Elasticity

Stiffness and compliance matrices are symmetrical

36 components are reduced to 21 components

11 12 13 14 15 16 11 12 13 14 15 16
21 22 23 24 25 26 21 22 23 24 25 26
31 32 33 34 35 36 31 32 33 34 35 36
41 42 43 44 45 46 41 42 43 44 45 46
51 52 53 54 55 56 51 52 53 54 55 56
61 62 63 64 65 66 61 62 63 64 65 66

In isotropic case, the 21 elastic constants are reduced to how many?

 Isotropic Material

An isotropic material has every plane as a plane of symmetry

Number of essential elastic constants reduces to two
Experimental evidence:
Normal stress (x) creates no shear strain
Shear stress (xy) creates only a shear strain (xy)
From previous discussion regarding Poissons ratio
1
= +

1
= +

1
= +

 Isotropic Elasticity

For three dimensional state of stress, generalised Hooks law

1 1 1+
= = =
2
1 1 1+
= = =
2
1 1 1+
= = =
2
 Isotropic Elasticity

Hookes law for a linear elastic isotropic material in terms of E and

= (1 ) + +
(1 + )(1 2)

= (1 ) + +
(1 + )(1 2)

= (1 ) + +
(1 + )(1 2)

= = =
1 + 1 + 1 +
 Orthotropic Material

Examples of orthotropic materials are wood, laminated plastics, cold

rolled steels, reinforced concrete, various composite materials, and
even forgings

Orthotropic materials
possess three orthogonal planes of material
symmetry and
three corresponding orthogonal axes called
the orthotropic axes
 Orthotropic Material

Generalized Hookes law for the most general orthotropic elastic

material

1 11 12 13 0 0 0 1
2 21 22 23 0 0 0 2
3 31 32 33 0 0 0 3
4 = 0 0 0 44 0 0 4
5 0 0 0 0 55 0 5
6 0 0 0 0 0 66 6
 Physical Meaning of Elastic Moduli

Can be determined through investigation of particular states

of stress commonly realized in laboratory materials testing

Simple Tension

Pure Shear

Hydrostatic Compression
 Simple Tension

State of stress

0 0
= 0 0 0
0 0 0

Corresponding strain field

0 0


= 0 0


0 0

 Pure Shear

State of stress: Thin walled cylinder subjected to

torsional loading

0 0
= 0 0
0 0 0

Corresponding strain field

0 /2 0
= /2 0 0
0 0 0
 Hydrostatic Compression

State of stress:
0 0
= 0 0
0 0

Corresponding strain field

1 2
0 0

1 2
= 0 0

1 2
0 0

 Assignment
(To be submitted before next lecture)

Considering the type of isotropy of each of the following materials,

write the most appropriate form of the Hookes law
Steel
Wood
Unidirectional Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
Woven Composite Fabric
A functionally graded material