adaptation domain
Speciess modification in structure, function, or Largest of the categories, or taxa, used by
behavior that makes a species more suitable to its taxonomists to group species; the three domains
environment. are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
control experiment
Sample that goes through all the steps of an A test of a hypothesis that examines the influence
experiment but does not contain thevariable being of a single variable. Often involves both control and
tested; a standard against which the results of an test groups.
experiment are checked.
experimental design
data Methodology by which an experiment will seek to
Facts or information collected through observation support the hypothesis.
and/or experimentation.
experimental variable
deductive reasoning Factor of the experiment being tested.
The use of general principles to predict specific
outcomes. Often uses if . . . then statements.
extinction natural selection
Total disappearance of a species or higher group. Mechanism of evolutionary change caused by
environmental selection of organisms most fit to
family reproduce; results in adaptation to the environment.
One of the categories, or taxa, used bytaxonomists
to group species; the taxonlocated above the genus observation
level. Initial step in the scientific method that often
involves the recording of data from an experiment
fungi or natural event.
Eukaryotic saprotrophic decomposer; the body is
made up of filaments called hyphae that form a order
mass called a mycelium. One of the categories, or taxa, used by taxonomists
to group species; the taxon located above the
gene family level.
Unit of heredity existing as alleles on the
chromosomes; in diploid organisms, typically two phenomenon
alleles are inheritedone from each parent. Observable natural event or fact.
genus photosynthesis
One of the categories, or taxa, used by taxonomists Process, usually occurring within chloroplasts, that
to group species; contains those species that are uses solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide to
most closely related through evolution. carbohydrate.
homeostasis phylum
Maintenance of normal internal conditions in a cell One of the categories, or taxa, used by taxonomists
or an organism by means of self-regulating to group species; the taxon located above the class
mechanisms. level.
hypothesis plant
Supposition established by reasoning after Multicellular, photosynthetic, eukaryotes that
consideration of available evidence; it can be tested increasingly became adapted to live on land.
by obtaining more data, often by experimentation.
population
inductive reasoning Group of organisms of the same species occupying
Using specific observations and the process of logic a certain area and sharing a common gene pool.
and reasoning to arrive at general scientific
principles. prediction
Step of the scientific process that follows the
kingdom formulation of a hypothesis and assists in creating
One of the categories, or taxa, used by taxonomists the experimental design.
to group species; the taxon above phylum.
principle
law Theory that is generally accepted by an
Universal principle that describes the basic overwhelming number of scientists; also called a
functions of the natural world. law.
metabolism prokaryote
The sum of the chemical reactions that occur in a Organism that lacks the membrane-bounded
cell. nucleus and the membranous organelles typical of
eukaryotes.
model
Simulation of a process that aids conceptual protist
understanding until the process can be studied The group of eukaryotic organisms that are not a
firsthand; a hypothesis that describes how a plant, fungus, or animal. Protists are generally a
particular process could possibly be carried out. microscopic complex single cell; they evolved
before other types of eukaryotes in the history of
multicellular Earth.
Organism composed of many cells; usually has
organized tissues, organs, and organ systems. reproduce
To produce a new individual of the same kind.
responding variable base
Result or change that occurs when an experimental Molecules tending to lower the hydrogen ion
variable is utilized in an experiment. concentration in a solution and thus raise the pH
numerically.
scientific method
Process by which scientists formulate a hypothesis, buffer
gather data by observation and experimentation, Substance or group of substances that tend to
and come to a conclusion. resist pH changes of a solution, thus stabilizing its
relative acidity and basicity.
scientific theory
Concept, or a collection of concepts, widely calorie
supported by a broad range of observations, Amount of heat energy required to raise the
experiments, and data. temperature of one gram of water 18C.
species compound
Group of similarly constructedorganisms capable of Substance having two or more different elements in
interbreeding andproducing fertile offspring; a fixed ratio.
organisms thatshare a common gene pool; the
taxon at the lowest level of classification. covalent bond
Chemical bond in which atoms share one pair of
electrons.
standard deviation
A statistical analysis of data from an observation or electron
experiment; measures how much the data varies. Negative subatomic particle, moving about in an
energy level around the nucleus of an atom.
systematics
Study of the diversity of life for the purpose of
understanding the evolutionary relationships electronegativity
between species. The ability of an atom to attract electrons toward
itself in a chemical bond.
taxonomy
Branch of biology concerned with identifying, electron shell
describing, and naming organisms. The average location, or energy level, of an
electron in an atom. Often drawn as concentric
unicellular circles around the nucleus.
An organism comprised of a single cell, as in the
bacteria. element
Substances that cannot be broken down into
CHAPTER 2 Basic Chemistry substances with different properties; composed of
only one type atom.
acid
Molecules tending to raise the hydrogen ion formula
concentration in a solution and thus to lower its pH A group of symbols and numbers used to express
numerically. the composition of a compound.
oil ribose
Triglyceride, usually of plant origin, that is Pentose sugar found in RNA.
composed of glycerol and three fatty acids and is
liquid in consistency due to many unsaturated RNA (ribonucleic acid)
bonds in the hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids. Nucleic acid produced from covalent bonding of
nucleotide monomers that contain the sugar ribose;
organic chemistry occurs in many forms, including: messenger RNA,
Branch of science that deals with organic molecules ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA.
including those that are unique to living things.
saturated fatty acid
organic molecule Fatty acid molecule that lacks double bonds
Molecule that always contains carbon and between the carbons of its hydrocarbon chain. The
hydrogen, and often contains oxygen as well; chain bears the maximum number of hydrogen
organic molecules are associated with living things. possible.
pentose starch
Five-carbon monosaccharide. Examples are Storage polysaccharide found in plants that is
deoxyribose found in DNA and ribose found in composed of glucose molecules joined in a linear
RNA. fashion with few side chains.
peptide steroid
Two or more amino acids joined together by Type of lipid molecule having a complex of four
covalent bonding. carbon ringse.g., cholesterol, estrogen,
progesterone, and testosterone.
peptide bond
Type of covalent bond that joins two amino acids. trans-fat
Unsaturated fatty acid chains in which the
peptidoglycan configuration of the carbon-carbon double bonds is
Polysaccharide that contains short chains of amino such that the hydrogen atoms are across from each
acids; found in bacterial cell walls. other, as opposed to being on the same side (cis).
phospholipid triglyceride
Molecule that forms the bilayer of the cells Neutral fat composed of glycerol and three fatty
membranes; has a polar, hydrophilic head bonded acids; typically involved in energy storage.
to two nonpolar, hydrophobic tails.
unsaturated fatty acid
polymer Fatty acid molecule that contains double bonds
Macromolecule consisting of covalently bonded between some carbons of its hydrocarbon chain;
monomers; for example, a polypeptide is a polymer thus contains fewer hydrogens than a saturated
of monomers called amino acids. hydrocarbon chain.
polypeptide wax
Polymer of many amino acids linked by peptide Sticky, solid, water-repellent lipid consisting of
bonds. many long-chain fatty acids usually linked to long-
chain alcohols.
polysaccharide
Polymer made from carbohydrate monomers; the CHAPTER 4 Cell Structure and Function
polysaccharides starch and glycogen are polymers actin filament
of glucose monomers. Component of the cytoskeleton; plays a role in the
movement of the cell and its organelles; a protein
prion filament in a sarcomere of a muscle, its movement
Infectious particle consisting of protein only and no shortens the sarcomere, yielding muscle
nucleic acid. contraction.
archaean chromatin
Prokaryotic organisms that are members of the Network of DNA strands and associated proteins
domain Archaea. observed within a nucleus of a cell.
bacillus chromoplast
A rod-shaped bacterium; also a genus of bacteria, Plastid in land plants responsible for orange, yellow,
Bacillus. and red color of plants, including the autumn colors
in leaves.
basal body
A cytoplasmic structure that is located at the base chromosome
ofand may organizecilia or flagella. The structure that transmits the genetic material
from one generation to the next; composed of
capsule condensed chromatin; each species has a
A form of glycocalyx that consists of a gelatinous particular number of chromosomes that is passed
layer; found in blue-green algae and certain on to the next generation.
bacteria.
cilium
cell Short, hairlike projections from the plasma
The smallest unit of life that displays all the membrane, occurring usually in larger numbers.
properties of life; composed of cytoplasm
surrounded by a plasma membrane. coccus
A spherical-shaped bacterium.
cell envelope
In a prokaryotic cell, the portion composed of the conjugation pili
plasma membrane, the cell wall, and the In a bacterium, elongated, hollow appendage used
glycocalyx. to transfer DNA to other cells.
fimbriae mitochondrion
Small, bristle-like fiber on the surface of a bacterial Membrane-bounded organelle in which ATP
cell, which attaches bacteria to a surface; also molecules are produced during the process of
fingerlike extension from the oviduct near the ovary. cellular respiration.
solution coenzyme
Fluid (the solvent) that contains a dissolved solid Nonprotein organic molecule that aids the action of
(the solute). the enzyme to which it is loosely bound.
solvent cofactor
Liquid portion of a solution that serves to dissolve a Nonprotein assistant required by an enzyme in
solute. order to function; many cofactors are metal ions,
others are coenzymes.
tight junction
Junction between cells when adjacent plasma competitive inhibition
membrane proteins join to form an impermeable Form of enzyme inhibition where the substrate and
barrier. inhibitor are both able to bind to the enzymes
active site. Only when the substrate is at the active
tonicity site will product form.
The solute concentration (osmolarity) of a solution
compared to that of a cell. If the solution is isotonic denatured
to the cell, there is no net movement of water; if the Loss of a proteins or enzymes normal shape so
solution is hypotonic, the cell gains water; and if the that it no longer functions; usually caused by a less
solution is hypertonic, the cell loses water. than optimal pH and temperature.
heat oxidation
Type of kinetic energy associated with the random Loss of one or more electrons from an atom or
motion of molecules. molecule; in biological systems, generally the loss
of hydrogen atoms.
induced fit model
Change in the shape of an enzymes active site that oxidation-reduction reaction
enhances the fit between the active site and its A paired set of chemical reactions in which one
substrate(s). molecule gives up electrons (oxidized) while
another molecule accepts electrons (reduced);
kinetic energy commonly called a redox reaction.
Energy associated with motion.
potential energy
laws of thermodynamics Stored energy in a potentially usable form, as a
Two laws explaining energy and its relationships result of location or spatial arrangement.
and exchanges. The first, also called the law of
conservation, says that energy cannot be created product
or destroyed but can only be changed from one Substance that forms as a result of a reaction.
form to another; the second says that energy
cannot be changed from one form to another reactant
without a loss of usable energy. Substance that participates in a reaction.
carotenoid photosynthesis
An accessory photosynthetic pigment of plants and Process, usually occurring within chloroplasts, that
algae that are often yellow or orange in color; uses solar energy to reduce carbon dioxide to
consist of two classesthe xanthophylls and the carbohydrate.
carotenes.
photosystem
chemiosmosis Photosynthetic unit where solar energy is absorbed
Process by which mitochondria and chloroplasts and high-energy electrons are generated; contains
use the energy of an electron transport chain to a pigment complex and an electron acceptor;
create a hydrogen ion gradient that drives ATP occurs as PS (photosystem) I and PS II.
formation.
RuBP carboxylase
climate change An enzyme that starts the Calvin cycle reactions by
Recent changes in the Earths climate; evidence catalyzing attachment of the carbon atom from
suggests that this is primarily due to human CO2to RuBP.
influence, including the increased release of
greenhouse gases. stomata
Small openings between two guard cells on the
chlorophyll underside of leaf epidermis through which gases
Green photosynthetic pigment of algae and plants pass.
that absorbs solar energy; occurs as chlorophyll a
and chlorophyll b. stroma
Region within a chloroplast that surrounds the
chloroplast grana; contains enzymes involved in the synthesis
Membrane-bounded organelle in algae and plants of carbohydrates during the Calvin cycle of
with chlorophyll-containing membranous thylakoids; photosynthesis.
where photosynthesis takes place.
thylakoid during cellular respiration, FAD then delivers
Flattened sac within a granum of a chloroplast; electrons to the electron transport chain.
membrane contains chlorophyll; location where the
light reactions of photosynthesis occur. fermentation
Anaerobic breakdown of glucose that results in a
CHAPTER 8 gain of two ATP and end products such as alcohol
aerobic and lactate; occurs in the cytoplasm of cells.
A chemical process that requires air (oxygen);
phase of cellular respiration that requires oxygen. glycolysis
Anaerobic breakdown of glucose that results in a
anabolism gain of two ATP and the production of pyruvate;
Chemical reaction in which smaller molecules occurs in the cytoplasm of cells.
(monomers) are combined to form larger molecules
(polymers); anabolic metabolism. metabolic pool
Metabolites that are the products of and/or the
anaerobic substrates for key reactions in cells, allowing one
A chemical reaction that occurs in the absence of type of molecule to be changed into another type,
oxygen; an example is the fermentation reactions. such as carbohydrates converted to fats.
catabolism mitochondrion
Metabolic process that breaks down large Membrane-bounded organelle in which ATP
molecules into smaller ones; catabolic metabolism. molecules are produced during the process of
cellular respiration.
cellular respiration
Metabolic reactions that use the energy from NAD+
carbohydrate, fatty acid, or amino acid breakdown Coenzyme in oxidation-reduction reactions that
to produce ATP molecules. accepts electrons and hydrogen ions to become
NADH + H+ as oxidation of substrates occurs.
chemiosmosis During cellular respiration, NADH carries electrons
Process by which mitochondria and chloroplasts to the electron transport chain in mitochondria.
use the energy of an electron transport chain to
create a hydrogen ion gradient that drives ATP preparatory (prep) reaction
formation. Reaction that oxidizes pyruvate with the release of
carbon dioxide; results in acetyl CoA and connects
citric acid cycle glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.
Cycle of reactions in mitochondria that begins with
citric acid. This cycle breaks down an acetyl group substrate-level ATP synthesis
and produces CO2, ATP, NADH, and FADH2; also Process in which ATP is formed by transferring a
called the Krebs cycle. phosphate from a metabolic substrate to ADP.
cytochrome CHAPTER 9
Any of several iron-containing protein molecules anaphase
that are members of the electron transport chain in Fourth phase of mitosis; chromosomes move
photosynthesis and cellular respiration. toward the poles of the spindle.
deamination angiogenesis
Removal of an amino group (NH2) from an amino Formation of new blood vessels; rapid
acid or other organic compound. angiogenesis is a characteristic of cancer cells.
centriole kinetochore
Cell structure, existing in pairs, that occurs in the An assembly of proteins that attaches to the
centrosome and may help organize a mitotic centromere of a chromosome during mitosis.
spindle for chromosome movement during animal
cell division. malignant
The power to threaten life; cancerous.
centromere
Constriction where sister chromatids of a metaphase
chromosome are held together. Third phase of mitosis; chromosomes are aligned at
the metaphase plate.
centrosome
Central microtubule organizing center of cells. In metaphase plate
animal cells, it contains two centrioles. A disk formed during metaphase in which all of a
cells chromosomes lie in a single plane at right
chromatid angles to the spindle fibers.
Following replication, a chromosome consists of a
pair of sister chromatids, held together at the metastasis
centromere; each chromatid is comprised of a Spread of cancer from the place oforigin throughout
single DNA helix. the body; caused by theability of cancer cells to
migrate and invade tissues.
chromatin
Network of DNA strands and associated proteins mitosis
observed within a nucleus of a cell. The stage of cellular reproduction in which nuclear
division occurs; process in which a parent nucleus
cleavage furrow produces two daughter nuclei, each having the
Indentation in the plasma membrane of animal cells same number and kinds of chromosomes as the
during cell division; formation marks the start of parent nucleus.
cytokinesis.
mitotic spindle
cyclin A complex of microtubules and associated proteins
Protein that cycles in quantity as the cell cycle that assist in separating the chromatids during cell
progresses; combines with and activates the division.
kinases that function to promote the events of the
cycle.
nucleoid therapeutic cloning
Region of prokaryotic cells where DNA is located; it Used to create mature cells of various cell types.
is not bounded by a nuclear envelope. Facilitates study of specialization of cells and
provide cells and tissue to treat human illnesses.
oncogene
Cancer-causing gene formed by a mutation in a tumor
proto-oncogene; code for proteins that stimulate the Cells derived from a single mutated cell that has
cell cycle and inhibit apoptosis. repeatedly undergone cell division; benign tumors
remain at the site of origin, while malignant tumors
p53 metastasize.
The protein produced from a tumor suppressor
gene that (1) attempts to repair DNA damage or (2) tumor suppressor gene
stops the cell cycle, or (3) initiates apoptosis. Gene that codes for a protein that ordinarily
suppresses the cellcycle; inactivity due to a
prometaphase mutation can lead to a tumor.
Second phase of mitosis; chromosomes are
condensed but not fully aligned at the metaphase
plate. CHAPTER 10
allele
prophase Alternative form of a gene; alleles occur at the
First phase of mitosis; characterized by the same locus on homologous chromosomes.
condensation of the chromatin; chromosomes are
visible, but scattered in the nucleus. alternation of generations
Life cycle, typical of land plants, in which a diploid
proto-oncogene sporophyte alternates with a haploid gametophyte.
Gene that promotes the cell cycle and prevents
apoptosis; may become an oncogene through aneuploidy
mutation. Condition in which a cell does not contain the
correct number, or combinations, of chromosomes.
RB
The protein of a tumor suppressor gene; interprets Barr body
growth signals and nutrient availability before Dark-staining body in the cell nuclei of female
allowing the cell cycle to proceed. mammals that contains a condensed, inactive X
chromosome; named after its discoverer, Murray
reproductive cloning Barr.
Used to create an organism that is genetically
identical to the original individual. bivalent
Homologous chromosomes, each having sister
signal chromatids that are joined by a nucleoprotein lattice
Molecule that stimulates or inhibits an event in the during meiosis; also called a tetrad.
cell.
crossing-over
sister chromatids Exchange of segments between
One of two genetically identical chromosomal units nonsisterchromatids of a bivalent during meiosis.
that are the result of DNA replication and are
attached to each other at the centromere. deletion
Change in chromosome structure in which the end
somatic cell of a chromosome breaks off or two simultaneous
Body cell; excludes cells that undergo meiosis and breaks lead to the loss of an internal segment; often
become sperm or eggs. causes abnormalitiese.g., cri du chat syndrome.
interkinesis spore
Period of time between meiosis I and meiosis II Asexual reproductive or resting cell capable of
during which no DNA replication takes place. developing into a new organismwithout fusion with
another cell, in contrast to a gamete.
inversion
Change in chromosome structure in which a sporophyte
segment of a chromosome is turned around 1808; Diploid generation of the alternation-of-generations
this reversed sequence of genes can lead to altered life cycle of a plant; produces haploid spores that
gene activity and abnormalities. develop into the haploid generation.
karyotype synapsis
Chromosomes arranged by pairs according to their Pairing of homologous chromosomes during
size, shape, and general appearance in mitotic meiosis I.
metaphase.
synaptonemal complex
life cycle Protein structure that forms between the
Recurring pattern of genetically programmed homologous chromosomes of prophase I of
events by which individuals grow, develop, maintain meiosis; promotes the process of crossing-over.
themselves, and reproduce.
translocation
Movement of a chromosomal segment from one incomplete dominance
chromosome to another nonhomologous Inheritance pattern in which an offspring has an
chromosome, leading to abnormalitiese.g., Down intermediate phenotype, as when a red-flowered
syndrome. plant and a white-flowered plant produce pink-
flowered offspring.
trisomy
Chromosome condition in which a diploid cell has incomplete penetrance
one more chromosome than normal; designated as Dominant alleles that are either not always, or
2n+1. partially expressed.
codon histone
Three-base sequence in messenger RNA that A group of proteins involved in forming the
during translation directs the addition of a particular nucleosome structure of eukaryote chromatin.
amino acid into a protein or directs termination of
the process. initiation
First stage of translation in which the translational
complementary base pairing machinery binds an mRNA and assembles.
Hydrogen bonding between particular purines and
pyrimidines; responsible for the structure of DNA, intron
and some RNA, molecules. Intervening sequence found between exons in
mRNA; removed by RNA processing before
cytosine (C) translation.
One of four nitrogen-containing bases in the
nucleotides composing the structure of DNA and messenger RNA (mRNA)
RNA; pairs with guanine. Type of RNA formed from a DNA template and
bearing coded information for the amino acid
DNA polymerase sequence of a polypeptide.
During replication, an enzyme that joins the
nucleotides complementary to a DNA template. mRNA transcript
mRNA molecule formed during transcription that
DNA replication has a sequence of bases complementary to a gene.
Synthesis of a new DNA double helix prior to
mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotic cells and during nucleosome
prokaryotic fission in prokaryotic cells. In the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, a unit composed
of DNA wound around a core of eight histone
double helix proteins, giving the appearance of a string of
Double spiral; describes the three-dimensional beads.
shape of DNA.
polyribosome
elongation String of ribosomes simultaneously translating
Middle stage of translation in which additional regions of the same mRNA strand during protein
amino acids specified by the mRNA are added to synthesis.
the growing polypeptide.
promoter
euchromatin In an operon, a sequence of DNA where RNA
polymerase binds prior to transcription.
proteomics produce a polypeptide with a particular sequence of
Study of the complete collection of proteins that a amino acids.
cell or organism expresses.
translocation
replication fork Movement of a chromosomal segment from one
In eukaryotic DNA replication, the location where chromosome to another nonhomologous
the two parental DNA strands separate. chromosome, leading to abnormalitiese.g., Down
syndrome.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Structural form of RNA found in the ribosomes. triplet code
During gene expression, each sequence of three
ribozyme nucleotide bases stands for a particular amino acid.
RNA molecule that functions as an enzyme that can
catalyze chemical reactions. uracil (U)
Pyrimidine base that occurs in RNA, replacing
RNA polymerase thymine.
During transcription, an enzyme that creates an
mRNA transcript by joining nucleotides wobble hypothesis
complementary to a DNA template. Ability of the tRNAs to recognize more than one
codon; the codons differ in their third nucleotide.
semiconservative replication
Process of DNA replication that results in two CHAPTER 13 -
double helixmolecules, each having one parental Barr body
and one new strand. Dark-staining body in the cell nuclei of female
mammals that contains a condensed, inactive X
telomere chromosome; named after its discoverer, Murray
Tip of the end of a chromosome that shortens with Barr.
each cell division and may thereby regulate the
number of times a cell can divide. carcinogen
Environmental agent that causes mutations leading
template to the development of cancer.
Parental strand of DNA that serves as a guide for
the complementary daughter strand produced chromatin
during DNA replication. Network of DNA strands and associated proteins
observed within a nucleus of a cell.
termination
End of translation that occurs when a ribosome corepressor
reaches a stop codon on the mRNA that it is Molecule that binds to a repressor, allowing the
translating, causing release of the completed repressor to bind to an operator in a repressible
protein. operon.
protease CHAPTER 14
Enzyme that breaks the peptide bonds between bioinformatics
amino acids in proteins, polypeptides, and peptides. Area of scientific study that utilizes computer
technologies to analyze large sets of data, typically
proteasome in the study of genomics and proteomics.
Cellular structure containing proteases that is
involved in the destruction of tagged proteins; used biotechnology products
by cells for posttranslational control of gene Commercial or agricultural products that are made
expression. with or derived from transgenic organisms.
cloning homologous gene
Production of identical copies. In organisms, the Gene that codes for the same protein, even if the
production of organisms with the same genes; in base sequence may be different.
genetic engineering, theproduction of many
identical copies of a gene. Human Genome Project (HGP)
Initiative to determine the complete sequence of the
comparative genomics human genome and to analyze this information.
Study of genomes through the direct comparison of
their genes and DNA sequences from multiple intergenic sequence
species. Region of DNA that lies between genes on a
chromosome.
complementary DNA (cDNA)
DNA that has been synthesized from mRNA by the interspersed repeat
action of reverse transcriptase. Repeated DNA sequence that is spread across
several regions of a chromosome or across multiple
DNA ligase chromosomes.
Enzyme that links DNA fragments; used during
production of recombinant DNA to join foreign DNA plasmid
to vector DNA. Extrachromosomal ring of accessory DNA in the
cytoplasm of prokaryotes.
DNA microarray
Glass or plastic slide containing thousands of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
single-stranded DNA fragments arranged in an Technique that uses the enzyme DNA polymerase
array (grid); used to detect and measure gene to produce millions of copies of a particular piece of
expression; also called gene chips. DNA.
CHAPTER 15
adaptation homologous
Speciess modification in structure, function, or A structure that is similar in different types of
behavior that makes a species more suitable to its organisms because these organisms descended
environment. from a common ancestor.