J.H.Lesher,TheMeaningofSaphneiainPlatosDividedLineinM.McPherran,ed.

,
ACriticalGuidetoPlatosRepublic(CambridgeU.P.,2009).

TheMeaningofSaphneiainPlatosDividedLine

NeartheendofBookVIoftheRepublicPlatointroducesasimileofaline

dividedintofourpartsinanattempttoexplainandperhapsdefendadistinctiveview

oftheconditionsofknowledge.Althoughitisoneofthebestknownpassagesinallof

Platosdialogues,manypuzzlesremain.Itisnotentirelyclear,forexample,whetherthe

lineextendsinavertical,horizontal,ordiagonaldirection,whethereachofthefour

levelsofawarenesshasitsownsetofobjects(andifso,whatobjectscorrespondwith

dianoiaorunderstanding);andwhethertheequallengthofthetwocentralsegmentshas

somesignificanceorisanunintendedconsequenceoftheproportionsassignedtothe

othersegments.Itisalsonotobviouswhetherthelinedepictsamultistageprocess

throughwhicheachindividuallearnermustpassorwhetheritmerelyidentifiesdifferent

possiblecognitivestates.Mycommentswilltouchonsomeoftheseissues,butmymain

aimistounderstandthebasicclaimthatSocratesmakesonbehalfofhisdiagram:thatits

differentsegmentsprovideameasureofthedegreesofsaphneiaandasapheiausually

translatedintoEnglishasclarityandobscurityavailabletohumanbeings.Iwill

arguethatnoneoftheusualtranslationsofsaphneiaprovidesuswithasatisfactoryway

ofunderstandingthisremark.Ithenproposeaninterpretationbasedonwhatisknown

abouttheuseofsaphsanditscognateformsbyearlierwriters.Iconcludebyarguing

thatPlatoputforwardhisfamoussimilenotmerelytoexplainanumberofthecardinal
 2

tenetsinhisphilosophybutalsotoprovideaneffectivelineofargumentinsupportofhis

rationalistviewofthepossiblesourcesofhumanknowledge.

I TheSimileandSomePuzzles

AtRepublic509dSocratesdirectshisinterlocutor,Glaucon,torepresenttwo

differentrealms,onevisibleandtheotherintelligible:

byalinedividedintotwounequalsectionsandcuteachsectionagaininthe

sameratiothesection,thatis,ofthevisibleandthatoftheintelligibleorder

andthenasanexpressionoftheratiooftheircomparativeclearnessandobscurity

youwillhave(kaisoiestaisaphneiaikaiasapheiaiprosallla),asoneofthe

sectionsofthevisibleworld,images.ByimagesImean,first,shadows,andthen

reflectionsinwaterandonsurfacesofdense,smooth,andbrighttexture,and

everythingofthatkind,ifyouapprehend.

Ido.

Asthesecondsectionassumethatofwhichthisisalikenessoranimage,

thatis,theanimalsaboutusandallplantsandthewholeclassofobjectsmadeby

man.

SoIassumeit,hesaid.
 3

Wouldyoubewillingtosay,saidI,thatthedivisioninrespectofrealityand

truth1ortheoppositeisexpressedbytheproportionasistheopinabletothe

knowablesoisthelikenesstothatofwhichitisalikeness?

Icertainlywould.

Considerthenagainthewayinwhichwearetomakethedivisionofthe

intelligiblesection.

Inwhatway?

Bythedistinctionthatthereisonesectionofitwhichthesoulis

compelledtoinvestigatebytreatingasimagesthethingsimitatedintheformer

division,andbymeansofassumptionsfromwhichitproceedsnotuptoafirst

principlebutdowntoaconclusion,whilethereisanothersectioninwhichit

advancesfromitsassumptiontoabeginningorprinciplethattranscends

assumption,andinwhichitmakesnouseoftheimagesemployedbytheother

section,relyingonideasonlyandprogressingsystematicallythroughideas.

(509d510b,Shoreystranslation)

Inthesucceedingpassage(510cto511b)thosewhoemployhypothesesandvisualaids

areidentifiedasstudentsofgeometryandthekindredarts(welaterlearnthattheseare

arithmetic,planegeometry,solidgeometry,astronomy,andharmonictheory).By
1
InrespectofrealityandtruthisShoreystranslationofaltheiai.Aswillsoonbecome

evident,inthepassagesunderdiscussionherePlatoisconcernedprimarilywithtruthin

itsontologicalsense,i.e.wherethetruex=therealx(cf.LSJs.v.altheiaI.2:after

Homeralsotruth,reality,opposedtoappearance).Forarepresentativeselectionofthe

relevantpassagesinPlato,seetheBudLexiqueunderaltheia,1ontologique.
 4

contrast,thosewhooperateatthehighestlevelemployonlyFormsandproceedallthe

waytoanunhypotheticalfirstprincipleperhaps,althoughthisisnotstated,tothe

FormoftheGood.SocratesthendirectsGlaucontoacceptasnamesforthe

correspondingstatesoraffections(pathmata)inthesoul:

rationalknowledge(nosis)forthehighest,understanding(dianoia)forthe

second2,belief(pistis)forthethird,andforthelast,perceptionofimages

(eikasia)

2
Nosisanddianoiapresentsomanydifficultiesthattranslatorsoftenchoosetoleavethe

termsuntranslated.Sincenosisisanominativeformedfromtheverbnoethink,

perceive,understand,plan,intend,etc.,onemightexpectittobetranslatedas

thoughtorthinking.ButonoccasionPlatospeaksofknowingtheFormasamatterof

possessingnous(cf.Rep.511d4andTimaeus51dwherenousiscontrastedwithdoxa

alths),andatRep.533dheidentifiestheawarenessachievedatthehighestlevelofthe

lineasepistm,astandardknowledgeterm.SosomeEnglishknowledgeexpression

seemsmandatory.Thepointoftheadjectiverationalistomarkoffnosisasapurelya

prioriformofknowledge,i.e.aknowledgeachievedwithoutrelianceonsense

perception.SincetheEnglishunderstandinghasbothanepistemicandanonepistemic

use(insofaritispossibletohaveanincorrectunderstandingonsomepoint),itisless

thanaperfectchoiceforadivisionwithintherealmPlatoidentifiesat510aasthe

knowable(tognston),Butunderstandingatleastconveystheideathatonewhostudies

ascienceisattemptingtogainsomeunderstandingofthenatureofthings,ratherthan

restingcontentwithunreflectivebelief.
 5

SocratesconcludesbydirectingGlaucontoarrangethefourstatesofawarenessina

proportion(511de)

consideringthattheyparticipateinsaphneia(saphneiasmetechein)inthe

samedegreetowhichtheirobjectsparticipateinreality(altheiasmetechein).

DespitetheextremebrevityandsketchinessofSocratespresentation,three

intendedlessonsseemclear:(1)thatweshouldregardphysicalobjectsasthedependent

effectsofFormsjustasweregardreflectionsandshadowsasthedependenteffectsof

physicalobjects3;(2)thatwhileobjectsofthoughtcanbesecurelyknown,thechangeable

thingsinthevisiblerealmcanbeobjectsonlyofopinion;and(3)thatsincethe

mathematicalsciences(atleastasthenpracticed)employvisualaidsand(ultimately)un

justifiedhypotheses,theyfailtoachieveknowledgeofthebestpossiblekind.

ButhowarewetounderstandSocratesclaimthatimages,whencomparedwith

theirphysicaloriginals,provideuswithameasureofthedegreesof
saphneia
and

asapheiaachievablewithinthevisibleandintelligiblerealms,thatthefourstatesof

awarenessparticipatein
saphneia
tothesamedegreeinwhichtheirobjectsparticipate
3
Cf.Stocks1932:217:theessentialpurposeoftheSimileoftheLineistoelucidate

thedependenceoftheworldofsightupontheworldofthoughtbycomparingittothe

dependenceofashadoworreflectiononthethingshadowedorreflected,andthis

relationofcopytooriginalisthekeytothewholeexposition.Fordiscussionsofthe

tensionsbetweentakingthesimileasasetofanalogiesandtakingitasacomprehensive

accountofcognition,seeAnnas1981:248256,andCrossandWoozley1964:Ch.9.
 6

inreality,andthattheportionoftheintelligiblerealminvestigatedbydialecticis

saphesteron(thatis,more
saphes
)thantheobjectsstudiedbythemathematicalsciences?

Translatorshaverenderedthesesaphstermsinavarietyofways,withclarity,

precision(orexactitude),truth,andknowledge(orknowability)beingthemost

frequentchoices.4ButIthinkitcanbeshownthatnoneoftheseprovidesasatisfactory

wayofunderstandingthemeaningofSocratesremarks.

Considerthemostfrequentchoice:clarity.Socratesstatesthattheimagesor

likenessesofthingsareinferiortotheiroriginalswithrespecttosaphneia.Mightthis

meanthatimagesshadowsandreflectionsonpolishedsurfaceshavealesserdegree
4
Shoreychoseclarityandobscuritytotranslatethesaphneiaandasapheiaat509d9

butswitchedtotruerandmoreexactforthesaphesteroninGlauconsdescriptionofthe

regionstudiedbydialecticat511c,toclearnessandprecisionforthesaphneiasin

Socratesreferencetothefourkindsofawarenessat511e3,andmoreclearandexact

forthesaphesterainthereferenceat515etotheshadowswithintheallegoryofthecave.

Adamtookthedifferentlevelstorepresentdegreesoftruthandknowability.Inhis

personalcopyofAdamscommentary,WernerJaegerdrewalinethroughAdams

clarityandpenciledincertainty.Cornford(1941)selectedclearnessandobscurity

forthesaphneiaandasapheiaat509d,greatercertaintyandtruthforthesaphesteron

at511c,clearnessandcertaintyforthesaphneiasat511e,andclearerthanforthe

saphesteraat515e.Bycontrast,Lee(1955),Grube(1974),andReeve(2004)

consistentlytranslateintermsofclarityandopacity(orclarityandobscurity),clearer

than,clarityandclearerthanrespectively.
 7

ofclaritythanthethingsofwhichtheyareimages?5Perhaps,butitseemsarather

obviousfactthatimagescanbeeitherclearorunclear,justasphysicalobjectscanbe

clearoruncleartoanobserver,dependingontheconditionsunderwhichtheyare

perceived.Infact,theimageofSocratesonaflatandhighlypolishedsurfacemight

actuallybeclearer(i.e.brighter,lessdistorted,moredetailed)thanthepersonSocrates

whenseenatadistanceorinapoorlight.Soitseemsjustfalsetosaythatimagesare

inherentlylessclearthantheiroriginals.Similarly,Socratesholdsthatthemathematical

sciencesascurrentlypracticedfallshortofphilosophicaldialecticwithrespectto

saphneia.Mightthismeanthatthosewhoemployvisualaidsintheirinquiries

necessarilyachievealessclearunderstandingthanthosewhoavoidusingsuchaids?

Onewouldnormallyexpectjusttheoppositetobethecasesincevisualaids,especially

thoseusedinmathematicaldemonstration,typicallyservetopromoteclarityof

presentationandunderstandingratherthantodiminishit.6Itisnotobvious,moreover,

whyapersonwhoemployedoneormorehypothesesduringthecourseofaninquiry

wouldnecessarilyhavealessclearunderstandingthanonewhopursuedaninquiryall

thewaytoafirstprinciple.Ingeneral,hypotheticallinesofreasoningcanbestatedand

understoodeitherclearlyorunclearlyjustasnonhypotheticalonescan.Buttoaska

morebasicquestion:whyshouldwebetalkinghereaboutclarity?Socratesintroduces

thesimiletoexplainhowwewillneedtoreorientourthinkingtoachieveknowledgeof
5
AsAdamstatesputsit:weshallhavefoursegments,representinginorderof

clearness,(1)imagesandthelikeetc.

6
Foraninformativediscussionofthebenefitsthataccruetothemathematicianfromthe

useofdiagramsinmathematics(especiallyingeometry),seePatterson2007.
 8

therealitiesasopposedtohavingmereopinionconcerningtheirdependenteffects.

Clarityisagoodthing,nodoubt,butitwouldbestrangeifSocratesmainobjectivehere

weremerelytoexplainhowwecanachievegreaterandlesserdegreesofclarity.Fora

parallelsetofreasons,itwouldalsobeimplausibletosupposethatthepointofthesimile

istoilluminatethevariouspossibledegreesofprecisionorexactitude;thatis,this

alsoseemstoolimitedanobjective.

Perhaps,then,ashassomethought,saphneiameanstruthandthedifferent

realmpartsandcorrespondingstatesofawarenessdifferfromoneanotherwithrespectto

thedegreesoftruthpresentorattainableateachlevel.7Asweshallsee,saphesdid

sometimesmeantrueandsaphneiawassometimesamatterofsuretruth.Butitis

implausibletothinkthatSocratesisspeakingofthetruthofsomestatement,proposition,

orbeliefwhenat511checharacterizesassaphesteron(thatis,asmoresaphes)thepart

ofrealityandtheintelligiblerealmthatiscontemplatedbythescienceofdialectic.One

partofrealitymaybemoreorlessknowablethananother,andwemaybeableto

achievegreaterorlesserdegreesoftruthwhenwedirectourthoughtstowardoneregion

ratherthananother,butthepartsorregionscannotthemselvesbemoreorlesstrue.
7
Inhisnoteon511c(p.71)Adamcommented:saphs,originallyclear,often=true.

Reeve(1988)states:ImmediatelyfollowingtheformulaoftheLine,wearetoldthatit

[thevisiblesection]hasbeendividedintopartsasfarastruthorfalsityareconcerned

Moreprecisely,itisaboutdegreesoftruthorbetteraboutthedegreesofrelative

closenesstotruth(p.79).ButReevealsoglossessaphneiaasclarityandcognitive

reliability(pp.78,80).
 9

Moreover,inhismaincharacterizationofthelineat5109e,aselsewhere,Socrates

contrastssaphneianotwithfalsitybutwithasapheiaobscurityorindistinctness.

Itwouldalsobeimplausibletoequatesaphneiaherewitheitherknowledgeor

knowabilityforthesimplereasonthatthefourrealmpartsandtheircorrespondingstates

ofawarenessaresaidtoembodysaphneiatodifferentdegrees,whileonlytwoofthe

realmpartsandtheircorrespondingstatesofawareness(thoseabovethemaindivide)are

saidtoconstituteknowledge.Butifwecannotthinkofthesaphneiarepresentedbythe

differentlinesegmentsintermsofclarity,truth,precision,orknowledge,thenhow

shouldwethinkofit?Hereabriefreviewofthegeneraluseofsaphsandsaphneia

maybehelpful.8

II TheMeaningofSaphsandSaphneia

Theoriginalmeaningofsaphsappearstohavebeenclearorevidenttoan

observerassaid,forexample,ofsomeindividualwhocomesoutofhidingtoappearin

plainview.9TheadjectiveformsaphsdoesnotappearintheHomericpoems,but
8
Wehaveamplewarranttolooktothegeneraluseofsaphsinordertounderstandthe

meaningofsaphneia.EvenwithintheconfinesofthesunandlinepassagesPlatomoves

fromtheadverbialformsaphstothenounsaphneiatothecomparativeformofthe

adjectivesaphesteron,beforereturningtosaphneia.

9
Chantraine(1968:991),citingtheHittiteformsuppi:pure,clear,heldthatsaphsand

itscognatesexprimelidedvidence,declartavecunevueobjective.IfChantraine

iscorrectthenfromtheearliestperiodofitsemploymentsaphsdesignatedaclearand
 10

Homeremploystheadverbsaphawithverbsforsayingandknowingtospeakofthose

whosayorknowsomethingclearly,well,orforsure,oftenonthebasisofwhatthey

haveseenforthemselves.10Forexample,whenAjaxcomesoutfromamongtheranksto

challengeHectorhepromises:

Hector,nowindeedyouwillknowsaphaoneonone

WhatkindofleadersthereareamongtheDanaans.(Homer,IliadVII,226227)

Converselyknowingsaphaissaidtobedifficultorimpossiblewhentherelevant

circumstancesliefaroffinspaceortime:

Nordoweyetknowsaphahowthesethingswillbe,

WhetherforgoodorforillwesonsoftheAchaeanswillreturn.(Il.II,252253)

ButsaphacouldsometimesmeantrulyaswhenStheneluscommandsAgamemnon:

SonofAtreus,donotliewhenyouknowhowtospeaksapha(Il.IV,404)

AndsaphneiacouldsometimesmeanthesuretruthasinAeschylusSevenagainst

ThebeswhenthescoutpromisesEteocles:

Iwillkeepatrustyeyeonmatters

Soyou,bythesuretruthofmyaccount(saphneiailogou),

Willknowwhatisgoingonandbekeptfreeofharm.(6668)

sureawarenessofwhatisdirectlypresentedtoanobserver.

10
LSJcomparesknowsaphawitheuoidaandtranslatesbothasknowassuredlyor

knowofasurety(i.e.knowforsure).Theconnectingideabetweenthedifferent

meaningswaspresumablythatwhatisdirectlyevidenttoapersonisalsowhatheorshe

isabletoknowwellorknowforsure.
 11

Inoneofourearliestphilosophicaltexts,thephysicianAlcmaeonofCroton

declaresthat:

[Concerningthingsnonevident,concerningthingsmortal],godspossess

saphneianbutitisgiventomortalstoconjecture(tekmairesthai)11

Asthisremarkisusuallytranslated:thegodsseeclearlyorhaveclearknowledge,

perhapsaboutbothmortalandnonevidentmatters,butitisgiventomortalsto

conjecture(literally:todrawinferencesfromtekmarorsigns).12Whyonlythegods

shouldhaveclearknowledgeAlcmaeondoesnottellus,butitwasacommonplaceof

earlyGreekpoetrythatsincethegodsarepresenteverywheretheyhaveknowledgeofall

thathappens,whileduringtheirbrieflifetimesmortalsseeonlyalittleandknoweven

less.Forexample,wheninBookIIofHomersIliadthepoetcallsontheMusesfor

assistancehedeclares:You,goddesses,arepresentandknowallthings,whilewe

mortalshearonlyarumorandknownothing(48586).Inanycase,whenAlcmaeon

creditssaphneiatothegodshedoesnotappeartobecommendingthemfortheirclarity

inthoughtorexpressionbutratherforhavingadirect,clear,andsureknowledgeof

events,asopposedtohavingtoconjectureorinferthetruthaboutthem.

11
FollowingthetextandnumberingorthefragmentsofthePresocraticsasgiveninDiels

andKranz(1951).

12
ForsaphneiaLSJgivesclearness,distinctness,theplaintruthandsure

knowledge;andforsaphans:theplaintruth.Byancientstandards,knowledgeofthe

suretruthwouldhavebeenapleonasmsinceonewhopossessedthetruthinasure

mannerwouldtherebypossessknowledge(seethediscussioninLesher1994).
 12

Beinginapositiontoobservetherelevantcircumstancesappearstofigure

prominentlyinasecondearlysetofreflectionsonknowledge,fragmentB34of

XenophanesofColophon.Intheseverses,composedatsomepointintheearlydecades

ofthe5thcenturyBCEXenophanesdistinguishes,sofarasweknowforthefirsttime

anywhere,betweenknowledgeandopinionaswellasbetweenknowledgeandtrue

opinion:

Andofcoursenomanhasbeennorwilltherebeanyone

Whoknowstheclearandsuretruth(tosaphes)

ConcerningsuchthingsasIsayaboutthegodsandallthings.

Forevenifatbestheweretosucceedinspeakingofwhatisbroughttopass

Stillhehimselfwouldnotknow.Yetopinionisfashionedforall.

Xenophanesdoesnottelluspreciselywhynomortalhasknown,oreverwillknowthe

clearandsuretruth,butthescopeofthetopicasitisgiveninlinethreesuchthingsas

Isayaboutthegodsandallthingssuggeststhatheretoobeinginapositiontohave

directaccesstoeventsmighthavebeenarelevantfactor.Nothingcouldbeatagreater

removefromthedirectexperienceofhumanbeingsthantheactionsofthegods,andthe

natureofthingsastheyexistinallplacesandatalltimes(whichwasthemainobjectof

inquiryamongXenophanespredecessors,theMilesianscientists).SoXenophanesmain

pointmightwellhavebeenthatsincenohumanbeinghashadoreverwillhavedirect

accesstodivineoperations,ortoeventsastheyoccuratallplacesandtimes,thennoone

hasknownoreverwillknowtosaphes,i.e.theclearandsuretruthaboutthesematters,

althougheachmayhavehisorherownopinion.Theconsiderationsmentionedinlines
 13

fourandfivewouldservetoreinforcethisnegativeassessmentoftheprospectsfor

knowledgebypointingoutthatevenif,inakindofbestcasescenario,onewereto

succeedinspeakingaboutaneventasitisbroughttopass,thatpersonwouldstillnot

havesureknowledgeconcerningnonevidentmatters.Intheseremarks,then,

Xenophanesappearstohaveembracedthetraditionalviewofmortalbeingsasshorton

directexperience,assumedanintimateconnectionbetweenhavingdirectexperienceof

eventsandknowingtheclearandsuretruthaboutthem,anddrewthelogicalconclusion.

AthirddatapointisasetofremarksintheHippocratictreatiseOnAncient

Medicine.Inthecourseofcriticizingthosewhoclaimthatthemedicalinquirerneedsto

usepostulates,i.e.cosmologicaltheories,inordertoachievegoodresults,theauthor

declares:

WhereforeIhavedeemedthat[medicine]hasnoneedofanemptypostulate,as

doinsolublemysteries,aboutwhichanyexponentmustuseapostulate,for

example,thingsintheskyorbelowtheearth.Ifamanweretojudgeanddeclare

thestateofthese,neithertothespeakerhimselfnortohisaudiencewoulditbe

clearwhetherhisstatementsweretrueornot.Forthereisnotesttheapplication

ofwhichwouldgivecertainty(eidenaitosaphes).(OnAncientMedicine,I,20

27,Jonestrans.)

Ourauthorappearstohavenoobjectiontotheuseofcosmologicalhypothesesassuch;

indeed,heassignsthemsomedegreeofvaluewhenoneisdealingwithmattersabove

theheavensandbelowtheearththetraditionalcharacterizationofthesubjectmatterof
 14

Ioniannaturalscience.Butwhenoneconductsinquiriesintononevidentmatters,where

theuseofhypothesesisessential,therecanbenosaphesknowingeitherfortheperson

himself(perhapsanechoofthephrasehehimselfwouldnotknowinXenophanesB

34)orforthoseinhisaudience.Thefactthatourauthorprovidesnoadditionalargument

insupportofthisclaimsuggeststhatbythispointtherehademergedsomethingofa

philosophicalconsensusaroundtheviewthatwherewelackdirectexperienceofthe

relevantcircumstanceswemustalsolackknowledgeoftheclearandsuretruthabout

them.Similarcautionaryremarksexpressedintermsofsaphscanbefoundinthe

writingsofHerodotus13,Thucydides14,andinthedramasperformedontheAthenian
13
Cf.HerodotusII,44:Moreover,wishingtogetclearknowledge(saphestieidenai)of

thismatterwhenceitwaspossibletodosoItookshiptoTyreinPhoenicewhereIheard

therewasaveryholytempleofHeracles.ThereIsawit(eidon),richlyequippedwith

manyotherofferingsAtTyreIsaw(eidon)yetanothertempleofthatHeraclescalled

theThasian.ThenIwenttoThasos,too,whereIfound(heuron)atempleofHeracles

builtbythePhoeneciansTherefore,whatIhavediscoveredbyinquiryplainlyshows

(tamennunhistormenadloisaphes)thatHeraclesisanancientgod(trans.Godley).

14
ThephrasetosaphesappearsinthefirstandbestknownsentenceinThucydides

History.Afterconcedingthattheabsenceofthefabulousmayrenderhisaccountofthe

Peloponnesianwarlesssomewhatpleasingtotheear,Thucydidesassertsthatitwillbe

enoughif:Whoeverwillwishtoinvestigatetosaphesconcerningwhathashappened

(tngenomenn)andwhatwillatsometimehappenagaininthesameorsimilarways,in

accordancewiththehumancondition(toanthrpinon),willjudgemyaccountuseful(I,

22,4).WhilethemeaningofandbasisforThucydidesclaimherehavebeenmuch
 15

stagewhen,forexample,variouscharactersintheplaysofEuripidesexpressdoubts

aboutwhetheranymortalbeingcanknowwhatthegodshaveinstoreforhumankind.15

AlthoughsaphstermsdonotappearinseveralofPlatosbestknowndiscussions

ofknowledge16,theydooccurfrequentlyinthedialogues,infourdifferentsettings:

debated,itisclearthathere,asinHerodotus,tosaphesrepresentsthefocusofthe

historiansinterest,andtheproducthebelieveshisinquiriesenablehimtomakeavailable

tohisreaders.SeefurtherthediscussioninScanlon2002.

15
WhentheOdysseusofEuripidesPhilocteteschallengesthewisdomoftheseershe

asks:Why,thenseatedonyourseersthrones,doyousolemnlysweartosureknowledge

(saphseidenai)ofthegodswill,youpeoplewhoarepastmastersofthesesayings?

foranyonewhoclaimstoknowaboutthegods(thenepistasthai)knowsnomorethan

howtopersuadewithwords.(fr.794,Collardtrans.).Forsimilarexpressionsofthis

sentiment,seetheHelen(74454,11371150),Heracles(6062),IphigeneiaatTauris

(47578),Hippolytus(18997),andBellerophon(fr.304).

16
SaphstermsdonotappearinthepresentationoftheDoctrineofRecollectioninthe

Meno,nordotheyfigureinthediscussionofthedifferencebetweenknowledgeandtrue

opinion.IntheTheaetetus(201210)Socratesexploresthemeritsofthedefinitionof

knowledgeastrueopinionwiththeadditionofalogosorrationalaccount(under

severaldifferentdescriptions),withouteversuggestingthatknowledgeconsistsin,

requires,orinsomewayinvolvesachievingahighdegreeofsaphneia.ThePythagorean

scientistoftheTimaeusconnectsrationalknowledge(nous)withtheexistenceofaset
 16

(1)Inconnectionwithsenseperception.AtEuthydemus271aCritocomplainsto

Socrates:TherewassuchanenormouscrowdaboutyouthatImyself,wantingtohear,

couldnotgetanynearerorhearanythingclearly(akousaisaphs).Similarly,at

Protagoras316aProdicusboomingbassvoicerenderedhiswordsindistinct(asaphes).

TheAthenianofPlatosLawsrecommends(at812d)thatthosewhoseektoimitatevirtue

throughplayingthelyrebelimitedtoproducingnotesthatcorrespondpreciselywith

thosemadebythesingersvoice:theymustdosoforthesakeofthesaphneiaofthe

notes,andsomaketheirtonesconcordantwiththoseofthevoice.Heresaphneia

appearstodesignatetheclear(i.e.fullandaccurate)perceptionapersoncanhaveofan

object,ortheclarity(i.e.fullnessandaccuracy)withwhichsomeobjectcanbe

perceived.TherearenumerousprecedentsandcontemporaryparallelsforPlatosuseof

saphsinconnectionwithverbsofseeingorhearing.17

ofnonsensible,unchanging,andeternalobjectsofthought;andexpertiseinrecognizing

andweavingtogetherthevariouselementswithinasocietyiscreditedtotherulerinthe

Statesman(308311).Butnothingissaidaboutachievingsaphneia,eitherwhollyorin

part,inanyofthesepassages.

17
Cf.Pindar,PythianVIII(45):Iclearlysee(theaomaisaphes)Alkmanintheforefront,

wieldingadappledserpentonhisblazingshield,thefirstatthegatesofCadmus;

Sophocles,Philoctetes,595:AlltheAchaeansclearlyheard(kouonsaphs)Odysseus

sayingthis;Xenophon,Memorabilia,IV.3.4;ButatlastthepoweroftheAthenians

begantoexertitselfclearly(saphsireto)andtheywerelayinghandsupontheirallies;

amongmanysimilarpassages.Forsaphsusedinspeakingofanobjectasclearor

evident:Bacchylides17,75:YouseeZeusscleargifts(saphdora)tome.Thereis
 17

(2)Inconnectionwithspeaking,explaining,andunderstanding.BothPlatoand

XenophondepictaSocrateswhosoughttogainanunderstandingofthevirtuesby

examiningothers,oftenindividualswhowereunabletoexpressthemselvesclearly

(mdenechnsapheslegein,Mem.IV,6,13;cf.Gorgias451de;Charmides163d,and

Euthypho6d).Socratesalsooftenexpressedthedesirethathisownbeliefsandstatements

beclearlyunderstoodbyothers(cf.oudengarpsapheslegatGorgias,463e;cf.

Gorgias500d,Euthydemus10a,HippiasI300e,HippiasII364c,Laches196c,Phaedo

11a,etc.).Typically,whatSocratesinvitesotherstostateasclearlyastheypossiblycan

istheessentialnatureorwhatitisofoneormoreofthevirtues,asatEuthyphro6d:

Trytotellmemoreclearly(peirsaphesteroneipein)whatholinessmightbe(to

hosionhotipotei)18;andonmanyoccasionswhatiseithersaphsorasaphsisamoral

orphilosophicalquestion.19AtStatesman262ctheEleaticStrangerexpressesthedesire

toexplainmattersmoreclearly(saphesteronphradzein)forthesakeofsaphneia,where

alsotherelatedverbsaphanidz:tomakeclear,evident,ormanifest,asinXenophon,

Cyr.8.4.5:Cyrusmadepublicrecognition(esaphnidze)ofthoseheesteemed;and

Xenophon,Mem.4.3.4:Thesunmakesclear(saphnidzei)hours,days,andallelse.

18
Cf.Xenophon,Mem.I,1,16;IV,6,13;IV,5,1;Plato,HippiasI286e;Lysis211b;

Euthyphro15ce;Charmides163d;Euthydemus10a;Laches190e;Gorgias457d,and

Meno100b;amongothers).SirErnestBarkeraptlyobserved:[Socrates]differedfrom

theSophistsinnotattemptingtoteachnewcanonsofconductHewishedmento

analyzecarefullythedutiesoflife,andtoarriveataclearconceptionoftheirmeaning.

(1959:47).
 18

whatisbeingsoughtisasatisfactoryunderstandingofthemethodofdivision.Here

saphneiaappearstodesignatethefull,accurate,andsureunderstandingapersoncan

achieveofsomematter(orthefullness,accuracy,andsurenesswithwhichsomematter

hasbeenexplainedorunderstood).20WhileSocratesmayhavebeenthefirsttospeakofa

clearunderstandingasoneofthemainaimsofphilosophicalinquiry,hewasnotthefirst

touseformsofsaphsinconnectionwithspeaking,explaining,andunderstanding.21
19
Cf.amongmanysimilarinstances:Isitclear(saphes)thatthesophistisawizardor

arewestillindoubt?Itisclear(saphes)thatheisonewhoseprovinceisplay.(Sophist

235a);Whatyouaresayingisdisputableandnotyetclear(oupsaphes,Gorgias

451e),etc.

20
SaphneiaalsoappearstomeanaclearunderstandingatRep.524c:Sight,too,saw

thegreatandthesmall,notseparatedbutconfounded.Andforasaphneiaofthis,the

intelligenceiscompelledtocontemplatethegreatandsmall,notasthusconfoundedbut

asdistinctentities.Similarly,Sophist254cspeaksofconceivingofbeingandnotbeing

withcompletesaphneiai.

21
Cf.HymntoDemeter,149:ButthesethingsIwillteachyouclearly(saphes

hupothsomai);Pindar,OlympianVII.91:Tellingyouthenamesofmenwhohavegreat

powerandhonor/Havingclearlylearned(saphadaeis)whatanuprightminddeclaredto

him;Aeschylus,Choepheroi,767:Nurse:Howarrayed?SayitagainthatImaylearn

moreclearly(legauthis,hsmathsaphesteron);Antiphon,ThirdTetralogy4.4.9:

Notonlyisitunjustthathisaccusershouldsecurehisconvictionwithoutclearly

showingthathehasbeenwronged(msaphsdidaxontahotiadikeitai),butitisasin

thattheaccusedshouldbesentenced,ifthechargesmadeagainsthimhavenotbeen
 19

(3)Inconnectionwiththesuretruth,orknowingthesuretruth.AtPhaedo69dSocrates

statesthat:

WhetherIwasrightinthisambition[tophilosophize],andwhetherwehave

achievedanything,weshallknowthesuretruth(tosapheseisometha),ifgod

wills,whenwehavereachedtheotherworld,andthatIimaginewillbesoon.

WithSocratesconcurrence,Simmiasurgesthosepresenttoputvariousviewsofthe

natureofthesoultothetesteventhough:Itisdifficultifnotimpossibletoknowthesure

truth(tomensapheseidenai)aboutthesequestions.(85c).AtMeno100bSocrates

similarlydeclaresthatwewillnotknowthesuretruth(todesapheseisometha)about

howvirtueisacquireduntilwefirstdeterminewhatvirtueitselfis.AndatPhaedrus

277d,Socratesholdsthatnowrittendiscoursewilleverenshrinebebaiottaand

saphneian,bywhichheappearstomeanthecertaintiesandsuretruth.HeretooPlatos

usageaccordswithearlierpractice,including(inthepassagesquotedfromthePhaedo),

implyingthatachievingsureknowledgerequiresthatweenjoysomeformofdirect

accesstotherelevantcircumstances.

(4)Inconnectionwithprecisionorexactitude.AtPhaedo65b,Socratescharacterization

ofthebodyssensesasneithersapheisnorakribeiscomesdirectlyontheheelsofhis

assertionthatweneitherseenorhearanythingprecisely(outakouomenakribesouden

provedconclusively;theHippocratictreatiseOntheArtII,3:Ifitisnotsufficiently

understood(sunisin)fromwhatIhavesaid,thiswillbetaughtmoreclearly

(saphesterondidachthei)inothertreatises.
 20

outehormen).Similarly,intheEuthyphroSocratesasksEuthryphowhetherhethinkshe

knowsaboutpietyinsoexactorpreciseamanner(akribs)thathecanaccusehisown

fatherofimpiety(4e),andthenreferstothematteraboutwhichyoujustnowventured

tosaythatyouknewsaphs(5c).AtPhilebus61a,SocratescontrastsgraspingtheGood

saphswithgraspingitinoutlineform(katatinatupon),whichsuggeststhathereatleast

havingsaphneiainvolvedhavingapreciseorfinelydetailedunderstanding.22Andwhen

(fromPhilebus55cto59b)Socratesundertakestoestablishthattheartsthatmost

concernthemselveswithnumberandcalculationarealsotheonesthatachievethe

greatestdegreeofprecision,saphneiaappearsaboutasfrequentlyasakribeia.Although

wecannotbecertainthatprecision(orexactitude)wasassociatedwithsaphsinthe

archaicperiod23,thisdoesappeartobethecaseamong5thand4thcenturywriters.24
22
Cf.Phaedo107bwhereSocratesspeaksoftheneedtoinvestigateouroriginal

assumptionssaphesteronaswellasatSophist254whentheStrangerpromisesto

investigatesaphesteronthenatureofthephilosopher.Thisisalmostcertainlynota

clearerinvestigation,butratheramorespecificormoredetailedone.Wemightalso

noteSocratescharacterizationoftheinquiryintothetyrannicalmaninRepublicIXas

asaphesteroninsofarastheyhavenotyetdistinguished(diirsthai)thenatureand

numberofdifferentdesires(254b),withsimilarusesofsaphesteronatCharmides163d.

23
ItispossiblethatthesaphaatIl.III,89meanspreciselyoraccurately(nomancan

saysaphawherehedied)butnomancansayforsurewouldmakeequallygoodsense.

24
Cf.PindarsremarkthatIwouldnotknowhowtostateasaphesarithmonforthe

pebblesofthesea(OlympianXIII,45).WheninfragmentB1(DKI,432,5)Archytas

speaksofthosewhohavealreadymadediscoveriesinthesciences,claimingthatthey
 21

Tosumup:inthearchaicperiodsaphsmeantclear,true,orsure,orclear,

true,andsureandwasusedinconjunctionwithverbsofseeing,knowing,andsaying.

Althoughthetermoriginallydesignateditemspersonsorthingsthatweredirectlyevident

tosomeobserver,atsomepointitbegantobeusedinconnectionwiththeaccurateand

reliablekindofawareness(eitherperceptionorunderstanding)aperson(orgod)might

haveofwhatwasdirectlyevident(oranaccountbasedoneitherofthese).Anumberof

earlyGreekthinkersspokeoftosaphesastheclear,plain,orsuretruthandidentified

directexperienceasessentialtohavingknowledgeofit.Earlieron,aswellasinPlato,

saphneiameantclarityinspeechorthoughtorclearperceptionorclearandsure

truthorclearandsureknowledge.AndalthoughPlatosSocratesroutinelyemploys

saphsanditscognatesinconnectionwithseeingandhearing,onoccasionheassertsthat

theinconstancyofthethingsintherealmofbecomingprecludesanypossibilityofour

beingawareofthemwiththedegreeofprecisionrequiredforsaphneia.Sowhenwe

turntoconsiderwhatPlatomeantbyalinerepresentingvaryingdegreesofsaphneia

weoughttobealivetothepossibilitythatthefocusofhisinterestwasnothowwecan

speakorthinkclearlybutratherhowwecanachievecomplete,accurate,andsure

perceptionandknowledge.

III SaphneiaintheDividedLine

havehandeddownasaphdiagnsinofthespeedoftheconstellationsandtheirrising

andsettingheappearstobepraisingearlierscientistsfortheirabilitytostatetheprecise

speedsandlocationsoftheconstellations.
 22

InhisintroductiontothesimileSocratesbeginsbycontrastingsuccessandfailure

intwodifferentcontextsthefirstisacontrastofsuccessfulwithunsuccessfulvision

andthesecondacontrastofsuccessfulwithunsuccessfulwaysofthinking.25At508cd

heobservestoGlauconthat:

Whenoureyesarenolongerturneduponobjectsuponwhosecolorsthelightof

dayfallsbutthatofthedimluminariesofnight,theiredgeisbluntedandthey

appearalmostblind,asifpurevisiondoesnotdwellinthemButwhen[our

eyes]aredirecteduponthingsuponwhichthesunshines(hnhohlios

katalampei),theyseeclearly(saphs)andvisionappearstoresideinthem

Applythiscomparisontothesoulalsointhisway.Whenitisfirmlyfixedonthat

onwhichrealityandbeing(altheiatekaitoon)shine,itconceives(enose)and

knows(egn)themandappearstopossessreason(echeinnoun),butwhenit

focusesonthatwhichismixedwithdarkness,theworldofbecomingandpassing

away,ithasopinion,itsedgeisblunted,itshiftsitsopinionsthiswayandthat,

andagainseemsasifitlacksintelligence(nounoukechonti).

Sojustassuccessfulsenseperceptionrequireshavingourfacultyofsightbroughtinto

directcontactwithafullyilluminatedphysicalobject,sosuccessfulthinkingand

25
IamassumingthatPlatointendedforthesun,line,andcavepassagestoshedlighton

oneanother.SocratesjustifiessuchanapproachatRep.517abwhenhestatesthatThis

image[ofthecave]wemustapplyasawholetoallthathasbeensaid,likeningtheregion

revealedthroughsighttothehabitationoftheprison,andthelightofthefireinittothe

powerofthesun.
 23

knowingrequireshavingourmindsfirmlyfocusedonthesolidrealities,onthosethings

onwhichrealityandbeingshine.

Thesametwoconditionsofdirectnessofattentionandmaximaldegreeofreality

figureprominentlyinthesucceedingallegoryofthecave.Theprisonersconfinedinthe

depthsofthecavearephysicallyrestrainedsoastobeunabletolookdirectlyatone

anothersbodiesandtheobjectsbeingcarriedalongonthepathwaylocatedaboveand

directlybehindthem(515ab).Theyspendtheirentireliveslookingonlyatthe

shadowscastfromthefireonthewallofthecave(515a).Onlyonewhohasbeen

releasedfromhisbondswillbeabletoturnaroundtoseethemorerealthings

(althesteron,515d).26Socratespointhereisnotthattheimageswhosemovementsthe

prisonersspendtheirlivestrackingaresomehowintrinsicallylessclearthanthesources

ofthoseimages,butratherthattheprisonerswillneverachieveaclearawarenessof

whatthosehigherrealitiesareuntiltheyredirecttheirgazeinthatdirection.Situating

Socratesremarksaboutsaphneiaandasapheiainthedividedlineinbetweenthesun
26
IntherunuptothepresentationofthesimileSocratesspeaksofaltheiaasaproperty

ofobjects(508d45,508e1),claimingfirstthattheGoodfurnishesthemwiththeir

altheiaandshortlythereafterreaffirmingthatitfurnishesthemnotonlywiththeir

knowabilitybutalsowiththeirveryexistenceandbeing(toeinaikaitoousian,509b2

3).Themeaningofaltheiahasbeenthesubjectofendlessdiscussion,muchofit

inspiredbyHeideggersmistakenclaimthatthearchaicmeaningofaltheiawasstateof

unhiddennessappliedtoentitiesthathadcomeoutofhiding.Forthreemoredefensible

accountsofthemeaningofaltheiaseethestudiesbyCole,Kahn,andWolenski.
 24

andthecavepassageswemaytakethemainlessontobethatjustaswecannotgaina

full,accurate,andsurevisualawarenessofphysicalobjectssolongaswefocusour

attentionontheirdependenteffectsontheirshadowsorreflectionssowecannothave

afull,accurate,andsureknowledgeoftherealitiessolongaswefocusourattentionon

theirdependenteffectsthethingsinthevisiblerealm.Accordingly,weshould

understandSocratesmainclaimaboutsaphneiainjustthisway:asanexpressionof

thedegreetowhichwecanachieveafull,accurate,andsureawarenessoftherealities,as

oneofthesectionsofthevisibleworld,youwillhaveimages[andthenyouwillalso

havetheoriginalsofwhichthesearetheimages].Thestatementmadeat511dethatthe

differentformsofawarenessparticipateinsaphneiatothedegreeinwhichtheirobjects

participateinrealitycanbeunderstoodastheclaimthatourawarenesswillincreasein

completeness,accuracy,andcertaintytothedegreetowhichweturnourthoughtsaway

fromtheimperfectandchangeablethingsinthevisiblerealmanddirectthemtowardthe

thingsthatremainfullyandforeverwhattheyare.27
27
Thisviewisexpressedwithsufficientfrequencyinthedialoguestoberegardedasone

ofPlatospersonalphilosophicalconvictions.WemaycomparePhaedo,83abwhere

Socratesdescribesthesouloperatingundertheinfluenceofphilosophyas:trusting

nothingbutitsownindependentjudgmentuponobjectsconsideredinthemselves(auto

kathhautotnontn),andattributingnotruthtoanythingwhichitviewsasindirectlyas

beingsubjecttovariation,becausesuchobjectsaresensibleandvisible,butwhatthesoul

itselfseesisintelligibleandinvisible.AtCratylus439aSocratesmakestheparallel

claimthatlearningabouttherealitiesthroughthemselves(diautn)isbetterandclearer

learning(kallinkaisaphesterahmathsis)thanlearningaboutthemthroughthe
 25

Lastly,thesametwoelementsofdirectattentionandmaximaldegreeofreality

figureinSocratescriticismofcurrentscientificpractice.Dialectic:

makesitswaytoanunhypotheticalfirstprinciple,proceedingfroma

hypothesis,butwithouttheimagesusedintheearlierpart,usingForms

themselves(autoiseidesi)andmakingitsinvestigationthroughthem.

Butmathematicianstakealessdirectapproachsince:

theyusevisibleformsandmaketheirargumentsaboutthem,althoughtheyare

notthinkingaboutthem,butaboutthoseotherthingsthattheyarelike.(510d)

Thesecondelement,invariantreality,surfaceswhenSocratesdescribeshowscientists

employperceptualaidsofdifferentkindsingeometry:diagrams;inastronomy:the

starryheavens;inmusic:audibleharmoniestherebyimportingintotheirinvestigations

thevariabilityanduncertaintythatarecharacteristicofallsensibleobjects(andthismay

accountfortheequalityofthelinesegmentsrepresentingunderstandingandbelief).So

whatPlatomeantwhenhedeclaredtheFormsmoresaphesthantheobjectsdealtwithby

thescienceswasnotthatdiagramsareinherentlyunclear,orthatweinevitablythink

unclearlywhenweemployhypotheses,butratherthatsolongasweconcernourselves

withsecondarymattersi.e.withvisibleshapes,observedmovementsofheavenly

bodies,andaudibleharmonieswewillneverachieveanentirelyaccurateandsecure

graspoftherealitiesthemselves.

IV ExplanationandArgument

mediumoftheirnames.
 26

ItseemsobviousthatPlatointendedforhissimiletohelphisreadersgainabetter

understandingofsomeofthecardinaltenetsofhisphilosophy.Thattherearedegreesof

reality,thatonlyobjectsofthoughtcanbefullyknown,andthatsomebeneficentpower

isresponsiblefortheexistenceandknowabilityofthesesuperiorrealitieseachofthese

distinctivelyPlatonicviewssurfacesatsomepointduringSocratespresentation.But

thereisreasontothinkthatPlatointendedforhissimilenotmerelytoexplainhisviews

butalsotoprovidehisreaderswithgoodreasontobelievethem.

ItmaybehelpfultorememberthattheRepublic,thedialogue,wasitselfone

giganticsimileanextendedexplorationofacomparisoncasethenatureofjusticein

theidealstatepromptedbyaninterestindiscoveringthenatureofjusticeinthe

individual(andultimately,provingthatlifeofthejustpersonisintrinsicallysuperiorto

thelifeoftheunjustperson).Onceithasbeenestablishedthatjusticeinthestateis

achievedwheneachofitsthreeclassesdoesitsownjob,aswellasthegeneralprincipal

thatjusticeisessentiallyamatterofeachdoingitsown(cf.archntekaitupontinats

dikaiosunsat443c1),Socratesconcludesthatjusticeexistsintheindividualwheneach

oftheelementsinthesoulreason,spirit,andappetitedoesitsown.

SocratesprocedurehereinBookVIdisplaysthesamepattern:firstidentifyinga

modelcaseforcomparison,thenarticulatingageneralprinciple,andthendrawingoneor

morespecificconclusions.Hebeginstheprocessinthesunpassagewhenheholdsupas

amodelofsuccessfulcognitionthekindofsaphesperceptionweenjoywhenourfaculty
 27

ofsightisdirectedtowardafullyilluminatedphysicalobject.NeitherPlatos

contemporaryreadersnorhisempiricistmindedpredecessorswouldhavehadreasonor

inclinationtochallengethisstartingpoint.InthesimileofthelineSocratesintroducesthe

notionofdegreesofsaphneiawhenheexplainshowturningourattentiontowarda

physicalobjectssecondaryeffectsitsshadowsandreflectionsresultsinanawareness

ofwhatthatobjectisthatislesssaphes,i.e.,lesscomplete,accurate,andsecurethanthe

oneweenjoywhenwefocusourattentiondirectlyontheobjectitself.Thegeneral

principlethisgivesrisetoisthatthedegreeofsaphneiawecanachievevariesindirect

proportiontotheextenttowhichwedirectourattentiontowardtheprimaryrealities

ratherthantheirsecondaryeffects.Itfollows,first,thatsolongasscientistsconcern

themselveswithimperfectandchangeablephenomenaratherthanwithperfectshapes

andbodies,exactratios,andentirelyuniformmotions,theywillnotachievethemost

complete,accurate,andsurekindofknowledge.Itfollowsalsothatsincethethingswe

encounterinsenseexperienceareinherentlylessstableandpermanentthanaretheir

definableessentialnatures,thenifwehopetoachieveacompleteandsuregraspofthe

realitieswehavenochoicebuttodirectourattentiontowardthosesuperiorobjectsof

thoughtandleavethethingsinthevisiblerealmalone.28
28
Iamindebtedtoanumberoffriendsandcolleaguesforhelpfulsuggestionsand

criticismsonvariousearlierdrafts:EmilyBaragwanath,RachelBarney,MatthewColvin,

DouglasFrame,DavidGallop,DanielGraham,SamuelKerstein,MarkLeBar,Georgia

Machemer,PatrickMiller,EmeseMogyorodi,JohnPalmer,PaulPietroski,DavidReeve,

EleanorRutledge,KirkSanders,RachelSingpurwalla,NicholasSmith,PeterSmith,and

EvaStehle.IamespeciallygratefultoPatriciaCurdforhercommentsatthe2008
 28

J.H.Lesher

UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill

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