1 Polynomials

1.1 Definition of a field

Definition. A field is a commutative ring such that all nonzero elements have
multiplicative inverses.
Informally, a field is a set where you can add, subtract, and multiply, as well
as divide by all nonzero elements. Addition and multiplication are required to
satisfy the familiar rules from addition and multiplication of integers.
Examples of fields.

Fields of numbers: Q, R, C, Q[i] = {m + ni|m, n Q}

Rational function field: R(x)
The field R(x) consists of ratios p/q of polynomials p(x) and q(x) with
real coefficients and q not the zero polynomial. Some elements are (x +
1)/(x2 + 3x + 5), 1/(2x + 1), x2 + 2x + 3, 15, 0, 1.

Finite fields: Z/pZ where p is prime

Finite fields are employed as alphabets in many commonly used codes where
codewords are sequences of their elements. It turns out that, up to isomorphism,
there is exactly one finite field with every prime power number of elements. The
goal of this section is to lay the groundwork for constructing these finite fields.
The ring of integers, Z is not a field, because, for example, 2 is not a unit in
Z. Its ordinary reciprocal 1/2 is not in Z.
The ring Z/6Z is not a ring, because, for example, 3 is not a unit.

1.2 Division of polynomials with coefficients in a field

We study the ring k[x] of all polynomials with coefficients taken from a field k.
Its group of units is the multiplicative group k of nonzero constant polynomials.
This ring is similar to the ring of integers, Z, in that it has a unique factor-
ization property that can be proved via a division algorithm, a study of greatest
common divisors, and a euclidPn lemma.
Definition For p(x) = i=0 ai xi k[x] with an 6= 0 define
1. The degree of p: deg(p) = n.
Will say that the zero polynomial has degree .
Notice that
deg(p + q) max(deg(p), deg(q))
and
deg(pq) = deg(p) + deg(q).

2. The leading term of p: lead(p) = an xn .

The leading term of the zero polynomial can be taken to be 0.

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 Notice that
lead(pq) = lead(p)lead(q).
3. We say that p is a monic polynomial if an = 1, so its leading term is xn .
For example deg(3x4 + 2x + 5) = 4 and lead(3x4 + 2x + 5) = 3x4 . The
polynomial x2 + 3x is monic but 5x2 + x is not monic.
Theorem (Division algorithm) Let f, g k[x] with g 6= 0. Then we can
divide f by g getting polynomial quotient Q and polynomial remainder R where
the degree of R is less than the degree of the divisor g. More precisely, there
exist Q, R k[x] such that
f = Qg + R and deg(R) < deg(g).
Moreover, Q and R are uniquely determined.
Proof. The long division algorithm familiar from high school always leads
to the required Q and R. Here is one way to present that algorithm.
Let Z be the set of pairs (q, r) such that q, r k[x] and f = qg + r. No
requirement is placed on the degree of the polynomial r. (The set Z depends
on the choice of f and g 6= 0). The set Z is nonempty, because (0, f ) Z.
If (q, r) Z and deg(r) deg(g) we can define
lead(r) lead(r)
(q , r ) = (q + ,r g) Z
lead(g) lead(g)
and it is easy to see that
deg(r ) < deg(r).
Now construct the sequence
(q0 , r0 ), (q1 , r1 ), . . . , (qN , rN )
where
(q0 , r0 ) = (0, f )
(qi+1 , ri+1 ) = (qi , ri ) is defined for i 0 if deg(ri ) deg(g)
deg(rN ) < deg(g).
The quotient and remainder we seek are Q = qN and R = rN .
If f = Q1 g + R1 = Q2 g + R2 and
QED
Notice that the division algorithm can fail in a polynomial ring such as Z[x]
where the coefficients come from a ring that is not a field. The division of x3
by 2x2 + 1 does not lead to quotient and remainder with integer coefficients.
Corollary Let f k[x] and a k. Then f (a) = 0 if and only if x a is a
factor of f .
Proof: Using the division algorithm to divide f by x a, we get
f (x) = Q(x)(x a) + R
where R k is constant because deg(R) < deg(x a) = 1. Hence f (a) = R.
If f (a) = 0, then f (x) = Q(x)(x a) which shows that x a is a factor of f .
QED

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1.3 Unique factorization
Once again, k is a field.
With the division algorithm for k[x] in hand, we can develop a theory of
factorization in k[x] by imitating the theory for the integers Z.
Definitions Let p and q be two polynomials in k[x]
1. We say that p divides q in k[x] (written p|q) if there is a polynomial
g k[x] such that q = pg.
2. We say that g is a greatest common divisor of p and q if g k[x] is a
divisor of both p and q and moreover g contains every other such common
divisor as a factor. (We will soon show that if p and q are not both zero,
a greatest common divisor does exist.) We will write gcd(p, q) to denote
the monic greatest common divisor.
Definition A nonzero polynomial p k[x] is irreducible if it can not be
factored in the form
p = fg
as a product of two polynomials both with degree smaller than that of p.
Irreducible polynomials are the polynomial version of prime numbers. Every
nonzero polynomial is a product of irreducible polynomials for simple reasons.
The deeper fact, that we will prove, is that the factorization into a product of
irreducibles is unique.
Examples
x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3) is reducible.

p = x2 2 is irreducible in Q[x], but since p = (x + 2)(x 2) it is
reducible in R[x].
q = x2 + 1 is irreducible in R[x], but since q = (x + i)(x i) it is reducible
in C[x].

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra asserts that every irreducible poly-

nomial in C[x] has degree 1.
Theorem (Euclidean algorithm for polynomials and Master theo-
rem). Consider two polynomials p and q k[x], not both zero.
1. Using the division algorithm for k[x] a finite number of times gives a good
way (i.e. without factoring polynomials) to find a greatest common divisor
g of p and q. Moreover, the set of common divisors of p and q is the same
as the set of divisors of the single polynomial g.
2. There exists a polynomial solution (A(x), B(x)) k[x]2 of the equation

p(x)A(x) + q(x)B(x) = gcd(p, q).

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 Proof. Just imitate the proof of the analogous results for integers, using the
division algorithm for polynomials in place of the division algorithm for integers.
QED
Example. Find the gcd of

f = x7 + x6 + 4x4 2x3 + 4x 8

and
g = x4 x3 2x 4.
Solution. We use the division algorithm to create the sequenmce of remain-
ders (f, g, R1 , R2 , . . .) where each Ri is the remainder upon long division of the
preceding two terms in the sequence. Obtain R1 by dividing f by g, obtain R2
by dividing g by R1 , and stop when you get a remainder equal to zero. A great-
est common divisor is the last nonzero term in the sequence. For this example,
the remainder sequence is
20 2 40
f, g, 14x3 + 12x2 + 28x + 24, x , 0.
49 49
A greatest common divisor is (20/49)x2 40/49. Multiplying by 49/20 leads
to the monic gcd:
gcd(f, g) = x2 + 2.

Euclids Lemma for polynomials over a field If an irreducible polyno-

mial in k[x] divides a product of two polynomials, then it must divide one of
the two factors.
Proof. We can copy the proof of Euclids Lemma for integers. Suppose
that p is irreducible and p|ab. If p does not divide a, then gcd(a, p) = 1, so
there exist polynomials f and g such that af + pg = 1. Multiplying by b gives
(ab)f + pbg = b. Since p divides both terms on the left side of the equality it
must divide their sum. So p|b. QED
Theorem Unique factorization of polynomials Every nonconstant monic
polynomial in k[x], where k is a field, is irreducible or is a product of monic
irreducibles in one and only one way.
Proof. Just mimic the proof of unique factorization of the integers. QED
WARNING Polynomial factorization need not be unique if the coefficient
ring for your polynomials is not a field. For example, in Z/4Z we have

x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 = (x + 3)2 .

In Z/8Z we have
(x + 1)(x + 3) = (x + 5)(x + 7).
Theorem For a polynomial f k[x] of degree n 1, the number of solutions
in the field k of the equation f (x) = 0 can not be greater than n.
Proof: If a1 , a2 , . . . ar are solutions, then x a1 , . . . x ar are r different
irreducible factors of f . By uniqueness of factorization the degree product p =

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(x a1 ) (x ar ) must divide f , whose degree n must be greater than or equal
to the degree of its divisor p, which is r. Thus r n. QED
Corollary In any field, the equation xn = 1 has a maximum of n solutions.
The solutions are called the nth roots of unity.
Be careful, once again, to remember that the corollary can be false if the
polynomial coefficients do not come from a field. The equation x2 = 1 has four
solutions in Z/8Z.

1.4 Primitive roots

The multiplicative group of solutions in the complex numbers of the equation
xn = 1 is a cyclic group, generated by e2/n . It turns out that there is nothing
special about the complex numbers.
Theorem Every finite subgroup of the multiplicative group of a field is
cyclic.
Proof. Let k be a field and let G be a subgroup of k of order N . Let C be
a cyclic group of order N . For d 1 we define

nG (d), the number of elements of order d in G

nC (d), the number of elements of order d in C.
(d), the number of elements of order d in a cyclic group of order d.
We will prove that G is cyclic by showing that nG (N ) 6= 0.
The order of an element of a finite group divides the order of the group so,
counting group elements by their orders, we have
X X
N= nG (d) = nC (d).
d|N d|N

If d|N , the cyclic group C contains one and only one cyclic group of order
d, which contains all the elements of order d in G. Hence nC (d) = (d).
If d|N and nG (d) 6= 0, then there is a G with order d. The subgroup
hai G generated by a is cyclic of order d, and all its elements are solutions
in k of the equation xd = 1. Since this equation has a maximum of d solutions,
the full solution set of xd = 1, which contains all the elements of order d in G,
is the cyclic group hai. Therefore nG (d) = (d).
Hence, in all cases, nG (d) nC (d). Since
X
nG (d) nC (d) = 0
d|N

we must have nC (d) = nG (d) for all d. In particular, G contains elements of

order N because the cyclic group C does. QED
Corollary. If p is prime, the multiplicative group Um of nonzero elements
of Z/pZ is cyclic of order p 1.

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 Generators of Um are called primitive roots mod p. It is conjectured, but
not proved, that 2 is a primitive root mod an infinite number of primes.
Let gp be smallest positive primitive roots mod a prime p. We have

p 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47
.
gp 1 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 5 2 3 2 6 3 5

1.5 The ring k[x]/f k[x]

The parallels between Z and k[x] can be extended to a polynomial analog of the
rings Z/mZ of modular arithmetic. In so doing, we can create new fields from
old.
Let f = f (x) 6= 0 k[x], where we always assume that k is a field. The set
of all multiples of f is denoted

f k[x] = {f p|p k[x]}.

It is an additive subgroup of k[x]. Observe that gf k[x] f k[x] for all g k[x]
because multiples of gf are also multiples of f .
Definition We say two polynomials g, h k[x] are congruent mod f if and
only if any (and hence all) of the following three equivalent conditions is met:
1. f divides g h.
2. g = h + f p for some p k[x]
3. The additive cosets g + f k[x] and h + f k[x] of f k[x] in k[x] are the same.
Theorem Let f k[x] where deg(f ) 1 and k is a field. Let k[x]/f k[x] be
the set of cosets of f k[x] in k[x].
1. For every g k]x] there is exactly one polynomial R with such deg(R) <
deg(f ) and g R mod f . In fact, R is the remainder when you divide g
by f as in the division algorithm:

g = Qf + R.

2. Addition and multiplication in k[x]/f k[x] are well defined via the defini-
tions

(g + f k[x]) + (h + f k[x]) = (g + h) + f k[x]

(g + f k[x]) (h + f k[x]) = (gh) + f k[x].

3. k[x]/f k[x] is a field if an only if f is an irreducible polynomial.

Proof.
1. This statement is basically just a rewording of the properties of the division
algorithm.

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 2. Lets just check that for any m g and n h mod f the product mn is
always in the same coset gh + f k[x]. We have, for some p, q k[x]
m = g + fp
n = h + fq
mn = gh + (gq + hp + pqf )f gh + f k[x].

3. Suppose that f is irreducible. To prove that k[x]/f k[x] is a field we must

show that every nonzero element of k[x]/f k[x] has a multiplicative inverse.
If p 6= 0 k[x], then gcd(f, p) = 1, so there exists m, n k[x] such that
mp + nf = 1. Hence mp = 1 k[x]/f k[x], which shows that m is a unit.
Suppose that f is reducible, with f = pq where deg(p) and deg(q) are
both less than deg(f ). Then p 6= 0, q 6= 0 and pq = 0 k[x]/f k[x]. If m
were an inverse for p, then mp = 1 so mpq = 1 q = q 6= 0, a contradiction.
Hence p is not a unit, and k[x]/f k[x] is not a field.
QED

1.6 Representation of elements of k[x]/f k[x]

Let k be a field and f k[x] with deg(f ) = n > 0. In this section we explore
three ways to represent the elements of k[x]/f k[x] and to perform calculations
in the ring.
Note particularly that we can think of k itself as inside k[x]/f k[x] via the
correspondence
a k a + f k[x] k[x]/f k[x].
Thus we can multiply elements of k[x]/f k[x] by elements of k, so that k[x]/f k[x]
is actually a vector space with scalars coming from the field k. We will see that
it is in fact of finite dimension deg(f ) 1.
1. Every element of k[x]/f k[x] has a unique representation as a polynomial
R of degree less that n. Thus it is of the form
[R] := R + f k[x] = a0 + a1 x + + an1 = f k[x].
Let us denote by the element
= [x] = x + f k[x].
The only property of we ever need is that f () = 0.
To find the sum of [R1 ] and [R2 ], we add R1 and R2 .
[R1 ] + [R2 ] = [R1 + R2 ].

To find the product of [R1 ] and [R2 ], we multiply and then apply the
division algorithm:
[R1 ][R1 ] = [R] where R1 R2 = Qf + R.

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 To find the inverse of R 6= 0 , we first apply the euclidean algorithm to
find polynomials r, s k[x] such rR + sf = 1. Then [R]1 = [r], but it
is possible that deg(r) n. So apply the division algorithm to find the
remainder R1 when you divide r by f to get r = Q1 f + R1 . We have

[R]1 = [R1 ].

2. We can denote the elements of k[x]/f k[x] by n-tuples a = (a0 , a1 , . . . , an1 )

k n via the correspondence with polynomials of degree less than n:

(a0 , a1 , . . . , an1 ) := [a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 ].

3. We can denote the elements of k[x]/f k[x] by certain nn matrices. While

there may be no solution of the equation f (x) = 0 with x in the field k,
there is a solution in matrices with entries in k.
Given a polynomial g k[x], multiplication by g gives a linear transfor-
mation on the k-vector space k n :

Mg : k n = k[x]/f [x] k[x]/f k[x] = k n , Mg ([h]) = g[h] = [gh].

We can thus represent [g] k[x]/f k[x] by the matrix of Mg with respect
to the standard basis (1, 0, 0, . . .) = 1, (0, 1, 0 . . .) = , . . . of k n . The
first column of the matrix gives the vector representation of g0 = g, the
second the representation of g1 , the third of g2 , etc.
Since all elements of k[x]/f [x] are polynomials in [x], we can also express
all elements of k[x]/f [x] as polynomials in the matrix for = [x].
If f = c0 + c1 x + cn xn , the element [x] k[x]/f k[x] is represented by
the matrix
0 0 0 0 c0

1 0 0 0 c1
Mx = 0 1 0 0 c2

...

0 0 0 1 cn1
The characteristic polynomial of Mx is f (x) and f (Mx ) is the zero matrix.
Calculation in k[x]/f k[x] (addition, multiplication, inverse) correspond
exactly to matrix addition, multiplication, and inverse.

1.7 Examples
Example 1, the most classic. We will construct the complex numbers from the
real numbers. Take k = R the field of real numbers, and f (x) = x2 + 1.
Since f is quadratic its factors (if any) would be linear. But linear fac-
tors correspond to solutions of the equation f (x) = 0 in R, which dont exist.
Therefore f (x) is irreducible and

C = R[x]/(x2 + 1)R[x]

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is a field. As a real vector space, it has dimension 2.
The elements of C can be written with two real parameters (u, v) in three
ways:
1. u + v = [u + vx], cosets of (x2 + 1)R[x] in R[x]. We have 2 + 1 = 0. It is
traditional to write = i and call this field the field of complex numbers.
The inverse of 1 + 2 is 1/5 2/5 as can be shown by the calculation

(1 + 2x)(1 2x) + 4(x2 + 1) = 5, (1 + 2x)(1 2x) 5 mod (x2 + 1).

2. (u, v), ordered pairs of real numbers.

 
u v
3. , as matrices. The first column gives (u+v)0 and the second
v u
column gives (u + v) 1 .
These matrices should be invertible if (u, v) 6= (0, 0). And they are, be-
cause the determinant is u2 + v 2 and u and v are real numbers.
Example 2 L = Q/f Q[x] where f (x) = x3 x 1.
The polynomial f (x) has a real zero and hence a real linear factor, but it
has no rational number zeros. It is irreducible as a polynomial in Q[x], so L is
a field of dimension 3 over the rationals.
The elements of L can all be written in the form

u + v + w2 , u, v, w Q

where = x+(x3 x1)Q[x]. The element satisfies the equation 3 1 =

0, but this is not to say that it is the real number that satisfies this equation.
As matrices we have

0 0 1
= 1 0 1
0 1 0

0 1 0
2 = 0 1 1
1 0 1

u w v
m(u, v, w) = u + v + w2 = v u + w v + w .
w v u+w

Since L is a field the nonzero matrices m(u, v, w) are invertible. It is interesting

to verify this directly from their determinant

det(m(u, v, w) = u3 uv 2 + v 3 + 2u2 w 3uvw + uw2 vw2 + w3 .

There are in fact real number zeros of this determinant, but we have take k = Q
so all we need verify is that there are no nonzero solutions with u, v, w rational

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numbers. Since all terms have degree 3, it is enough to show that there are no
nonzero integer solutions. By investigating the eight possible parities for the
u, v, w it is easy to see that u, v, and w must all be even, but then the same
can be said of u/2, v/2, and w/2. You can divide by 2 again and again, always
getting integers. This is only possible if u = v = w = 0.
Example 3. k[x]/(x c)k[x].
When we choose a linear (automatically irreducible) polynomial f (x) = xc,
the quotient field is isomorphic to k itself. Given a polynomial g(x) k[x], the
element [g(x)] = g(x) + (x c)k[x] k[x]/(x c)k[x] corresponds to g(c) k
because the remainder when you divide g(x) by x c is g(c).
Example 4 A = R/f R[x] where f (x) = x2 1 = (x + 1)(x 1).
Since f is reducible, A is not a field. Well, what is it?
Thinking back to the Chinese Remainder theorem, we had, for example an
isomorphism
Z/6z Z/2Z Z/3Z.
This suggests (correctly) that there is an isomorphism

R/(x2 1)R[x] R/(x + 1)R[x] R/(x 1)R[x]

= R R.

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