CHAPTER 3 : COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

Definition :

1. Stimulus : A change in external and internal environment

in the body which can be detected by the bodys system
(plural : stimuli)

2. Response : An action of the body, either consciously or

unconsciously towards a certain stimulus.

3. Receptor : A group of cell in the body specialised to

detect the change of external and internal environment in
the body

4. Coordination : The control of different parts of organs

and systems that make them working together effectively.

Sound

touc light
h

Extern
al
smel stimuli
Taste
l

Pressur temperatu
e re
 Blood
pressure

Intern
pH al Body
level in temperatu
blood
stimul re
i

Glucos
e level
in
blood

Necessity of organism to respond to stimuli

In Human In animal In plant

Help to survive Protect Enable plant
themselves to move
Ensure the from changes toward
metabolic of external sunlight
activities is environment
carried out at Enable plant
optimal Help to move to absorb
environment to find food water and
from one mineral.
place to
another
 Pathway in Detecting and Responding to change
e rv
N ou s
y n
s
(in
e
c tre
s e
g )m
t in
ra g
Rc
ept E ff
to r
c
e
r
o
S tim
l i
u Re
po
s n

Pathway of information due to internal stimuli

Internal stimuli are detected by receptors sensitive to

changes within the body

The endocrine system and nervous system control

and coordinate functions in the body to maintain a
constant internal environment through a negative
feedback system

Negative feedback operates to counteract the change in

the internal environment to restore it to normal
Body Coordination.
 Body Coordination

Nervous Coordination Hormonal Coordination

controlled and controlled and coordinated by

coordinated by the the endocrine system
nervous system

Example
Example
walking, looking, running,
body growth, reproduction,
writing, talking, listening, and
controlling blood concentration,
reading
and food digestion

Importance of body coordination

enables our body organs to function as a unit to detect

stimuli and respond toward them.
controls coordination between stimuli and body responses.
helping us to avoid injuries or dangers.
enables us to adapt to the changes around us.

THE ROLE OF HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Human
Nervous
System

Central Peripheral
Nervous Nervous
System System

Somatic Autonomic
Brain Spinal Cord nervous nervous
system system

Cranial Nerves
from Brain

Spinal Nerves
from Spinal
cord

The PNS is subdivided into:

The autonomic nervous system (involuntary control
of internal organs, blood vessels, smooth and
cardiac muscles), consisting of the sympathetic NS
and parasympathetic NS

The somatic nervous system (voluntary control of

skin, bones, joints, and skeletal muscle).
 Parts of Brain Functions
Cerebrum Control voluntary
activities
(hear,see,smell,taste)

mental abilities such as

learning, memorising,
reasoning, language
skills, speech.
mathematical skills,
imagination, artistic
talent and personality
traits.

Brain damage cause

speech impairment.
reading difficulty, or the
paralysis of certain parts
of the body.

Cerebellum coordinating center for

body movement

controls voluntary
muscles, posture, balance
and the coordination of
walking, running and
playing sports.
Medulla oblongata Control involuntary
activities such as the
heartbeat, breathing and
vasoconstriction

Control reflex action such

as vomiting, coughing.
sneezing, hiccupping

Important role in
homeostatic regulation.

Control centre of the

endocrine system

Hypothalamus Detect the changes of

blood temperature and
osmotic pressure
Control nerves
coordination and
endocrine system
Thalamus Receives information
from all sensory receptors
and then transmits it to
the proper region of the
cerebrum for further
processing

NEURONS
 The
nervous system is made up of millions of nerve cells
called neurons

Neurones transmit nerve impulses to other nerve

cells, glands or muscles

cell body contains nucleus and cytoplasm.

Neurone Part Function

Cell body Controls all activities of the neurone.
Dendrite Receive impulses from other neurone
and transmits them to cell body.

Dendron Transmit impulses towards cell body.

Axon Transmit impulses out of cell body.
Myelin sheath Insulator on axon that prevents the
leakage of impulses.

Increases the speed of impulses

transmission.
 Type of neuron Function
1. Afferent (sensory) Transmit nerve
impulses from
sensory
receptor to
the brain

2. Interneuron (relay) transmit nerve

impulses
between
afferent and
efferent

3. Efferent (motor) Transmit nerve

impulses from
the brain
(CNS) or spinal
cord to the
effectors
( muscle or
gland cells)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRUCTURE OF AFFERENT
NEURONE & EFFERENT NEURONE

AFFERENT NEURONE EFFERENT NEURONE

Long dendrite, short axon Short dendrite, long axon

Cell body at the side of the Cell body at the end of the
neurone [not at the end] neurone
 Begins with receptor Ends with effector

TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION ACROSS

SYNAPSES
What is a SYNAPSE?

The synapse is the site where two neurones, or a

neurone and an effector cell communicate

Explain the transmission of a nerve impulse from

presynaptic axon to postsynaptic axon?
1. The transmission of information along presynaptic
neurone occurs in the form of electrical signal in one
direction

2. The nerve impulse arrives at the end of axon terminal

known as synaptic knobs.

3. In synaptic knob consists many mitochondria and

synaptic vesicles

4. Mitochondria will supply the energy for synaptic

vesicle.

5. Synaptic vesicle consist of chemical substance called

neurotransmitter
6. The synaptic vesicle move toward the membrane
and fuse with the membrane
 7. The synaptic vesicle released neurotransmitter into
synaptic cleft

8. The neurotransmitter molecules diffused across the

synaptic cleft into the postsynaptic knobs of
another neuron.

9. The neurotransmitter molecules bind to specific

receptor sites in in the postsynaptic knob and
enhance the production of impulse

10. The new nerve impulse then moves along the

postsynaptic neurone.

STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF SPINAL CORD

 The spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord through
two short branches or roots.
The dorsal root contains the axons of the afferent
neurones which transmit nerve impulses from the
sensory receptors to the spinal cord.
The cell bodies of the afferent neurones are clustered
in the dorsal root ganglion
The ventral root contains the axons of the efferent
neurones which transmit nerve impulses away from
the spinal cord to the effectors.
The dorsal and ventral roots join to form a spinal
nerve.

Function : Control reflex action

Voluntary action Involuntary action
Under conscious Characteristics Occurs
control automatically
without any
conscious control
Cerebrum Controlled by Medulla oblongata
Skeletal muscles Effectors Smooth muscle,
cardiac muscles
and glands
.
Pathway of involuntary action

Stimulus Receptor Afferent neurone Medulla

oblongata/hypothalamus/spinal cord efferent
neurone

effector Response
Reflex actions.

are

automatic and fast response of the body towards external stimuli

without the involvement of thinking of the cerebrum.
takes place in the spinal cord.
Important to protects us from dangerous situations or injuries.
the path of a reflex action is called a reflex arc.

Receptor

Spinal
Cord

Reflex
Action
THE REFLEX ARC

Involuntary actions that involve skeletal muscles allow

immediate action that does not require conscious effort

For example, if a finger touches a hot stove or is pricked

with a sharp pin, the reaction is to pull the finger away
immediately without having to think about it.

example of the receptor : sensory cells situated in

the skin

example of the effector : arm muscles

Afferent
Receptors /
Synapses
Sensory Organs neurones

Efferent Spinal
Synapses
neurones cord

Effectors /
flow chart showing reflex arc of a reflex
Muscles action
INVOLUNTARY ACTION INVOLVING SMOOTH MUSCLES,
CARDIAC MUSCLES OR GLANDS

The autonomic nervous system

(a) controls involuntary actions involving the glands, the

cardiac muscles of the heart and the smooth muscles of
the internal organs such as the intestines.

(b) connects the medulla oblongata and hypothalamus

with the internal organs and regulates the internal body
processes that require no conscious effort.

The autonomic nervous system can be divided into

(a) the sympathetic division

 Prepares the body for stressful situations or an emergency, in
which the responses are associated with fight or flight
Increases the pulse rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate
Slows down the digestive system so that more blood is available to
carry oxygen to the vital organs such as the brain, heart and
muscles

(b) the parasympathetic division

Prepares the body during ordinary situations or brings on the

responses associated with a relaxed state
Decreases the pulse rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate
Stimulates the digestive system to continue breaking down food
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
DISEASE EXPLANATION

Parkinson Parkinsons disease is a progressive disorder of

s disease the CNS that typically affects victims around the
age of 60 years onwards.

Parkinsons disease affects muscular movements,

causing tremors or trembling of the arms, jaws,
legs and face.

Patients also have difficulty in maintaining normal

postures and experience impaired balance and
coordination.

Alzheimer Alzheimers disease is a neurological disorder

s disease which affects victims around the age of 60 years
onwards, causes the loss of reasoning and the
ability to care for oneself.

The cause of this disease is still unknown but

factors such as genetic, environmental or the
aging process itself can lead to Alzheimers
disease.

Individuals with Alzheimers disease often

become confused, forgetful, and lose their way
although they are in places which are familiar to
them.

As their minds continue to deteriorate, patients

may lose the ability to read, write, eat, walk and
talk.
THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN HUMAN

Hormone an organic chemical compound produced by an

endocrine gland and is transported by blood to its target organ
to obtain a certain response.

Endocrine gland a ductless gland that synthesizes and

secretes hormones.

The important of the endocrine system

The endocrine system complements the nervous system

in maintaining homeostasis.

The differences between the nervous system and

the endocrine system

Nervous System Endocrine System

Control voluntary and controls involuntary actions
involuntary actions

electrical signals (impulse) chemical signal (hormones)

Messages are transmit via Messages are transmit via the
neurones bloodstream

Action rapidly Action slowly

Messages are carried between Messages are carried from the
specific locations source to the various destination

The responses or effect are The response or effects are long-

temporary lasting
THE HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

- Hormones which are no longer useful are neutralized by

the liver and excreted by the kidneys.
- Organs which certain hormones act upon are called target
organs.
- A hormone may have a few target organs.
- The functions of hormones can be divided into three main
categories:
Major Endocrine gland

Type of Hormones Functions Effects Effect less

glands secretion more secretion
secretion
Pituitary ADH Stimulate Oedema Diabetes
kidney to (accumulate insipidus
reabsorb of excess (body lose a
water from fluid in body) lot of water
collecting and produce
duct to more volume
produce less of urine
urine
FSH Stimulate Inhibit
development producing of
of follicle to ovum in
produce ovary
 ovum

LH Stimulate Inhibit
ovulation ovulation

TSH Control the

secretion of
thyroxine
from thyroid
gland
GH Stimulate Gigantisme Dwarfism
synthesis of
protein for
growth

Thyroid Thyroxine Regulate Hyper Creatinism in

body thyroidisme children
metabolism
Hypothyroidi
sm in
adulthood
(goiter)
Adrenal Adrenaline Prepare body High level of
for stressful glucose
situation by:
Increase High blood
heart pressure
rate,breathin
g rate,blood Glucose
pressure,gluc present in
ose level in urine
blood

aldosterone Regulate Increase Decrease

reabsorption Na+,excess Na+,more
of sodium water in water
ions in body,blood excreted,blo
kidney pressure od pressure
raise drop
Pancreas Insulin Lowering Coma,death -Diabetes
(secreted glucose level mellitus
by beta by
 cells) converting -hyper
excess glycaemia
glucose into
glycogen

Glucagon Increasing -overactive -

(secreted glucose level weak,lacking
by alpha by energy
cells) breakdown
glycogen into
glucose

Ovaries Oestrogen Stimulate Breast Unstable

secondary cancer menstrual
sex cycle
characteristic
in female

Progesteron Maintain the Uterus fails Miscarriage

e thickness of to contract
uterus wall during
for labour
implantation
of zygote

Testes Testosteron Stimulate More Affects

e secondary masculine sexual
sex maturation
characteristic
in male

Hormone usage in medicine

1. Growth Hormone (GH)

produced in large quantities through genetically-

engineered bacteria
to treat patients who are suffering from stunted growth or
dwarfism
 GH and thyroxine can be used to treat children with
cretinism

2. Insulin
Insulin is extracted from cultured bacteria using advanced
technology in genetic engineering
to treat patients with diabetes mellitus by injected into
the bloodstream to regulate the blood glucose level in a
patients body

3. Oestrogen
Oestrogen can be used to treat problems in the
development of secondary sexual characteristics,
problems in menstrual cycle or menopause

to prevent osteoporosis in the treatment called

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) for women
undergoing menopause

A mixture of oestrogen and progesterone is used to

prepare contraceptive pills. The mixture of hormones in
the pill changed the balance of hormones that regulates
the menstrual cycle. This changes prevent ovulation
and thus prevent pregnancy.

4. Progesterone
 Progesteron is injected into the body of a pregnant woman
so that the lining of the uterine wall can be
strengthened and thickened to prevent miscarriage

5. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

to treat diabetes insipidus so that adequate amount of
water will be retained in the body.

Endocrine glands are secrete their hormones directly

into the blood, which acts as the transport medium.
 As the hormones pass cells, only those cells with special
receptors will react to their presence. These cells are
called target cells.

The regulation of hormone secretion by:

1. Other hormones
Example: The secretion of thyroxine is regulated by
the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
2. The level of certain substances in the blood
3. Signals from nervous system

Hypothalamus receives nerve impulse from

receptors(nervous system) , then transmit the nerve
impulse to stimulate pituitary glands and
adrenal gland to release hormones
The involvement of both the nervous system and
the endocrine system in a fight or flight
situation
HOMEOSTASIS IN HUMAN

1. Homeostasis The process of maintaining optimal physical

and chemical conditions in the internal environment.

2. Examples of physical factors: body temperature ,

blood pressure and the osmotic pressure

3. Examples of chemical factors: partial pressure of

carbon dioxide and oxygen, and the blood glucose level.

4. The homeostasis occurs through a negative feedback

mechanism.

5. Examples of process that are regulated by homeostasis

through negative feedback mechanism:
(a) Regulation of blood osmotic pressure
(Osmoregulation)
(b) Regulation of body temperature (Thermoregulation)
(c) Regulation of blood sugar level
(a) Regulation of blood osmotic pressure
(Osmoregulation)
(b) Physical Regulation of body temperature
(Thermoregulation)
Regulation of blood temperature by
metabolic process
In cold Action of effectors In hot environment
environment
Vasoconstriction to Arterioles Vasodilation to
reduce flow of blood increase blood flow
through the skin through the skin to
get cooled

Contract and relax Skeletal muscles Increase sweating to

rapidly causing provide cooling
shivering to generate effects
heat in body
Body does not shiver
and no heat produced
Secrete adrenaline to Adrenal gland Less secretion of
increase metabolic adrenaline
rate
Secrete thyroxine to Thyroid gland Less secretion of
increase metabolic thyroxine
rate
increase Heat produced decrease
(c) Regulation of blood sugar level

Stucture of kidney
Structure Function
Kidney Filter and remove excess water from blood
Ureter carry the urine from kidneys to the urinary
bladder
Urinary bladder Store urine before is excreted
Urethra Carries urine from urinary bladder to be
excreted
Renal artery Transport oxygenated blood to the kidney
Renal vein Transport deoxygenated blood from the
kidney
 Kidneys: The Main Osmoregulatory Organ

Functions of the kidney :

eliminating excess water and mineral salts from the
body

Keep the amount of water and mineral salts in the

body in balance

regulating the blood concentration

helping to remove nitrogenous substances like urea

and uric acid from the body
Urine Formation
Occurs in nephron
Nephron contains:
i. Glomerulus
ii. Bowmans capsule
iii. Proximal Convulated Tubule (PCT)
iv. Loop of Henle
v. Distal Convulated Tubule (DCT)
vi. Collecting duct

Processes involved in urine formation:

i) Ultrafiltration
Blood are brought into the glomerulus through the renal
artery.
The different diameter between afferent arteriole
and efferent arteriole causes high hydrostatic
pressure in the glomerulus.
The high pressure forces water, urea, glucose, amino
acids, mineral salts and other small molecules filter
into capsule Bowman except erythrocytes, platelet
and plasma proteins.

ii) Reabsorption (from tubule into blood

capillary)
Reabsorption occurs along the renal tubule (PCT,
LOH,DCT) and the collecting duct.

At the PCT:
glucose, amino acids, ion sodium (Na+),ion chlorine
( Cl- ) are reabsorbed into blood capillaries through
active transport.
75% - 80% Water is reabsorbed through osmosis.

At the LOH :
15% water is also reabsorbed through osmosis in
descending loop
Ion Na+ and Cl- are reabsorbed through active
transport in ascending loop

At the DCT and collecting duct

i The amount of water and salts that are reabsorbed into the
blood capillary depends on the contents of water and salts in
the blood.
ii The reabsorption of water and salts is controlled by
endocrine system.

iii Pituitary gland is secreted (ADH) and adrenal gland is

secreted aldosterone to control the reabsorption
process.
iv ADH will increase the permeability of DCT wall and
collecting duct and more water is reabsorb into blood
capillary.
v Aldosterone will increase the permeability of DCT wall
and collecting and more salt is reabsorb into blood
capillary.
vi The filtration contain water ,mineral salts and urea and
leading to the pelvis of kidney

iii) Secretion

Secretion is the process secreted waste product

(urea,uric acid,ammonia) from the blood into
DCT by active transport.
Drug,alcohol and toxic substances are
secreted from the blood by simple diffusion
Secretion helps eliminate and increase waste
removal.
Urine mainly consists of water, nitrogenous
wastes (urea, uric acid), salts ,drugs or
toxins.
Contents in healthy individual body:

Subtances Blood in renal Urine Glomerulus

artery filtrate
Glucose / X /
Amino acid / X /
Blood cell / X X
Plasma Protein / X X
Salt / / /
Urea / / /
Water / / /
Drug / / X
Kidney Failure

Factors:

Accumulation of water
Excess salt and glucose in blood
Excess toxic wastes in blood
Disease
Drugs
Bacterial infection
Injury

Effects of kidney failure:

Unable to excrete the waste products (urea,water and

excess salts) in the blood
 Unable to regulate the blood osmotic pressure
Unable to maintain the blood volume

Treatment for Kidney failure:

i Kidney Transplant
ii Haemodialysis

kidney failure patients need to avoid eating foods with

a high salt content or a high protein content
because excess amino acids are broken down into
urea.

Haemodialysis

Process which dialysis machine is used to remove waste

products (urea,water,excess salts) from blood.

The blood from the artery in the patients arm is passed

into the machine.

The urea and excess salts which are higher concentration

in the blood diffuse across the semipermeable membrane
in the machine.

The waste products then transfer into dialysis fluid which

has a lower concentration of urea and salts .
 Large molecules (erythrocytes, platelet, plasma protein,
bacteria, glucose, protein) cannot pass through the
membrane and will carry back into blood capillary through
the vein. The blood known as a clean blood.

The osmotic pressure can be maintained at a normal level

after urea and excess salts is removed from the blood.

Pump (some diagrams show a roller pump) to controls

pressure and flow rate.
Anticoagulant (heparin) added to prevent blood clotting.
Blood passes through semipermeable membrane
(equivalent to kidney nephrons).
Bubble Trap to removes any gas bubbles from blood.

Practicing the healthy lifestyle

i.Effects of alcohol abuse:

Slow down the reflex action

Poor judgement of distance
Disrupts coordination
Mental disturbances
Destruction of brain and liver cells

Drug abuse : overuse of drug for non-purpose

Types of drugs Function

Stimulants Increase the activity of the central
-Cocaine nervous system
- nicotine increase the heart rate, blood
- amphetamines pressure, breathing rate , alertness,
-caffeine addiction

Depressants Slow down the activity of the

-Morphine central nervous system
-barbiturates slow down the breathing rate
-heroin &lower blood pressure
Relax muscle ,feeling sleepy

Hallucinogens Hallucination
-marijuana Excitement
Behavioural changes
-ectasy pill
PLANT HORMONES

1. In plants, hormones play an important role in growth

processes such as:

(a) seed germination

(b) growth of roots

(c) development of fruits

2. There are five types of hormones in plants:

(a) Auxins, gibberellins and cytokines are plant hormones that

stimulate growth

(b) Ethylene and abscisic acid are plant hormones that inhibit
growth

3. Functions of plant hormones:

Types of Function Uses in agriculture

hormones
(a) Stimulate growth (a) To promote growth
Auxins and cell elongation in plants

(b) Stimulate the growth (b) To promote the

of adventitious roots growth in
adventitious roots
 (c) Stimulate ovaries in
flowers to form fruits
without being fertilizer
(parthenocarpy/seedless
fruit)
(d)Inhibit the growth of
weeds in high
concentration
(e) Prevent the
developing fruits and
leaves from falling off
prematurely.
(f) Inhibit growth of
lateral buds into shoots
(c) The stigma and
ovaries of certain
flowers are
sprayed with
auxins to form
fruits without being
fertilized.
(d) Used as herbicide
(weed killer) in
high concentration
(e) Sprayed on fruits a
few days before
harvest to ensure
the fruits do not
fall off the plant
before they are
ripe.

(f) Used on potatoes

to suppress the
growth of lateral
buds on the
potatoes.

Ethylene (a) Stimulate the (a) Sprayed in air-tight

ripening of fruits storage rooms with fruits
to stimulate the ripening
of fruits
(b) Stimulate the falling
off (abscission) of leaves (b) Sprayed on fruits
and fruits before harvest to
promote abscission
 (natural detachment)
(a) Stimulate cell (a) Use in tissue culture
Cytokinins division and cell to promote cell division
elongation in the and growth
presence of auxins
(b) Sprayed on
(b) Delay the aging and vegetables to ensure
death of leaves that the leaves are green
and fresh during
packaging
Gibberellins (a) Stimulate cell (a) To increase the size
division and cell of plants
elongation in
shoots (b) Rubbed on seeds to
speed up germination
(b) Stimulate the
production of enzyme in
germination of seeds and
flowering.
Abscisic acid (a) Inhibits growth of (a) Used to prevent
shoots and promote shoot growth and
development in seeds germination of seeds in
winter
(b) Stimulates the
closing of stomata in (b) Conserve water by
water shortage slowing down
transpiration through the
closure of stomata

4. Effects of Auxins on Growth Response

- Auxins are produced in the apical meristems of the

shoot tip and the root tip in the cell division zone.

- From the apical meristems, the auxins diffuse into the

zone of cell elongation to promote growth and
elongation of cells.
- In the shoot tip, a high concentration of auxins
stimulate cell elongation.

In the root tips, a high concentration of auxins inhibits cell

elongation.

1. Role of auxins in tropism

(A) Phototropism

Phototropism the growth of shoots and roots in response

to light

If the growth response is towards the light, then its is

called positive phototropism; if the growth response is
away from the light, then its is called negative
phototropism.

i.The coleoptile bends and grows towards the light, showing

positive phototropism

ii.The root bends away from the light, showing negaitive

phototropism.
 When shoot is exposed to light from one direction, auxins
accumulate in the shaded region.

The cells in the shaded region elongated more and

faster than the cells in the brighter side, causing the
shoot to bend towards the light

(A) Geotropism
 Geotropism the growth response of shoot tips and root
tips towards gravity

i. The shoot bends away from the gravity and grows

upwards, showing negative geotropism.

ii. The root bends towards the gravity and grows

downwards, showing positive geotropism.

A high concentration of auxins in the shaded region

of root inhibits cell elongation causing the cell grow
slower than the region exposed to the light
The root bending away from the light