Academic Writing Compilation Part 1 PDF

UNIVERSIDAD DE SUCRE
Academic Writing
Compilation
Part 1
Tutor: Luis Alberto Prez Galvis
Faculty of Education and Sciences

Foreign Languages Program
Sincelejo- Sucre
General information
The Academic Writing course is a 64 hours intensive course to develop academic writing
skills for graduate students preparing a range of texts at university level.
Class discussion on this course focuses on the central role of rhetorical positioning in the
development of a clear, interesting, and rigorous academic paper. We talk about the
significance of improving and developing the skills of critical readers so we are able to
offer explicit and useful feedback to colleagues and co-writers
In this course students receive detailed feedback on their writing through class activities as
well as individual conferencing throughout the course. During all editing and redrafting
activities, attention is given to the structure and logic of the author's argument, the use of
detail and visuals, and the placement of transitions, word choice, and flow.
Course Format
Two class meetings each week: 2 hours each, 64 per semester

Independent work: 128 hours per semester
Class activities
Each class session includes classroom discussion, text analysis, writing, redrafting/editing
work.
Grading criteria
Grading criteria are related to the achievement of classroom objectives
Term 1: 20%
Quiz 1 and 2
Term exam
Term 2: 30%
Quiz 3 and 4
Term exam
Term 3: 50%
Quiz 5 and 6
Term exam
Reflective Portfolio
Lesson 1: Introduction to writing
1. Writing
Extracted from
http://englishteachingtechniques.blogspot.com.co/2012/09/unit-18-teaching-writing.html
To write is to put down the graphic symbols that represent a language one understands, so
that others can read these graphic symbols if they know the language and the graphic
representation (Lado, 1964). Understanding the definition of writing, many linguists have
presented the definition of writing variously. Davies in his book Success in English
Teaching says that writing is probably the linguistic skill that is least used by most people
in their native language (Devies, 2000). Furthermore, Gould states that:
In short, writing is not private; it is always a form of social dialogue, a way of

talking to someone. Writing is a discovery process, a way of finding out what you are
thinking and what you want to say in particular situation. (Gould, 1989)
Hart also gives more definition about writing; he says that writing is a process of building
larger units from smaller ones. That is, the writer uses words to make sentences, sentences
to make paragraphs, and paragraphs to make compositions-letters, reports, college themes.
(Wright, Reinking, & Reinking., 1986)
From those definitions of writing above, it can be inferred that writing is a language skill
which is used to communicate indirectly with other people. Therefore, since the people are
not physically present, we must write as clear and precise as possible. It means through
writing we are able to shares ideas, arouse feelings, persuade and convince other people.
The ability to write well is also an asset in most careers. The search for a job usually
requires a letter of application and a resume. A poorly written letter of resume invites
rejection (Wright, Reinking, & Reinking., 1986).
1.1 General Purposes of Writing
Although there are other writing purposes (for example, to entertain or to express oneself),
most of the writing will be to inform or to persuade.
1. To inform. Often your chief or only aim will be to provide information to your
reader. Your assumption is that your reader knows little or nothing about the topic
on which your wish to provide information.
2. To persuade. In persuasive writing, your aim is to convince your reader to adopt a
particular position, to take a particular action, or to do both. If, in a letter to your
local newspaper, you oppose plans to build a shopping mall near your
neighborhood, your purpose is persuasion
1.2 Kinds of Writing
Being familiar with some kinds of writing is required for students who want to be good at
writing skill. (Cooley, 1992. ) proposes several kinds of writing. They are as follows:
Writing to inform: (Exposition)
The main purpose of this kind of writing is to inform. Writing that aims to inform or
explain in this way is often called exposition, from the Latin word exponere, meaning to
place out. Expository prose attempts to place out, or arrange, the world before us for
examination, like exhibits at a fair or gallery. It answers the journalistic questions that
reporters traditionally put to the world: who, what, when, where, how, and why?
Writing to convince: (Persuasion and Argumentation)
A persuasive writing has the shape of logical argument is often called argumentation. The
kind of persuasive writing may be said to appeal more to the head than to the heart. Instead
of exhorting readers to action or belief in a cause, it seeks to convince them that a particular
line of reasoning is valid and applicable.
Writing to create: (Narration and Description)
Narration is writing that tells a story. It focuses upon what happened. Our uncharitable
discharge is largely narrative. Good description can hope to do the same for people, places,
and objects. Descriptive writing appeals directly to our physical senses. It tells us what the
hospital room of test subject, No.331, for example, looks, feels, smells and even tastes like.
Writing to express the self: (Journals, Autobiographies, and Personal Essays)
The underlying purpose of this kind of writing is psychological release, one of the motives
behind diaries, journals, private letters, and some other autobiographical forms. To a
degree, all personal writing gives vent to the writers inner self. It is thus expressive in
the root sense of allowing the ego to push out
1.3 Components of Writing
In teaching of writing activities, a teacher is expected to be able to recognize the general

components of writing; content, form, grammar, style and mechanics. (Haris, 1974) states
the five general components of writing. He says: Although the writing process has been
analyzed in many different ways, most teachers would probably agree in recognizing at
least the following five general components:
Content: the substance of the writing the ideas expressed.

Form: the organization of the content.
Grammar: the employment of grammatical forms and syntactic patterns.
Style: the choice of structures and lexical items to give a particular tone or
flavor to the writing.
Mechanics: the use of the graphic conventions of the language
Meanwhile, Nunan (1988) says Successful writing then involves:
Mastering the mechanics of letter formation;

Mastering and obeying conventions of spelling and punctuation;
using the grammatical system to convey ones intended meaning; to reflect
given/ new
Information and topic/ comment structures; polishing and revising ones
initial efforts;
Selecting an appropriate style for ones audience.
From those statements above, it can be seen that a good writing is the writing which
involves the mastery of the mechanics, the letter formation, spelling and punctuation, the
use of grammatical system, and the selection of the appropriate style for the readers.
Reflective task 1
Do you write? If so, what kind of texts do you produce? Who do you
write for? / Who are your readers? How often do you write?
1.4 Characteristics of Good Writing

Extracted from
https://www.writingforward.com/better-writing/characteristics-of-good-writing
There are different traits that make good fiction versus good poetry or good nonfiction.
However, we can gather a general list of the characteristics of good writing:
Clarity and focus: In good writing, everything makes sense and readers dont get lost or
have to reread passages to figure out whats going on. Focused writing sticks with the plot
or core idea without running off on too many tangents.
Organization: A well-organized piece of writing is not only clear; its presented in a way
that is logical and aesthetically pleasing. You can tell non-linear stories or place your
thesis at the end of an essay and get away with it as long as your scenes or ideas are well
ordered.
Ideas and themes: Is the topic of your paper relevant? Does your story come complete
with themes? Can the reader visualize your poem? For a piece of writing to be considered
well crafted, it has to contain clearly identifiable ideas and themes.
Voice: This is what sets you apart from all other writers. Its your unique way of stringing
words together, formulating ideas, and relating scenes or images to the reader. In any
piece of writing, the voice should be consistent and identifiable.
Language (word choice): We writers can never underestimate or fail to appreciate our
most valuable tools: words. Good writing includes precise and accurate word choices and
well-crafted sentences.
Grammar and style: Many writers would wish this one away, but for a piece of writing
to be considered good (let alone great), it has to follow the rules of grammar (and break
those rules only when theres a good reason). Style is also important in ensuring that a
piece of writing is clear and consistent. Make sure you keep a grammar book and style
guide handy.
Credibility or believability: Nothing says bad writing like getting the facts wrong or
misrepresenting oneself. In fiction, the story must be believable (even if its impossible),
and in nonfiction, accurate research can make or break a writer.
Thought-provoking or emotionally inspiring: Perhaps the most important quality of

good writing is how the reader responds to it. Does she come away with a fresh
perspective and new ideas? Does he close the cover with tears in his eyes or a sense of
victory? How readers react to your work will fully determine your success as a writer.
2. Academic Writing
Extracted from: http://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/what-is-academic-writing.php
2.1 Defining academic writing

Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. However, academic
writing does many of the things that personal writing does not: it has its own set of rules
and practices.
These rules and practices may be organized around a formal order or structure in
which to present ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author
citations in the literature.
In contrast to personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because it
deals with the underlying theories and causes governing processes and practices in
everyday life, as well as exploring alternative explanations for these events.
Academic writing follows a particular tone and adheres to traditional conventions of
punctuation, grammar, and spelling.
2.2 Type of Academic Writing
Each type of writing assignment you complete in college has its own specific audience.
This audience may be only your professor, but it could also be classmates or someone in
the outside community. Many writing assignments are also designed to give you the
experience of writing in your field, so you may have to imagine that your audience is
clients, colleagues, students, the general public, etc. Each type of audience will have a
different level of understanding about your topic, so the amount and kind of information
you include will depend on who your audience is.
Reflection Essay: In this type of writing, your professor will request that you write about
your thoughts on a specific idea, topic, situation, or experience. You generally use the
pronoun I in this type of assignment. You may be asked to connect your reflection to
concepts learned in class.
Literature Review (or Review of Literature): In this assignment, often a precursor to an

actual research paper, you discuss what others in the field have researched and theorized
about your topic. It basically sets up your own research and provides background
information as to why you are approaching your research in a certain manner.
Case Study: This assignment is common in the fields of education and the social sciences.
It involves writing your observations and analysis of a specific interaction with a client, a
persons behavior, an event, or specific situation in regards to the theories and practices
involved in your field of study. For example, a Communication Sciences and Disorders
major would write a case study about a client he/she is working with in a clinic placement;
a Social Work major might write a case study about the functioning of a charitable agency.
Case Study Analysis: This assignment involves studying a case study written by someone
else. You will often evaluate the interactions and practices of the professionals with the
clients, the functioning of the agency, a persons behavior, the circumstances surrounding
the event, etc. It is a way for you to relate the theoretical information learned in class to
possible real life situations.
Response Paper: For this assignment, you are required to write about a certain text. Your
task in this assignment depends on the course and instructor. You might make connections
between texts or between a text and the real world, evaluate the writers ideas, analyze the
meaning of the writers ideas, discuss contextual issues, or analyze how the writer make
his/her point. You may be allowed to use the pronoun I, but check with your professor for
his/her preference.
Critical Analysis: (also called a Close Reading Assignment) Your main purpose in this
assignment is to examine how a writer expresses his/her opinions and to determine if he/she
succeeds in making a point. You do not merely provide a summary of what the author says.
You analyze how a writer conveys a message (for example, the writers organization, use of
evidence, logic, style, and language), not what the message is.
Annotated Bibliography: This assignment consists of the bibliographic information for the
sources you are using for a research assignment. The sources are listed according to MLA,
APA, or Chicago Style specifications.
After each citation, include an annotationwhich may be in the form of a summary,
evaluation, or reflectionfor each of the sources listed. These annotations follow the
bibliographic information for each source.
Research Paper: In this assignment, you will be assigned a topic to write about, or you will
be able to choose a topic on your own. You will research the topic using sources such as
books, journal articles, interviews, research studies, your own empirical study, and other
reputable resources. Depending on the class and subject matter, you may be allowed to use
newspapers, websites, and certain magazines. Based on your research and your own views
on the subject, you will formulate a thesis statement about the topic. You will then support
the thesis statement in the paper with your research and ideas. You are expected to give
credit to the authors of your research through in-text citations and a Bibliography, Works
Cited, or References page. Depending on your discipline, you will use either MLA Style
(common in English and the humanities), APA Style (common in Education and the Social
Sciences), or Chicago Style (common in History and Art).
Reflective task 2
Consider the nature of Speaking and Writing, both productive skills.

What do you think are the main differences between these skills in
term of form, meaning and use? Consult M.A.K Halliday to
understand these terms
Writing task 1
Consider the characteristics of good writing and then, brainstorm to

write from the image below. Decide the type of text, parts of the speech
to use, characteristic and roles of the characters, relation among
them, and description of the setting. As soon as you finish the first
draft exchange writings with a partner for peer revision. Finally, hand
in your assignment containing: First draft, revision (observations by
the reviewer) and improved version.
Lesson 2: Critical Thinking
1. The significance of critical thinking in higher education

Extracted from:
https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/filefield_paths/m_vyncke_0_1.pdf
Even though the words critical thinking convey a general idea of what it entails, it
remains a concept over which there is much uncertainty and contention about what it
encompasses and how it is manifested. This is evident by the numerous ways it is defined.
In broad terms critical thinking is viewed as a cognitive skill related to rational judgement,
defined as the educational cognate of rationality Siegel (1988 in Jones 2005), reflexive
skepticism (McPeck 1981) and critical self-reflection (Barnett 1997 in Tapper 2004, p.
201).
Toulmin, Rieke and Janik (1984 in Andrews 2000, p.5) associate critical thinking with
reasoning, used for the central activity of presenting reasons in support of a claim. This
type of logical argumentation can be taught through syllogisms (Davies 10 2008), but as
Wingate (2011) points out, syllogisms are mostly suitable for single claims, rather than for
the large-scale structure of the essay.
When it comes to university contexts, critical thinking is defined in terms of abilities or

skills such as selection, evaluation, analysis, reflection, questioning, inference and
judgement (Tapper 2004). Despite the many diverging views on the nature of critical
thinking, there is consensus in the literature that critical thinking is exhibited through the
students abilities to identify issues and assumptions, recognise important relationships,
make correct inferences, evaluate evidence or authority, and deduce conclusions (Tsui
2002, p.743).
When critical thinking is applied to writing, the above abilities are expressed through the
process of argumentation, producing an argument i.e. the essay, the dissertation. Argument
can be defined as a connected series of related ideas intended to establish a position and
implying response to another (or more than one) position (Andrews 1995, p.3). Argument
is regarded as the primary expression of critical thinking in higher education (Andrews
1995, Scott 2000), and the defining feature of the essay (Elander et al. 2006). As Bonnett
(2001, pp.50-51) emphasizes: Your essay is your argument, everything else makes sense
because of it.
Despite the importance of presenting an argument in academic writing, students still lack an
understanding of its implementation or labour under misconceptions. Elander et al. (2006)
point out that in a previous study the majority of the students felt that argumentation means
presenting their own original views or opinions. As Branthwaite et al. (1980) point out, the
need for original thought is more likely to be emphasized by students as it is by tutors,
who generally do not regard originality as a key criterion of successful academic writing.
Another popular misconception is that argumentation is manifested solely through an
adversarial stance in writing, by overtly criticising scholars research or claims. However,
as Andrews (1995) explains, an argument should be sensitive to, and engage with other
points of view: evaluating, rather than criticising the sources, and incorporating those
claims which are closest to their own position.
Adding to the confusion around the concept of argumentation is the tutors own uncertainty
in articulating what a well-developed argument entails. Mitchell et al. (2008) report that
when interviewing university tutors, they used non-specific descriptions and vague terms
such as critique, critical analysis, and opinion as terms of explanation. Furthermore,
Mitchell and Riddles study (2000 in Wingate 2011) shows that there is a general lack of
clarity in feedback comments on student essays, the markers using both the singular and
plural forms of the term argument interchangeably, thereby not making it clear that it is
the development of an overarching position (i.e. an argument), rather than individual claims
(i.e. arguments) which produces a successful essay.
What is therefore needed from a pedagogical perspective is not only a definition of critical
thinking or argument, but descriptions of core characteristics of essays which demonstrate
critical thinking. In this regard I turn to Wingates (2011) three components of
argumentation, a three-step description of developing an argument. It is useful in presenting
a clear and easily understood set of abilities student writers need in order to write effective
argumentative essays. The first component is analysis and evaluation of content
knowledge (p.2). This relates to the ability of selecting relevant information from the
literature to substantiate the writers argument. The second component is the writers
development of a 12 position, i.e. argument (p.2). The writer needs to present a considered
position, usually established through the writers voice, or stance. The third component is
the presentation of the writers position in a coherent manner (p.3). This pertains to the
logical arrangement of propositions at the structural level, usually presented through the
default academic genre of the essay or dissertation.
As is evident from the above definitions and descriptions, critical thinking is a concept with
a wide breadth, encapsulating both a social activity and a cognitive operation. It reveals
itself in an essay through argumentation, the process by which a text transforms other texts,
thereby not merely reproducing knowledge, but reconstructing knowledge.
Reflective task 2
After reading the text above, stand your own position about the role of
critical thinking at university level. Support your answer.
3. The Connection between Reading and Writing Skills

Extracted from: http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource/329
Though writing has a central role in early reading development, this understanding is
almost diametrically opposed to how writing was viewed when I first came into the field in
the middle to late 60s, when linguistic readers explicitly forbade or discouraged the
teaching of writing until reading was under control on the grounds that presenting the child
with two tasks would be too much. But, ironically, as we enter this new century, we've
come to understand just how central a role writing, in all of its manifestations, has in the
development of early reading. Increasingly, we see the synergistic relationship
between learning to write and learning to read.
At the most rudimentary level, when kids are encouraged to writeeven at the very early
age, pre-kindergarten and kindergartenand they're encouraged to spell words as they
sound them, two things happen. The first is that they develop phonemic awareness in
precisely the way that the advocates of direct phonemic instruction intend for it to be
learned and tested. But with writing, they do it, I would argue, in a much more incidental,
less laborious, and more natural way. And it's acquired in the service of some other
functional task, i.e., trying to communicate something with someone.
A second synergy is that there's actually some payoff in terms of the letter-sound
knowledge, even though we all know that when you're writing and trying to spell things the
way they sound, you're not going from letter to sound, you're going from the sound to
letter. But there's enough of an overlap between these two correspondences that transfer
occurs. Phonics is so much more transparent in spelling than it is in reading that I think it's
easier for kids to deal with.
The other kinds of synergy that are not quite so obvious are more structural and conceptual.
For example, when you engage kids in writing stories, there's a natural hook-up to those
they read. This may be an instance where the writing helps kids. Because it's surely the case
that kids use the stories they read as models for their writing. But it also works back the
other way. Because the minute I now use my story frame that I may have gathered from the
stories you've read to me and with me, I now use that structural idea in writing in a more
vivid way. Writing makes things concrete and puts it out there for inspection in a way that
reading doesn't. And when I have to deal with "once upon a time" and "they lived happily
ever after" in writing, it hits me in the face more than in reading.
Another way to look at this is that when you're writing, it slows things down so you can
examine them. We've discovered this in some of our work with [English language learners.]
It makes language available for examination in ways that oral language doesn't. If I want to
examine something carefully, then having it available in print makes it easier. And when I
write, that examination is made more concrete than when I read.
The strategies that are part of learning to writesuch as peer editing and author's chair
also help kids learn to read. Because when I do a peer editing, I'm asking questions like,
"Okay, what was it you really wanted to say?"; and now, "How well did you say it?"; and
then, "How could I help you say it better?" And these are exactly the kind of questions we
are trying to promote in critical reading: getting to the author, trying to understand the
author's intentions and motives. Why in heaven's name would someone say this? And why
would they say it in the way they did? So, for me, when you engage kids in this kind of
peer editing, you're engaging [them] in the first steps of critical reading. That's another one
of those important synergies that isn't often talked about.
Another obvious synergy is that the texts that we write in a classroom are potentially texts
for you and me and our peers to read to one another. That's a wonderful kind of expectation
to promote in classrooms: What we write is written to be read. They're not written to satisfy
my assignments as a teacher. It implies that the criterion of authenticity is going to be
important inside classrooms. And by authenticity I mean purposethat it's written to be
read by a real person other than a teacher.
So these are synergies that link learning to read and learning to write: the first at a letter-
sound level; the second at a structural level; and the third one less structural and more about
the pragmatics of language intention and purpose and your relation to an audience.
Because of this link, if I were asked to offer advice on building a reading/language arts
program for grade one or even kindergarten, I would have a writing time every day. It
might be 10 or 15 minutes to start with. You would be composing textssome on your
own, some with buddies, and some with a group. I would use a combination of individual
texts, small-group texts, and the more conventional language experience storiesall those,
to me, should be part of a reading-writing program.
Reflective task 3
David Pearson writes about the connection between Reading and

Writing. On his article he uses the word synergy frequently. What
does he mean with it? Who do you think this text is headed? What
is its purpose?
Reflective task 4
Go to the web and search the video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GeK0niDpvw0 in which Carlos
Contreras, an ex-prisoner, talks on his experience on writing in jail.
Why do you think he entitled his presentation Just write! Is there any
meaning behind this title? If so, explain it.
3.1 Understanding different types of text

Extracted from: file:///D:/academic%20writing/different-types-of-text.pdf
A text can come in any form and be any kind of writing. Letters, adverts, user-guides,
emails, postcards, notes and magazine articles are all different types of text. When reading
something, it helps to know what type of text it is. It also helps to know why it has been
written. For example:
An advert is written to persuade you to buy something.

A user-guide is instructive and is written to tell you how to use something (such as a
video recorder or washing-machine).
A formal (business) letter might be written to inform you about school dates.
A personal letter might be written by a friend, describing a holiday.
Persuasive texts: A persuasive text tries to encourage you to do something. It may:
Use capital letters, exclamation marks, questions and repeated words to catch your
attention.
Use adjectives to make something sound attractive.
Give only one side of an argument.
Take the form of an advert; but it may also be a letter from a friend trying to
persuade you to go to a class.
For example, the following text is written to persuade the reader to take a holiday:
Enjoy an Enchanting Holiday in the Maldives
Scattered across the Indian Ocean lie islands with the finest white sand beaches and
clearest crystal blue waters. These are the MALDIVES! Over 1,000 coral islands.
Temperatures here are always in the 80s.
What can our holiday offer you?
Luxurious accommodation aboard the fabulous Orient Explorer

Water sports for the entire duration of your holiday.
Drinks and entertainment included at no extra charge.
Chauffeur-driven limousine to and from the airport
Combine this with another seven-night holiday in our opulent apartments at the Kelai
Country Club.
Prices start from just 899 per person.
Instructive texts: An instructive text tells you how to do something. It will often use
commands and pictures. It will be direct, without extra words, like adjectives.
For example:
Cut the bread into small squares. Arrange in layers and sprinkle with sugar and
raisins.
Informative texts: An informative text should give facts, information or news in a clear,
step-by-step way.
For example:
Your course will start with an initial assessment in week 1, followed by a guided
tour of the building.
Descriptive texts: A descriptive text tells you what something is like. The writer is trying to
help you imagine or see a person, place or thing. Describing words, such as adjectives and
adverbs are used, as well as descriptions of the five senses: look, sound, smell, touch, taste.
For example:
He was a big man with short curly hair, brown teeth and a flat nose. A scar crossed
his right cheek from ear to chin.
Letters: Texts such as letters often look the same but can have different purposes.
For example:
A personal letter from a friend can be set out in whatever way the writer wishes and
will often describe a person, place or thing.
A circular letter is sent to many people and, like an advert, will often try to
persuade the reader to buy something.
Reflective task 5
The list of texts portrayed above is just a short list of text types. Surf
the net and find more type of texts, define them and share with the
class.
3.2 Ways of reading texts

Extracted from:
http://hedc.otago.ac.nz/hedc/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Effective-reading-strategies.pdf
Skim reading: This is the strategy we employ when we want to obtain a quick overview of
a text. We may:
be looking for something quite specific;

be wanting to get a general idea before putting effort into close reading;
have already read the text thoroughly, and be wanting to recall the main points.
If you have any of the above reasons for reading a text, you will find it helpful to employ
the following skim reading strategies:
Read the opening paragraph and the conclusion carefully.

Read the first and last sentence of each remaining paragraph to gain some idea
of the main points.
Look for words and phrases that act as sign posts to the main ideas or messages
in the text, or that are clues to anything specific you might be looking for.
Use a marker pen to mark out any items that you want to re-read, or refer to late
Specific reading: This strategy is usually employed in conjunction with skim reading. It is
especially useful if you are looking for specific information which may be contained in a
variety of books, journals or articles. The process is one of search and discovery. It requires
you to skim read, locate, mark and then return to close reading. When doing this across a
number of texts, you will need to reference the materials as you proceed.
In-depth reading: This is the most essential of all reading skills. It involves reading a text
thoroughly in order to comprehend the ideas and arguments it contains. In-depth reading is
consequently much slower than skim reading, and you may find that you need to read
certain sections of a difficult text more than once. When reading in-depth it is useful to:
Read the opening paragraphs and conclusion first. This will help you to digest the
intention and conclusion of the writer prior to a closer reading of the text.
Go back to the beginning, and read through the whole text, marking out and noting:
Key words and phrases;
Ideas, facts, and data you think are important;
The structure of the argument.
Make sure you understand the writers main ideas and arguments, and the overall
message of the text.
Critical reading: Critical reading is a further dimension of in-depth reading. Reading a

text critically means that you do not accept what you are reading at face value. This
does not necessarily mean that you should find fault with a text, but rather that you
should question and judge the merit and worth of the information it contains. A number
of inter-related processes are involved in critical reading. They are: interpretation,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Whether you use all, or only some of these
processes, will depend on both the particular reading situation, and your purpose for
reading
Interpretation: When we read critically for interpretation, we read to discover meaning

in a text, that is, to determine what conclusions can be drawn about the various
messages the text contains. Sometimes, there is more than one possible interpretation,
and in such cases it is possible that our reading may be directed at the best, or most
likely meaning. Interpreting a text will also frequently involve the processes of analysis
and synthesis.
Analysis: This is the process by which we examine the way the ideas and messages in a
text fit together to create the overall meaning. When analysing a text we focus on:
Identifying assumptions (ie. the hidden values that underlie what a writer is saying
e.g. that everyone who cleans their teeth uses toothpaste, or that everyone is
interested in Rugby);
The structure of the argument (ie. the development and sequence of ideas, the
relationship between ideas, whether the argument is inductive or deductive);
The relationship between evidence/data and argument (ie. whether the evidence
supports and 3 illustrates the argument and whether it supports any conclusions that
are drawn).
Synthesis: Synthesis usually occurs in conjunction with analysis, and involves the drawing
together of the results of the analysis into a conclusion on which to base an interpretation or
evaluation.
Evaluation: This is a process by which we establish the worth or merit of a text.

Evaluation is a higher order process that involves all of the other processes described so far,
ie. Interpretation, analysis, and synthesis. When evaluating a text we attempt to look at the
ideas and messages in a broader context. We might say - this is a good argument, but is it
worth anything, does it have any merit? We would then use our knowledge of the subject or
field, or of competing arguments, to establish the merit or worth of the argument.
How do we arrive at an estimate of merit or worth?
First - We use interpretation to discover the meaning of the text.

Second - We use analysis to determine whether the writer has a consistent
argument, and whether or not it is logical (ie. whether it follows from the evidence
presented, or supports the proposition or thesis that has been put forward).
Third - we can put a value on that case or argument.
To put a value on a case or argument we draw on:
Our own knowledge and expertise;

Other knowledge and expertise (eg. scholarly literature)
Example of evaluation:
An article has been written by a sports coaching expert which states that not eating or
drinking during the four hours prior to a performance, substantially improves
performance. You are asked as a professional in this area, to evaluate the article.
Lesson 3: The sentence, types and functions
1. The Sentence
Extracted from
http://www.sjsu.edu/writingcenter/handouts/Sentence%20Types%20and%20Functions.pdf
In academic writing, the sentence is the level at which you begin to make sense in your
writing, and where you can make grammatical mistakes. It is very helpful when you are
composing, editing and proofreading to be able to identify the following sentence types.
Choosing what types of sentences to use in an essay can be challenging for several reasons.
The writer must consider the following questions: Are my ideas simple or complex? Do my
ideas require shorter statements or longer explanations? How do I express my ideas clearly?
This lesson discusses the basic components of a sentence, the different types of sentences,
and various functions of each type of sentence.
1.2 Basic elements of sentences
Although many sentences are complicated word structures, all sentences, even the most
complicated, are built from a few basic elements: subjects (S), verbs (V), objects (O), and
complements (C). These elements work together to express a central idea that may be
further developed or refined by other elements: modifiers (M) and conjunctions (Conj).
The verb with its objects, complements, and modifiers is known as the predicate of the
sentence. The predicate describes the action performed by the subject or the state of being
of the subject. Subject and predicate are the two main parts of a simple sentence.
The lawyer wrote.

[Subject + Verb]
The lawyer wrote the brief.

[Subject + Verb + Object]
The trial lawyer hurriedly wrote the Hernandez brief but then carefully revised it.
[Subject + Verb+ Object + Conjunction + Verb + Object Modifiers used throughout]
These examples show that a sentence composed of the basic elements can be made more
specific and informative through expansion.
Subjects identify the people, places, things, ideas, qualities, or conditions that act, are
acted upon, or are described in a sentence.
Nouns and pronouns are the most common subjects, but phrases (groups of words without
verbs) or clauses (groups of words with subjects and verbs) may also be subjects.
To win is her objective.

[Subject (phrase) + Verb + Complement]
What President Aquino wants most is political stability.

[Subject (clause) + Verb + Complement]
Verbs express action (select, walk) or a state of being (seem, is). Verbs consist of single
words (develop) or groups of words (might have developed
A verb that requires an object to complete its meaning is a transitive verb. A verb that does
not require an object to complete its meaning is an intransitive verb. Notice that some verbs
can be either transitive or intransitive
President Roosevelt ordered the evacuation.

[Subject + transitive verb + object]
After two years, Senator Harris resigned.

[Intransitive verb]
The building inspector examined the wiring.

[Transitive verb + object]
Pandas eat voraciously

[Intransitive verb]
Objects are nouns or pronouns that complete the ideas expressed by subjects and
transitive verbs.
Direct objects answer the questions what? or whom? Indirect objects answer the questions
to whom or what? or for whom or what?
[Subject + transitive verb + direct object]

With great care, Dr. Rodriguez completed the report.
[Report is what Dr. Rodriguez completed.]
[Subject + transitive verb + indirect object + direct object]

Dr. Rodriguez sent the immunologist the report.
[Report is what Dr. Rodriguez sent; immunologist is to whom he sent it.]
Complements are adjectives or nouns that complete the ideas in a sentence by
modifying the subject (predicate adjective) or by renaming the subject (predicate
noun).
Complements are joined to the subjects of sentences by linking verbs, such as am, are, is,
was, were, become, get, feel, look, and seem.
[Subject + verb + complement]

Throughout the competition, Warren remained optimistic.
[Predicate adjective modifies the subject Warren.]
[Subject + verb + complement]

In the end, Warren was first runner-up.
[Predicate noun renames the subject Warren.]
Modifiers (typically adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases used as adjectives

or adverbs) describe or limit subjects, verbs, objects, complements, or other
modifiers.
Modifiers alter the meanings of other words by answering one of these questions: what
kind? which one? how many? whose? how? when? where? How often? or to what extent?
Long speeches are unacceptable. [What kind of speeches?]

Those four-wheelers are dangerous. [Which four-wheelers?]
We received sixty-seven applications. [How many applications?]
The subcommittee shared its findings. [Whose findings?]
The immigrant slowly completed the form. [How did he complete it?]
After the tennis match, we celebrated. [When did we celebrate?]
Leave the carton in the mailroom. [Where should it be left?]
Michael called his doctor frequently. [How often did he call?]
The glassblower very skillfully formed the stem. [What degree of skill did the
glassblower use?]
Conjunctions join and relate two or more words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.
Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet) link equivalent sentence
elements.
John Kander and Fred Ebb collaborated on several major musicals. [Conjunction
links two subjects.]
The burglars gained access to the vault yet left its contents intact. [Conjunction
links two verbs.]
Correlative conjunctions, such as both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, and not only .
. . but also, work in pairs and also link equivalent sentence elements.
Both Senator Robins and Representative Hershell received contributions from the
tobacco industry. [Conjunction links two subjects.]
Marion will go either to Butler University to study pharmacology or to Indiana

University to study dentistry. [Conjunction links two modifiers.]
Subordinating conjunctions, such as after, although, because, even if, so that, until, and
when, join clauses, but they subordinate one clause to another. The subordinate clause,
introduced by the subordinating conjunction, can be positioned at the beginning, in the
middle, or at the end of a sentence.
Because she was outspoken on the subject of women writers, Virginia

Woolf has become a central figure in feminist criticism. [Subordinate clause first.]
Virginia Woolf has become a central figure in feminist criticism because she was
outspoken on the subject of women writers. [Subordinate clause last.]
Virginia Woolf, because she was outspoken on the subject of women writers, has
become a central figure in feminist criticism. [Subordinate clause embedded.]
Exercise 1
Identify each of the underlined words or phrases as a subject (S), verb

(V), object (O), complement (C), modifier (M), or conjunction (Conj).
(Consider proper names as single elements, but consider all other
words separately.)
Although the 1981 baseball strike lasted seven weeks, the 1985 baseball
strike lasted only three days.
Cadets at West Point are considered members of the regular Army.
Jason sent me an application for Duke University, in hopes that I too would
apply for admission.
In 1967, a fire aboard Apollo 1 killed Virgil Grissom , Edward White, and
Roger Chaffee.
General Washington commissioned seven ships to fight against the British
Navy.
Universal Studios and 20th Century Fox produced the five motion pictures
with the highest revenues in one summer.
The Iliad and the Odyssey, composed by the Greek poet Homer, are
mainstays of most humanities curricula.
Thomas Becket was the archbishop of Canterbury during the reign of
Henry II.
In spite of recent declines in sales, General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler are
still among the fifteen largest corporations in the United States.
U. S. Grant was an effective general but an ineffectual president.
1.2 Sentence types and functions
As you know, in order to form a sentence in English, you must have two components, a
subject and a verb. Needless to say, however, almost all English sentences consist of more
than a subject and a verb, and often you will find multiple subjects and verbs in a single
sentence. This lesson will help you learn the four basic sentence types in English. Well
start with the simplest and move through the most complicated.
Sentence type 1: SIMPLE SENTENCE
In English, the most basic sentence will have both a subject and a verb and will express a
complete thought. Of course, we often add elements to a sentence in order to provide more
detail. For instance, we might add adjectives or adverbs or different types of phrases.
Below you will see a very simple sentence, just a subject and verb.
Examples:
1. The baby cried for food.
^There is a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
2. Professor Maples intelligent students completed and turned in their homework.
^ A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. It can have adjectives. In
this case, there are two verbs completed and turned in. However, the sentence
expresses one complete thought and therefore is a simple sentence.
3. Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick.
^Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is still a simple sentence because
both verbs share the same subjects and express one complete thought.
Sentence Type 2: COMPOUND SENTENCE
The second type of English sentence is called a compound sentence. In this type of
sentence, you will find two complete thoughts joined by a conjunction such as and, but, or,
nor. A compound sentence has two independent clauses. An independent clause is a part of
a sentence that can stand alone because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a
complete thought. An easy way to tell if you have a compound sentence is to cross out the
conjunction and see if you have a complete thought on both sides of the conjunction.
Here is an example:
1. The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw the police.
^Both sides of the conjunction so are complete sentences. The shoplifter had
stolen clothes can stand alone and so can he ran once he saw the police.
Therefore, this is a compound sentence.
2. They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English.
^This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to separate two

individual clauses.
Sentence type 3: COMPLEX SENTENCE
The third type of English sentence is the complex sentence. Recall that an independent
clause is a group of words with a subject and verb that can stand alone and express a
complete thought (a sentence). We also have a clause in English called a dependent clause.
This type of clause is a group of words with a subject and verb, but this group cannot stand
on its own and does not express a complete thought. This type of clause is called a
dependent or subordinate clause. You can recognize such a clause by the introductory word
that begins this type of clause. These introductory words are words such as when, why,
because, whenever, though, although, if, until, how, while, unless, after, before, as, as if,
unless, so that, since, where, who, whose, whom, which, that, etc. All of these introductory
words make it impossible for the clause that follows it to stand on its on. Here are some
examples of dependent clauses:
Examples
1. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the gym to exercise.
^ The independent clause is Tim went to the gym to exercise. The

subordinating clause before it is dependent on the main, independent clause. If
one were to say after eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, it would be an
incomplete thought.
2. Opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies that privilege male

accomplishments
^ The subject is opinionated women and the verb is are given. The first part
of the sentence opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies is an
independent clause that expresses a complete thought. The following that
privilege male accomplishments is a relative clause that describes which types
of societies.
3. The woman who taught Art History 210 was fired for stealing school supplies.
^ The dependent clause in this sentence is who taught Art History 210 because
if removed, the rest of the sentence would stand as an independent clause. Who
taught Art History 210 is an adjective clause that provides necessary details
about the subject, woman.
Sentence type 4: COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
Though this sentence type seems to be the most difficult of the four sentence types, you
already understand the components of the complex-compound sentence because it is a
combination of the compound sentence and the complex sentence. The compound-complex
sentence must have two or more independent clauses (making it compound) and one or
more dependent clauses (making it complex). So, in order to have a compound-complex
sentence, you must have at least three clauses, two of which are independent.
Example:
I ate tuna for lunch, but Steve ate a chicken and bacon roll that his mom
made for him.
Independent clause 1: I ate tuna for lunch

Independent clause 2: but Steve ate a chicken and bacon roll
Dependent clause: that his mom made for him
As you can see, the sentence above has two independent clauses that can stand alone,
making it a compound sentence. Additionally, it has a dependent clause, which makes the
sentence complex. Together, these three clauses form a compound-complex sentence.
Exercise 2
Identify the following sentences as simple, compound, complex, or

compound-complex.
Lightning is a discharge of electricity between two clouds or between a

cloud and the earth.
Because of deaths during the war with the Soviet Union and because of
massive emigration to Iran and Pakistan, Afghanistans population has
shrunk by one-third in the last decade.
According to some statistics, Northern Ireland has the highest
unemployment rate in Europe.
The original purpose of the Crusades was to take Christianity to the non-
Christian infidels, but the holy wars also served to enrich trade and the arts
in Europe.
Although the 1986 Tax Reform Act is supposed to be revenue neutral, it
provides too many loopholes for selected businesses.
Mongolia is located in eastern Asia, between Siberia and China, and is
slighter larger than Alaska.
After his notorious raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859, John Brown was captured
and hanged; in the years that followed, his name became a symbol of
ineffectual militant protest.
Although bona fide means in good faith in Latin, it is commonly used
today to mean genuine.
Because the costs of American materials and labor are high, sales of
American-made shoes have plummeted, and sales of imports from Brazil
and South Korea have risen.
Most Americans assume that the U.S. Navy is our oldest maritime service
yet the U.S. Coast Guard was established in 1790, eight years before the
Navy.
Writing task 2
After attending a local political debate, a blogger wrote the following

article. Read quickly through the draft in the box below. Then go to
the spread-out version and consider the suggestions for revision
A Citizens filled the Mesa Vista High School auditorium Thursday evening to hear the two mayors candidates (7)
participate in a special debate. The event was organized by Ms. Roberta Valdez, a social studies teacher at Mesa
Vista who is herself a former council member.
B Ms. Valdez moderated the debate beginning (8) by introducing the candidates: Mayor Barbara Mahoney, who has
lived in the city for many years, (9) and Councilor Luther Quinn, her challenger. Each contender made an opening
statement, and then they took turns responding to questions.
C [1] Mayor Mahoney opened the debate on a serious note, describing some difficult issues facing the city. [2]
Councilor Quinns opening statement, by the way, (10) consisted primarly of hilarious anecdotes (11) about his years
as a student at Mesa Vista. [3] The mayor was impressive with her thorough knowledge of the issues often citing
(12) programs she has initiated during her time in office. [4] Councilor Quinn also had a good grasp of the issues, but
as a council member, he naturally has fewer accomplishments that affect the entire city. [5] During the question-
and-answer period, one distinct difference between the two candidates became apparent when you took a look at
their responses to a question (13) concerning the proposal for a recreation center in Goldman Park. [6] The mayor
was voicing (14) her continued opposition, saying that it would tear up one of the last wooded areas in the city. [7]
She suggested why not fix up (15) an empty building on the waterfront instead. [8] But Councilor Quinn, who
strongly supports the original plan, pointed out that where the site is (16) most people can get to easily. [9] Audience
members, too, were divided on this issue, though most feeling (17) that the recreation center is needed.
D After the debate citizens comments indicated that although the audience was clearly more entertained by
Councilor Quinn there was no decisive winner. (19) Several audience members agreed with Jamie Reese, a local small
business owner, who said, We need to stick with what works, and thats Mayor Mahoney. Others shared the
opinion expressed by Eddie Talini, a selfemployed carpenter: I think Councilor Quinn can give this city the energy
and imagination it needs.
1. Which of the following changes should be applied to the text?

a. (No change)
b. mayors candidates
c. candidates for mayor
d. candidates for mayor

a. (No change)
b. debate and beginning
c. debate and began
d. debate, began
3. Which of the following facts would be the most relevant to include here?
a. (No change; best as written)
b. who is a mother of three,
c. who formerly practiced law,
d. who is seeking her third four-year term

a. (No change)
b. secondly,
c. in addition,
d. on the other hand,
5. Which of these words, if any, is misspelled?

a. (None)
b. primarly
c. hilarious
d. anecdotes
e.
a. (No change)
b. issues, often citing
c. issues; often citing
d. issues, often she was citing

a. (No change)
b. was made when taking a look at their responses to a question
c. became apparent in their responses to a question
d. was made by responses to the question

a. (No change)
b. voiced
c. had voiced
d. wanted to voice

a. (No change)
b. to fix up
c. fixing up
d. they could fix
a. (No change)
b. the site for where the center is to be located is one
c. the park site is a location that
d. the park site for putting the center is in a location

a. (No change)
b. would feel
c. feels
d. felt
12. The writer is considering splitting Paragraph C into two paragraphs. The best place to
begin a new paragraph would be with
a. Sentence 4.
b. Sentence 5.
c. Sentence 6.
d. Sentence 7.

a. (No change)
b. After listening to citizens comments after the debate, there was no decisive winner,
although the audience was clearly more entertained by Councilor Quinn.
c. Although the audience was clearly more entertained by Councilor Quinn, it seemed
there was no decisive winner during citizens comments after the debate.
d. Citizens comments after the debate seemed to indicate that there was no decisive
winner, although the audience had clearly been more entertained by Councilor
Quinn.
Lesson 4: The paragraph as a unit of thought
1. The Paragraph
Extracted from
http://write-site.athabascau.ca/documentation/writing-effective-paragraphs.pdf
A paragraph is much more than a collection of connected sentences. It is a building block

of essay development, and paragraphs provide the structure needed to develop the thesis of
a paper. In fact, a useful way to think about a paragraph is as a mini-essay, or an essay
within an essay, with its own mini-thesis (the topic sentence), middle or body (the
supporting details) and end or conclusion (the concluding sentence).
To understand how paragraphs help to develop a thesis, think of them as landmarks on a

map. With each paragraph, you describe where you are standing and point the direction for
your readers to make sure they complete the journey to your conclusion. A vague signpost
or a detour down a side trail could well have your readers lost and wondering where you
are taking them. Clear signals, on the other hand, in the form of clearly worded topic
sentences, relevant support, reasonable interpretations of material, and logical conclusions
will help your readers follow the development of your ideas.
1.2 Paragraph Length
You might be wondering, how do I know when to start a new paragraph? or how long
should a paragraph be? Usually, these questions are related to how well paragraphs are
developed and unified, and essentially, there is no one, right answer. In extreme cases, you
might find a paragraph as short as one sentence or as long as a page if it achieves the
writers purpose. However, most paragraphs fall somewhere between these two extremes,
and while there are no hard and fast rules, there are a few principles you can use to
determine proper paragraph length:
The paragraph should be long enough to fully develop your topic.

The paragraph should focus on one topic
The paragraph length should support the effect you are trying to create. Keep
in mind that longer paragraphs slow readers down and shorter paragraphs are
easier and quicker to read.
A paragraph of over 12 sentences in an academic essay probably needs to be
divided.
A paragraph of 5 or fewer sentences in an academic essay probably needs to
be developed further or combined with another paragraph.
Paragraph length can vary greatly from discipline to discipline.
1.2 What makes a good paragraph?
Every paragraph you write should follow the principles listed below:
The paragraph must contain a topic sentence

All remaining sentences should support and develop the topic sentence
Only one main idea should be developed
The sentences should flow smoothly and logically
A concluding sentence may be added but is not essential
Exercise 2
Read the following paragraphs and try to identify the topic sentence in
each one. Do not forget to support your choice
1. Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same
emotional meaning. For example, the words stingy and frugal both mean careful
with money. However, to call a person stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a
much more positive connotation. Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny, and
aggressive, but not pushy. Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because
many so-called synonyms are not really synonymous at all.
2. HRM policies affect certain immediate organizational outcomes and have long-term
consequences. For example, policy choices made by managers affect the overall
competence of employees, the commitment of employees, the degree of congruence between
the goals of employees and those of the organization, and the overall cost effectiveness of
HRM practices. These four Cs are not exhaustive of the criteria that HRM policy makers
may find useful in evaluating the effectiveness of human resource management. However,
they are reasonably comprehensive.
3. Gold, a precious metal, is prised for two important reasons: it is both beautiful and
useful. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. For example, a
Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty three
centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its utility in industry and science.
The most recent application of gold is in astronauts suits.
4. Albert Einstein, one of the worlds geniuses, failed his university entrance examinations
on his first attempt. William Faulkner, one of Americas noted writers, never finished
college because he could not pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is
considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in
English during elementary school. These few examples show that failure in school does not
always predict failure in life.
1.3 Types of paragraphs
In an essay, there are four types of paragraphsintroductory, body, transitional and

concludingand each serves a slightly different function in the paper. In the simplest
terms, introductory paragraphs introduce your thesis, body paragraphs develop it,
transitional paragraphs move your readers from one aspect of it to another, and concluding
paragraphs sum up the development of the thesis and restate it. Thus, while all four types
support the thesis, they support it in different ways.
Introductory paragraphs
An introductory paragraph supports the thesis in three ways. First, it engages readers
interest with a strong opening sentence. Some writing texts advise using a quotation or an
anecdote to capture readers attention, and this can work well. Whatever kind of opening
you use, however, it should be relevant to your subject and move your readers quickly and
smoothly toward your thesis. An introductory paragraph also supports the thesis by giving
relevant background information and context, such as important facts or theory. For
example, if you were writing an introduction to a paper about Napoleons loss at Waterloo,
before presenting your thesis statement, you might offer a sentence or two about the
ongoing hostilities that led up to the final battle. This sketch of important background
should be accomplished quickly with just enough information to help your readers
understand why your subject and thesis are important. The next one is an example of an
introductory paragraph:
(1) It is controversial and it is Canadian: the bilingual debate has been going on for
over 100 years, and it continues today. Although Canadians outside of Quebec
agree that francophones should be able to receive federal services outside of
Quebec in their own language, surveys show that the majority do not personally
favor bilingualism for all of Canada (CRIC, 2004). (2)The same survey shows that
these results are reversed for francophones, who are strongly in favor of
bilingualism for all of Canada and somewhat less in favor for their province. (3)In
contrast, overall public support for two official languages continues to be strong
with over 70% of Canadians showing support for citizens receiving federal services
in the language that they speak.(4) Clearly, bilingualism is a policy that needs to be
kept, but it also requires some revamping on the governments part in order to
improve the way it works.
(From an essay by Jennifer DeWit, used with permission)
o Sentence (1): Here, the student writer opens with a statement of fact worded to
catch readers' interest and establish that the topic is current. She answers the
question: WHAT is controversial and Canadian and why is bilingualism still a
debate after 100 years?
o Sentences (2) and (3): In three sentences, this writer has captured the basics of the
controversy and prepared her readers for the thesis statement.
o Sentence (4): Finally, the writer moves logically from the background she has
provided to a thesis that clearly summarizes the position she will develop in her
paper
Body paragraphs
Once you have engaged your readers and presented your thesis in your introduction, use
your body paragraphs to fully develop your ideas. You can do this by first introducing a
sub-topic of the thesis in a topic sentence. For example, if you were expanding a theme
about Napoleons loss at Waterloo, you might have a topic sentence that reads like this:
Napoleon brought on one of the first financial crises of the French government by
emptying government coffers for his war with Britain. Notice that the topic sentence
doesnt provide details, just the general topic of the paragraph. Notice also that the topic
sentence tells readers how the paragraphs topic/main idea relates to the essays core thesis.
In other words, a topic sentence not only gives a fact but makes a point or gives an
interpretation about that fact, showing how it is relevant or significant to the essays core
purpose. It is important to remember, too, that the topic sentence is your idea, based on the
interpretation of your sources.
With your topic sentence in place, you can now develop your idea with sentences that
provide supporting details. In the above example, these details might be facts about the
repercussions of Napoleons financial crisis or about opposition that he faced as a result. In
a history paper, these details would most likely take the form of quotations or paraphrases
from sources, but depending on your writing purpose, audience, and discipline, supporting
details might also be facts, personal anecdotes, or logical reasoning. Whatever form of
evidence you use, make sure it is convincing to your audience within the context of your
writing purpose and that it supports the statement you make in your topic sentence.
In well-developed body paragraphs, you not only have to provide evidence to support the
topic sentence, you also have to interpret it for your readers. (Remember, you are providing
signposts for them.) For example, if you were developing the paragraph about Napoleons
financial mismanagement, it would not be enough to provide quotes or paraphrases with the
facts. You would have to show readers how those details supported the idea that
Napoleons financial mismanagement was connected to his final defeat at Waterloo. In
other words, as a writer, you are obliged to interpret sources, facts or reasoning and connect
the interpretation to the thesis statement with transition signals.
Remember the idea of a paragraph as a mini-essay? Just as all essays have conclusions that
review and sum up the ideas in a paper, a paragraph has a concluding sentence that sums up
the point of the paragraph and ties it clearly to the thesis. Thus, a concluding sentence for
our hypothetical paragraph about Napoleons financial woes might read: In this way, the
hostility that Napoleon engendered in the French banking community began a series of
events that would end in his defeat at Waterloo. A good concluding sentence sums up the
main point of the paragraph and provides readers with the so what? the reason that the
point is important to the conclusion of the paper.
Sample body paragraph
Thesis: Clearly, bilingualism is a policy that needs to be kept, but also requires
some revamping on the governments part in order to make it work.
First body paragraph: (Note: The numbers at the beginning of each sentence refer to
the commentary that follows the paragraph.)
(1) Many Canadians feel that Canadas policy of bilingualism is a good one because it
protects francophone culture and benefits the country as a whole. (2) For example,
language is a large aspect of francophones culture, so retaining that language is essential
to retaining their cultural identity. Furthermore, Vaillancourt (2004) states that people who
have learned another language have better developed intelligence than those who are
unilingual, so it might also be argued that a national policy of bilingualism supports the
general intelligence of Canadians. (3)He goes on to say that bilingualism also benefits a
society collectively by increasing the market for imports and exports and making it a
receptive place of immigration for a larger number of potential immigrants (Vaillancourt,
2004)(4).Thus, there are good reasons to keep Canadas policy of bilingualism both for the
protection it affords French culture and identity and for benefits it offers the entire nation.
(Adapted from an essay by Jennifer DeWit, used with permission.)
o Sentence (1): This writer starts with a topic sentence that introduces a key concept
in her thesis statement: why Canada's policy of bilingualism is a good one.
o Sentences (2) & (3): In these sentences, the writer develops the concept, providing
reasons and support from a reference. The support could have been even stronger
had the writer provided evidence from a number of sources instead of just one.
o Sentence (4): Here, the writer both sums up the point she is making in the
paragraph, and advances her thesis by clearly stating the point her paragraph makes
about it.
Transitional Paragraphs
There may be times when you want to shift from one sub-topic of your thesis to another or
from a general discussion to a more detailed treatment of an idea. At these times, you can
use a transitional paragraph to sum up and hint at the material to come. In other words,
transitional paragraphs act as signposts that guide readers to the next part of your essay.
Because transitional paragraphs serve such a specific function, you will not find many of
them in an essay, and in a shorter piece, there may not be any. Save transitional paragraphs
for times when you think your readers might be confused or lost if you introduce the next
part of your essay before reviewing the ground you have already covered.
In the previous example about Napoleon and Waterloo, if the writer had discussed a
number of instances of financial mismanagement that led to Waterloo and then wanted to
discuss military causes of Napoleons final defeat, she might include a transitional
paragraph like this: Up to that point, Napoleons financial mismanagement might not have
been fatal. Despite the hostility of the French bankers, he still had allies who were willing
to supply money even when the bankers were not. However, Napoleon also had military
problems that, when combined with a shortage of money, made Waterloo inescapable.
Ultimately, these military problems put further pressure on French coffers Here, the
writer has summed up the importance of previously developed material on the financial
causes of defeat and suggested that she will go on to discuss military causes. Without a
transitional paragraph, this shift might have seemed abrupt or confusing to readers.
Examples of transitional paragraphs are also observed below:
Now that we have taken a look at cars in general, let's move on to discuss the engines that
make them move
Here are some ways that a car owner can do his or her own auto check-up
Concluding Paragraphs
Some students think that the purpose of a conclusion is to restate the thesis and this is partly
true. The conclusion should reassert the core idea of your paper, but it should also clearly
flow from the material you have carefully developed in your body paragraphs and thus, it
should be more than a mechanical restatement of your thesis. Rather, an effective
concluding paragraph should reinforce the central idea of your paper and leave your readers
satisfied that you have made your case.
One way to ensure that you have written an effective conclusion is to ask, Does it
strengthen the main message of my paper? If it draws conclusions from the points you
have made in your paper or suggests the implications of them, chances are your conclusion
is fully developed. For example, in our essay on Napoleon, a writer might summarize the
financial and military reasons for his defeat at Waterloo, restate the thesis that Napoleons
defeat was the result of errors in financial and military judgment, and then suggest that his
defeat decided the fate of modern Europe. This sums up the material from the body and
suggests the larger importance of the thesis to the reader. The example below portrays a
concluding paragraph by Elaine Wong, used with permission
Introduction/Thesis:
(1) Government-enacted social legislation, practitioners involvement and

discretion in policy-making, as well as use of an integrated model for policy
analysis are all factors that affect current policy infrastructure and practitioners
roles in serving the needs of Canadian children and families.(2) By taking a flexible
and inclusive approach to policy-making, governments can encourage practitioner
participation, increase client satisfaction, and save money.
Concluding Paragraph:
(3) The governments policy-making processes serve as a framework for policy

infrastructure, and thus for practitioners ability to serve their clients. An inclusive,
blended approach enables policy makers and practitioners to collaborate to form improved
policies that meet the identified needs of Canadian children and families.(4) Policies that
focus on partnership, flexibility and inclusion can save government costs in the long-term
because these policies encourage the full participation of practitioners. (5)Only when
governments do this, will they achieve the full potential of their policy-making processes.
o Sentence (1): Key concepts in this thesis are policy-making and policy analysis.
o Sentence (2) The focus of the authors thesis is the effect these factors have on
"current policy infrastructure and practitioners' roles..."
o Sentences (3) & (4): These two sentences summarize the conclusions the author
makes about policy-making and policy analysis, both key concepts in the author's
thesis
Exercise 3
Read the following essay and identify each type of paragraph in it.
Guns in America
Today in America, gun control is a very serious issue. There are different opinions on this issue, the
National Rifle Association (NRA), feels that guns are safe when used for protection by responsible
citizens, others feel that guns are far too dangerous to be kept in homes, and that guns should not
be owned by anyone, only used by the National Guard and law enforcement. These people think
their opinions are correct according to the second amendment, the amendment that deals with the
bearing of arms by citizens of America, but there have been different interpretations of it. The
reason that people feel gun ownership is such a problem is that so many people lose their lives by
them each year. Personally, I feel that guns lead to increases in crime, murder, and household
accidents. By reducing availability of guns and providing education on gun safety, I think that these
things will help make America safer. Before making up my mind on what I felt about the issue, I
made sure to consider the opinions of others and to collect statistics.
People from the (NRA), who are against gun control, feel that the people are responsible for the
negative effects guns have on America. Helen Smith, a forensic psychologist who shares the ideas of
the NRA, wrote an article titled Its Not the Guns. In this article, she talks about the increase in
school and youth violence, relating to guns. She blames the children and irresponsible parents. She
denies that guns are easier for kids to get today which is understandable because many people keep
their guns locked up. Dr. Gary Kleck, a criminologist at Florida State University, defends guns in
gun related accidents. He conducted a survey, which showed that there are fewer gun related
accidents than there are automobile accidents, falls, drowning, pedestrian, fire, poisoning, and
suffocation. As a result of his survey, he said Subsequently politicians demand mandatory safety
classes for all gun owners, yet many more lives could be saved by randomly selecting and educating
a group of drivers rather than gun owners, not to mention the populace at large regarding,
administering first-aid, how to eat, and basic common sense safety habits.
Although these people do have good points, I cannot say that I agree with everything they state. For
one thing, it is true that the people are responsible for how they use guns but not true to say that
guns are not part of the problem. You cannot just get rid of people who are incapable of knowing
how to treat guns correctly, but you can take away guns, so that these problems and accidents will
not occur at all. In response to Dr. Klecks survey, I would like to say that although firearms may
not be the largest cause of accidents per year, but they do cause too many needless deaths, so
something should be done about them. Nine hundred deaths a year may not seem like a lot of deaths
to some people, but I assume it would if their child or someone they knew were one of those people.
That is what everyone needs to consider. Regarding the fact that Dr. Kleck thinks that more lives
would be saved by giving random drivers safety lessons and teach the average citizen common
sense, Id have to say that common sense does not have much to do with the accidents on his survey.
I am sure he has tripped and fallen or choked on his food before at least once. I have, does that
mean I lack common sense? I also disagree with some of the points Helen Smith made in her
article. I do think she is right that the children who would use guns on fellow students have mental
issues that separate them from the average child. But, again saying that guns are not part of that
problem is something I would beg to differ. If the Columbine students did not have access to assault
weapons such as a Tech 9 and a shotgun, I doubt the outcome would have been the same. Because
these two students had these guns, several other students were killed for no reason. Knowing this,
how can someone say, Its not the guns? Hearing the opinions of people that differ from mine
bring many different questions to mind, such as why do we need guns in the first place other than in
the National Guard and law enforcement? The answer is to protect ourselves, but from what? Well,
other people who have guns. Its a chain reaction. Someone sees other people buying guns and
decides that they also need one because so many others have them. This being the case, I can see
people buying handguns to keep their families safe from a dangerous neighborhood. I can also see
people buying hunting rifles for hunting purposes obviously, but I wonder, why assault weapons?
Do some people buy these high-powered shotguns and machine guns with seemingly endless clips to
hunt? I doubt it. These guns were designed specifically to kill. Why are these weapons sold to the
average law abiding citizen? This is the thing that bothers me the most. We now have a standing
army, unlike when there were only state militias. The second amendment was written to allow these
militiamen to own weapons. The second amendment is now interpreted different ways, which
creates a great deal of controversy.
The second amendment states A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free
state, the right of the people to bear arms, shall not be infringed. People have taken this to mean
that in addition to having a militia; citizens of America have the Constitutional right to bear arms.
Others think that seeing how we now have a standing army, not a militia, there is no need for
average citizens to bear arms, so it is no longer their Constitutional right. There have even been
Supreme Court cases to determine what the amendment means. The U.S. v. Cruikshank case of
1876, the first case involving the second amendment, decided that the right for Americans to bear
arms was not protected by the second amendment, but it was not denied by the amendment either.
The Supreme Court upheld the decision of the U.S. v. Cruikshank case in other cases that were
brought to it.
Even if people have the right to bear arms, whether it is constitutional or not, statistics should turn
people away from owning a gun. The Chicago Police Department Murder Analysis shows an
increase in murder rates every year by firearms. In 1998, 65% of murders were by firearms, 52% of
those by handguns. 25% of the murderers did not have a criminal record, which shows that new
gun owners are using guns for more than just protection. In 1995, there were 13,790 firearm
homicides. Im not sure what these numbers mean to others, but to me they seem very large. Im
sure that almost all of these people who were victims of guns, should not have lost their lives.
My goal in this essay is to allow everyone to see and understand why gun control is necessary to
lower the rates of crime, murder, and household accidents, which are much too high. People are
losing their lives by firearms every day, and I feel that is time for that to stop. In this essay, you
have the opportunity to see both sides of the argument and choose who you agree with or form your
own opinion. Hopefully, by providing you with statistics and background information as well as
opinion, you were able to understand why I feel the way I do about this topic and understand why it
is so important to control the spread of guns throughout America.
Writing task 3
Consider the type of paragraphs studied above and write about the
Legalization of drugs in Colombia. Remember to use each type of
paragraph on your paper. Then, as soon as you finish the first draft,
exchange your writing with a partner for peer revision. Finally, hand
in your assignment containing: First draft, revision (observations by
the reviewer) and improved version.
Lesson 5: The Written Text: Unity & Development
1. Characteristics of Writing
In general, in order for a paragraph to be effective, it must have four characteristics: unity,
development, coherence and cohesion.
1. 1 Unity
The first characteristic of an effective paragraph is unity, which means that all sentences in
the paragraph explain, develop, and support a central idea in some way. In other words,
every paragraph must have a purpose within your paper, and all the sentences must
somehow advance that purpose. This means that ALL sentencestopic sentence,
supporting ones, and concluding sentencemust be more than loosely related to the
subtopic. They must all advance the paragraphs purpose as well as the thesis. Why should
you aim for a unified paragraph? Because in a dis-unified one, a writers purpose and the
connections between the sentences can be unclear, as in this one:
(1)Firstly, the Olympic Games provide an outlet for competition. (2) Friendly competition
among many countries occurs around the world. (3) Regardless of each countrys financial
situation, the competition is in the field of sports and not in politics. (4)It provides to people
who have trained very hard a form or basis of comparison to others around the world,
giving these competitors the opportunity to find out if they are the very best. (5)Also, along
with providing an outlet for competition the Olympic Games creates a sense of nationalism.
(6) Nationalist pride is always a component of the Olympics, each country having its
representatives. (6) The Olympics unifies a country, giving its citizens something in
common-- a victory-- that brings them together. (7) For example, the acquisition of a gold
medal or a number of gold medals can be a source of national pride.
Adapted from a student paper, used with permission
Here, the topic sentence is about how the Olympic Games provide an outlet for
competition, and in sentences (2), (3) and (4) the writer sticks to that idea. However, in
sentence (5), she shifts focus to how the Olympic Games create a sense of nationalism. Its
possible that this second idea is connected to the key concept in the topic sentence, but the
writer doesnt make that connection, and as a result, the paragraph ends weakly with an
example supporting the shift in topic. The writer never makes her point about how the
Games provide a competitive outlet.
To achieve unity, begin with a clear topic sentence. This doesnt mean that it has to appear
at the beginning of the paragraph, although a topic sentence usually does in academic
writing. What is important however, is that the main idea or purpose, stated in the topic
sentence, sets the agenda for the rest of the paragraph. Because the topic sentence provides
the unifying idea, this sentence must be clear, concise and make a point about your thesis.
You can think of it this way: a good topic sentence provides the bones of a paragraph that
support the skin and muscle of all the sentences that follow. Once you know what point you
want to introduce in your topic sentence, you can create a unified paragraph by making sure
that all the rest of the sentences are clearly related to the first one. For example, a paragraph
might begin like this: In the second chapter of the Mountain People, Turnbull (1972)
uses an informal, colloquial writing style to involve his readers in the lives of the Ik people
of Africa. In this paragraph, to maintain unity, the remaining sentences should all relate to
the central concepts in the topic sentence: Turnbulls informal writing style and/or how that
style involves his readers. A sentence that mentions the informal writing style of another
author would be a digression and would destroy the unity of the paragraph. Thus, unity is
created when the topic sentence makes a promise to readers, and all the other sentences
fulfill that promise.
One way to ensure that your paragraphs have unity is to underline the subject of each
supporting sentence to see if it points back to the key concepts in the topic sentence. In the
topic sentence about the Mountain People, for example, you might have sentences that
begin, Turnbulls word choice is more informal.. or The authors level of
language In each case, the subject noun group relates to one of the main concepts in the
topic sentence. If all of your sentence subjects develop one of the key concepts, chances are
that you have a unified paragraph. If they dont, you have probably digressed from your
original purpose and must recast some sentences to get back on track.
(1) An important aspect of the princes character, his honor, is revealed in this passage,
thus establishing the basis for the redemption of his honour (2) Here, Hal atones for the
robbery by paying back the money to the individuals who were robbed (3.3.184.) (3)By
these actions,, he redeems himself from his wayward involvement in the robbery and keeps
his promise to his father to be more himself (3.2.93). Thus, the author foreshadows the
redemption of Hals honor when he later defeats Hotspur in battle. (4) Also in this passage,
in his soliloquy (1.2.199-221), the prince rationalizes that his reformation (i.e. the
redemption of his honor) is something that will be made to appear more goodly (1.2.218)
when it is preceded by his wayward behavior. (5)Taken as a whole, this passage reveals
that Hals honor is basic to his character despite the lapses in his behavior, and it prepares
the audience for the redemption of his honour later in the play.
Adapted from a paper by Angeline Chan, used with permission
o Sentence (1): Here, the writer introduces the purpose of the paragraph: to show how
"the prince's character" is revealed in the literary passage under study.
o Sentences (2) & (3): In these two sentences, the writer stays focused on one of the
key concepts in the topic sentence, "the prince" or "Hal" the subject, and on
comments about his "atonement" and his "redemption".
o Sentence (4): The writer sticks to the central concepts in the topic sentence by
providing examples that develop the idea of redemption.
o Sentence (5): Here, the writer concludes with the point of her paragraph, once again
staying focused on the idea of Hal's character
Exercise 4
Read the following paragraph and identify where it could be divided

into two paragraphs.
High emotional intelligence can help a manager improve workplace communication skills,
employee motivation and organizational effectiveness. If a manager has high empathy, a
key component of emotional intelligence, he or she will be able to listen to the concerns of
employees and will be more understanding of their needs, wants and concerns. This will
most likely translate into increased motivation and satisfaction of employees and ultimately
will have a positive effect on the effectiveness of the business. It is important to note,
however, that emotional intelligence is a concept that is not universally understood to have
the same meaning and is not universally believed to be a key determiner of business
success. Highly authoritarian, top down approaches are employed in many successful
businesses today.
Exercise 5
Read the following paragraph and try to identify which sentence

does not fit within it
HRM policies affect certain immediate organizational outcomes and have long term
consequences. For example, policy choices made by managers affect the overall
competence of employees, the commitment of employees, the degree of congruence between
the goals of employees and those of the organization, and the overall cost effectiveness of
HRM practices. HRM policies have been subject to considerable change in throughout the
western world in recent years. HRM policy makers may find the four Cs useful means to
enhance effectiveness of human resource management in organizations
1.2 Development
Effective paragraphs are not only unified, they are fully developed, which means that they
dont leave any significant questions in readers minds. If you were drawing a map to show
a fellow traveler how to get from a mountain pass to a source of water, you would be
careful to draw a line that followed the trail down the mountain, along the valley to a spot
where there was a lake. You wouldnt stop the line halfway down the mountain, hoping that
those who used your map would be able to figure out the rest of the way for themselves.
Similarly, when you are writing a paragraph, you must be sure to trace the full development
of your ideas for readers so they will understand the assumptions, evidence and reasoning
you used. There are three ways to ensure that your paragraphs are fully developed: by
providing the right level of supporting detail, choosing the right kind of evidence and
choosing the right pattern of development for your purpose.
Developing paragraphs with the right level of detail
To fully develop the sub-topic of the essays main idea in a paragraph, you must provide
your readers with details. It is not enough to make assertions. Your readers must understand
fully how you reached your conclusion. What leads you to the conclusion you make in the
paragraph? What texts and ideas do you refer to that influenced your thinking? What
reasoning do you use? To make sure youve provided the right level of detail, try using the
5Ws to imagine what questions an informed reader might ask. Does your paragraph give
enough detail to answer important what and when questions? Does it answer who, where,
and why questions? Although you will probably not have to address all of these, a fully
developed paragraph provides enough supporting detail to answer questions any engaged,
informed reader might ask.
Developing paragraphs with the right kind of detail
Not only is it important to provide enough detail for your readers, its important to provide
the right kind of detail, and that will depend on the purpose of your essay. The kind of
detail will also depend on the demands of the assignment and the discipline you are writing
in. For example, if you are asked to write a personal essay, your details might be examples
of personal experiences. If you are asked to write a history paper, the right kind of details
might come from your analysis of a historical text, and support in an argumentative essay
might come from both analysis and reasoning.
Another way to think about choosing the right kind of detail is in terms of warm or cool
proofs (Brundage, D. on Tarver, J., personal communication, March 17, 2008).Warm
proofs are those that appeal to emotions, and they are what classical rhetoricians call
appeals to pathos. On the other hand, cool proofs, like logical arguments and statistics,
appeal to reason and are more in keeping with classical ideas of logos, or logical thought. If
you think about choosing details in this way, then a history paper might use a combination
of warm proofs (e.g., personal histories and letters from the historical era) in addition to the
cool proofs (e.g. reasoning and logic). Again, the choice of detail will depend on your
writing purpose, which flows from the demands of the assignment and the requirements of
the discipline you are writing in.
In the example below, a writer explains how classical ideas of pathos can be used to
enhance the persuasiveness of a message. As you read, consider the details the writer has
chosen, and why she might have chosen those and not others:
Appeals to pathos, or what modern rhetoreticians call emotional appeals, begin by making
an audience more open to the message. Aristotle himself suggested this approach to
persuasion in the Rhetoric when he stated that (o)ur judgments when we are pleased and
friendly are not the same as when we are pained and hostile (as cited in Horner, 1988,
p.57). In other words, Aristotle proposed that writers persuade, in part, by affecting the
mood of their audience and by making them better disposed towards the message. To
maximize this effect, writers need to know and identify with their audience. Are audience
members all the same age, or a mixed group? What socio-economic group are they likely to
be part of? What is their level of education? Asking questions like these will help writers to
know their audiences hopes and fears, and prepare the audience to be more sympathetic to
the message (Horner, 1987).
In this paragraph, the writer has selected details from a text in the form of quotations and
summary because she is trying to support her explanation of pathos. In doing so, she uses
quotes from Aristotle, one of the founding fathers of rhetoric, and Horner, a wellrespected
modern rhetorician. Although this explanation would have been more persuasive if the
writer had quoted more than one source, the kind of details she has provided are appropriate
and convincing for her purpose.
Developing paragraphs with the right pattern of development
The particular kind of support you provide will depend largely on the pattern of
development you use for your paragraph, which, in turn, depends on its purpose. If you are
trying to make a point by telling a story, then you might use narrative. If the purpose is to
explain, step by step, how something is done, then a process pattern might be better. The
key is in selecting the right pattern of development, keeping in mind that you can use a
variety of patterns in the same essay.
One way to think about different types of arrangements or patterns is on a continuum from
the types most likely to be found in creative writing to the types found in analytical writing.
On such a continuum, narration would be on the most creative end and cause and effect and
definition on the analytical end:
Creative---Narration---Description---Process---Exemplification- Comparison/Contrast---
Definition---Cause and Effect---Analytical
In academic writing, its a good rule of thumb to use the more creative types of patterns
sparingly, for a defined purpose and to rely more on analytical types of arrangements.
What follows is a list of different patterns with samples of each one; as you read, keep one
point in mind. Although these classifications are ones that many books on writing and
rhetoric use, the divisions between them are somewhat arbitrary and are not exclusive. In
other words, a paragraph that uses definition as a method of development is also likely to
use elements of cause/effect and process development; a paragraph of narration will likely
use elements of description. Although the list is not exhaustive, it will give you an idea of
some of the most commonly used patterns of development.
Narration -Because narrative paragraphs often focus on an experience or an event, they

share features with both process and descriptive styles of development. Like process
paragraphs (described below), narrative uses transitions of time and space; like descriptive
paragraphs, this pattern can use sensory words to develop ideas and be structured with the
topic sentence near or at the end of the paragraph. The unique feature of this type of
development is that it tells a story. Example from a student essay with permission:
Although we were close, Samantha managed to hide her problem throughout Grade 11. I
remember her saying that she had to watch what she ate to maintain her figure, but that
wasnt unusual; almost everyone we knew was constantly on a diet, so when shed bring
only a piece of lettuce and a slice of tomato for lunch, I didnt think anything of it. I didnt
find it unusual either that she spent a lot of time in the girls washroom that year. Like any
good friend, I accepted her explanation that she had picked up a flu that she couldnt shake.
It wasnt until the beginning of Grade 12 that I began to suspect that something more
serious might be wrong. I noticed that she looked more gaunt each week, and she
complained of feeling weak and tired all the time. Even more disturbing, though, was the
way she made excuses not to walk home with Kath and me. Eventually, she even stopped
meeting us for lunch at Wus Cafe. At first, I thought maybe she was on something, but
when I stole peeks into her locker and her big saddle-bag purse, I never saw anything
suspicious. Then, one day, we were in the girls room, repairing our lipstick and I asked
her, straight out what the problem was. She leaned on the sink with both hands, and hung
her head, until her blonde hair shielded her face, and in a shaky voice she told all: the
uncontrollable urges to eat anything, and the vomiting that always followed. With that
simple statement, the wall of secrets Samantha had built between us over last year
collapsed and once again, we were friends.
Even though this paragraph does not start with a formal topic sentence, it is not difficult to
find the themeits in the last sentence, which is a common pattern in narration. Notice,
too, how events are organized according to time. The first sentence establishes the time
frame of the story (during Grade 11), and traces some of the events during that year with
use of past tense (we were close; everyone we knew, etc.) Then, the rest of the paragraph
details events in chronological order. Transitions of time (eventually, then, as soon as) and
sensory words (gaunt, blonde, shaky) help readers follow and visualize the events that form
the backbone of this story.
Description- A descriptive pattern is characterized by vivid sensory description. It uses

sense words (e.g., bitter, light, bright, pungent, loud) vivid action verbs, (e.g., dive, drip,
rip) and transitions of space (e.g. here, there, to the left, up) to give sense impressions of a
scene. This pattern is useful when you want to create a dominant sensory impression. In
most academic work, you should use this arrangement with caution: many academic papers
call for analysis and synthesis, and although description can contribute to that type of
development, use it sparingly to make room for more analytical paragraphs. Note that some
instructors do not use the word description in this specialized way but in a more general
sense to mean paraphrase or define. Thus, whenever your instructor asks you to
describe or use description in your essay, its a good idea to check to see what she means
by description.
Sample of a descriptive paragraph
(1) As I was growing up in the 60s, television was the only entertainment my family knew
of the electronic sort. (2) The 7 oclock nightly news was such an important part of our
family that my dad knocked a wall down and built a huge cabinet in its place just to
accommodate our 19-inch black and white. (3) No one was allowed to talk or make a sound
when the television was on; all eyes were glued to the moving and flickering image. The
box commanded absolute respect.(4) In the daytime, the television needs its rest my
mother would say, as she patted its pseudo-wooden top and covered it with a doilie she had
made herself. (5)There is no doubt that TV was as central to our lives as it was to the lives
of all our friends during that period.
Adapted from an essay by Angeline Chan, used with permission
Notice the writers use of action verbs (knocked, glued) and her use of sensory words (19-
inch, black and white, huge, talk, sound, flickering)) to paint a picture of the scene in her
living room. In the final sentence, she states the main point of the paragraph: that TV was
central in families lives during the 60s. The appearance of a topic sentence at the end of a
paragraph, rather than at the beginning is common in descriptive paragraphs, and it works
well for this kind of development.
Process- A process arrangement is usually used to explain a process or how to do
something. It uses transitions of enumeration (e.g., first, second, third) and/or time (e.g.,
then, next, finally) and is the right pattern of development when your purpose is to help
your readers understand the steps in a process or procedure or to give instructions. For full
development, a process paragraph relies on clear communication of the instruction or steps
to your readers.
Sample of a process paragraph:
(1) The writing process has four distinct phases. (2) The first is invention, which is aided by
any number of techniques, including free-writing, mind-mapping and outlining. (3)In this
first stage, its important for a writer not to edit but to let ideas flow and to simply get them
down on paper. (4) After invention, comes the first draftthe stage where the ideas start to
take shape. (5) Many writers use a sentence outline at this stage to see where they need to
cut and where they need to add material. The first draft is also where writers should
develop a tentative thesis to guide the structure of their essay. (6)The next stage of the
process is when both the second and third drafts are done. (7)Here, ideas and structure are
refined, and the thesis is revised until it becomes the unifying idea of the paper. (8)Finally,
comes the last stage, that of editing. (9 Writers should take care at this stage that all
sentence structure and punctuation is correct, and they should make corrections to
documentation format as needed. (10) Writers often repeat these four phases more than
once, or skip a phase and go back to it, making the writing process more cyclical than
linear.
o Notice how the topic sentence (1) introduces the number of steps in the process.
o Then, the next two sentences, (3) and (4), name and comment on the first step.
o The next series of sentences(4) to (7)go on to enumerate and comment on the
next two steps, and
o Sentences (8) and (9) complete the description of the process.
o The paragraph ends with a general statement (10) about the writing process that
characterizes it and sums it up.
Exemplification- This pattern uses examples (or one longer, extended example) to support
the topic sentence and is useful when your most convincing support is a number of
pertinent examples. With this pattern, you provide proof of a more general statement (the
topic sentence) with the weight of the specific instances (supporting details).
Sample of an exemplification paragraph
(1)The subordinate image of women is suggested in this passage by the way they are
treated and addressed by the male characters. (2)The language Falstaff uses in addressing
the hostess of the tavern , for example, echoes the treatment of women in other parts of the
play.(3) In this passage, instead of apologizing to the hostess for his rudeness towards her,
Falstaff says that he forgives her and orders her with commands.(4) In addition, the
brusqueness of his manner is accentuated by short, terse phrases go make ready, love
thy husband, look to thy servants, cherish thy guests and be gone. (5) This
disrespectful treatment of women is echoed as well in Hotspurs behavior towards his wife,
Kate, when he says to her, I love thee not; I care not for thee, Kate and when he
expresses his distrust of her simply because she is a woman (6) Still another woman in the
play, Lady Mortimer, experiences the same treatment when she is referred to as a peevish
self-willed harlotry by her father, Owen Glendower. (7) Overall, the men in this passage
speak of and to the women in ways that suggest women must submit to disrespectful and
dominating behavior by men.
Adapted from an essay by Angeline Chan, used with permission
o In this paragraph, the author opens with a general statement about the authors portrayal
of women in the passage under study,
o and then, the writer provides her first example from the text.
o She goes on in sentence (3) to give a more specific example,
o and then, supports her example in sentence (4) with quotes.
o In sentences (5) and (6), she gives two other examples, and o finally, in sentence (7),
the writer concludes and sums up the idea presented in her topic sentence.
Comparison/Contrast- This pattern of development is useful when you want to help

readers understand a concept by pointing out similarities and differences between it and
another concept. The comparison is usually developed either by analyzing all features of
one concept and then comparing them to the features of the other (a block comparison
method) or by analyzing each point of comparison (a point-by-point method). Keep in mind
that the comparison is simply a means to an end and that the conclusion of the paragraph
should be drawn from your comparison.
Sample of comparison paragraph
(1)In morning report, the nursing students were always obvious, even to the casual
observer. (2)Their uniforms marked them, of course.(3) Unlike the grads in their crisp,
white cotton dresses and caps, all the students were dressed in robins-egg blue polyester
tops and skirts.(4) Their shoes, too, were a dead giveaway. (5)While the old-timers wore
scuffed, white duty shoes, broken down by miles of walking the hospital corridors, the
students shoes were pristine, freshly polished before each shift in case of a snap inspection
by the surgical instructor. (6)The most telling detail, however, was the way the students all
perched around the edges of the room on stools, leaving the chairs around the conference
table for the regular staff. (7)No one had ever explicitly told them that they couldnt sit at
the table; no one had to. (8)They just automatically took their places on the periphery,
giving deference to the nurses who worked on the unit. (9)No one had to tell them either,
that while the regular staff could talk during report, they could not.(10) Each morning, as
the night-duty nurse read report, the regular staff laughed and joked about the patients and
each other, but the students, not daring so much as a peep, leaned in, waiting to catch each
crumb of information about the patients entrusted to them that day. (11) In those days,
neither staff nor instructors ever left a first year student nurse with any doubt about the
position she held in the hierarchy
o In sentence (1), the writer introduces one of the groups she will compare, then, in
sentences (2) and (3), introduces the first point of comparison (uniforms) and makes
the comparison (crisp white vs. blue polyester).
o In sentences (4)-(8), the writer introduces two more points of comparison, using a
point by-point structure to develop the paragraph.
o In sentences (9) and (10), the writer introduces and develops the final point of
comparison, and then in sentence (11), draws a conclusion about the power
differences between the two groups, based on the comparison.
Definition- A paragraph of definition aims to give a complete, working definition of a term,

concept or idea in your paper. One of the central features of this pattern is that it tells both
what the term is and what it isnt, that is, it defines the boundaries of a term so your readers
can better understand it. This pattern is useful when you are introducing new or specialized
terms to your readers, or when you need to define a key concept in your thesis. For
example, if you were writing a paper to explain the role that propaganda played in the Nazi
takeover of Germany, you might begin by defining the key features of propaganda as they
relate to the thesis of the paper.
Some rhetoricians, such as Winifred Horner (1988), suggest a classical approach to

defining terms. In this approach, the term is named and the class to which it belongs is
determined. Then, the differences between the term and others in its class are named. Thus,
if you were defining propaganda, you might place it in the larger class of communicative
acts, which would include advertisements, reports, and magazine articles and then try to
determine what differentiates propaganda from these other types of communication.
Through this analysis, you could come up with an essential definition (Horner, 1988,
p.80) of the term that might look like this: propaganda is mass communication that
deceives or distorts truth to further political goals.
Sample of definition paragraph
(1)In nursing research, paradigms are essential to help to place the research into a broader
context. (2) According to Polit and Hungler (1997) paradigms constitute a worldview or a
general perspective on the complexities of the real world. (3)More specifically, paradigms
for human inquiry are often characterized in terms of the way in which they respond to
basic philosophical questions (p.11). (4)In this sense of the term, then, paradigms are more
than typical examples or models. (5)Rather, they demonstrate relationships between ideas
and provide a basis for a methodology or a theory, and as such, they are useful as lenses
for viewing and interpreting significant, substantive issues to the discipline. (6)Thus,
paradigms that are often used for nursing research, such as empiricist, interpretive and
critical social paradigms, provide frames that hold the vocabulary, theories, principles,
presuppositions and values related to an inquiry.
Adapted from an essay by Mary Ratsensperger, used with permission
o In sentence (1), notice how the writer opens with a topic sentence that introduces
the term to be defined and suggests the importance of the term to the paper.
o Then, in sentence (2), the writer gives a definition of her term from a source and
then draws the boundaries of the term in sentence (3) by specifying the part of the
definition that applies to her topic.
o In sentence (4), the writer differentiates her term from other words that might be in
the same class, such as examples or models and goes on in sentence (5) to identify
another part of the definition that applies to the thesis of her paper.
o Finally, the writer concludes by giving examples of the term that will be addressed
in her paper
Cause and Effect- Cause and effect paragraphs analyze the causes or the effects of
something or the relationship between both. If you want to explain the why of
somethinga process, an event, a conceptthen this is a useful pattern. In this pattern,
transitions of logic (e.g., thus, therefore, consequently, as a result) and words and phrases
of cause and effect (e.g., because, for the reason that, given that, in effect) feature
prominently. Be careful, however, when you make statements about cause and effect. If
there is more than one cause to a particular effect, be sure not to restrict your analysis or
explanation. On the other hand, if there is more than one effect, be sure not to assume they
all arose from the same cause. To be sure there is a connection between the causes and
effects you are analyzing or explaining, ask questions like Is this the only thing that could
cause this effect? and Is this the only possible effect this cause could have? and Was
this cause sufficient to result in this effect? (Horner, 1988, p.127)
Sample of cause/effect paragraph
(1)While there were many contributing factors to the French Revolution, a primary cause
was a financial crisis brought on by royal extravagance. (2) For years before the revolution
finally exploded in 1789, the royal government had been borrowing heavily to cover deficit
spending. (Cobb, 1988.) (3) Even though Frances high courts of appeal cautioned against
such borrowing, the royals extravagance continued, eventually resulting in a financial
crisis that required the government to institute a series of taxes. (4) As the press highlighted
the governments spending with cartoons and stories, the peasants, already burdened by
high taxes, low wages and poor harvests, began to resent the demands of the royals.
(5)Finally, in 1789, the Third Estatethe common peoplebecame so enraged, they
demanded a new constitution and refused to compromise with the existing government until
it was written. (6) This demand set off the first sparks of revolution.
o In the topic sentence (1), the writer introduces both the cause (a financial crisis) and the
effect (the French Revolution) she will discuss.
o In sentence (2), she then suggests the first cause, the royal governments spending and
borrowing.
o In sentence (3) the writer announces the first result, a financial crisis, which she signals
with the word resulting.
o Then, in sentence (4) she introduces a contributing causethat of high taxes, etc.and
suggests the effectthe peasants resentment.
o The writer then suggests the effects of this resentment in sentence (5) and finally states
the overall effect in the concluding sentence (6) of the paragraph.
Exercise 6
Read the following paragraph carefully. Underline the controlling

idea expressed in the topic sentence and then examine the paragraph
for unity. Identify the number of any sentence that does not develop or
support the paragraph's controlling idea.
[1] Pilots are the primary cause of many aircraft accidents. [2] Ignoring their
responsibilities, many pilots fail to perform their duties efficiently, and tragedy has too
often been the needless result. [3] History records that many fatal accidents have occurred,
for example, because pilots failed to listen to the advice of air traffic controllers who were
in a position to warn them about impending disasters. [4] To become an air traffic
controller, one must be extremely intelligent. [5] Sometimes pilots are overtired, and they
neglect to take the precautions necessary to avoid accidents. [6] They may even be taking
drugs that slow down their physical reactions. [7] As we all know, statistics indicate that
many college students abuse drugs, and these students should realize that if they continue
to use drugs they will never enter careers such as aviation. [8] Sometimes accidents occur
through a malfunction in the plane's equipment. [9] A door may open during flight, or a
tire may blow out as the plane takes off. [10] Pilots, of course, arent responsible for
accidents such as these. [11] Perhaps most startling is the fact that every year one or two
air traffic accidents are caused by student pilots who attempt journeys beyond their
capabilities and end up producing catastrophes that destroy life and property. [12]
Because they don't employ student pilots, commercial airlines are the safest form of air
transportation. [13] The next time you take a commercial flight, you should be sure to ask
yourself the following questions: Does the pilot look happy and healthy? What are the
weather conditions outside? Do there seem to be any cracks in the wings or tail of the
plane
Writing task 4
In this lesson we have studied the developmental factor of the written

text. Consider the types of paragraphs numbered in this section and
write a text in which you include each category. You may write about
a topic of your interest, no more than two letter size pages. As soon as
you finish the first draft exchange writings with a partner for peer
revision. Finally, hand in your assignment containing: First draft,
revision (observations by the reviewer) and improved version.
Lesson 6: The Written Text: Coherence & Cohesion
1. Coherence
Youve achieved coherence in a paragraph when a reader (usually an instructor)

congratulates you on good flow. A paragraph that is coherent flows because it is arranged
according to a definite plan, and as a result, all the sentences are not just about the same
main topic, but they also stick together and lead readers smoothly from the topic sentence
to the concluding one. This stickiness results from sentences that follow, one from the
other, in a way that makes sense. Each sentence takes a logical step forward. There are a
number of ways to achieve coherence: through use of ordering principles, pronouns,
transitional words, and repetition.
Using an ordering principle to achieve coherence
One way to achieve the flow of coherence is to decide on an ordering principle for the ideas
in your paragraph. This means that there is a pattern of development that creates a logical
flow between the sentences. For example, the first paragraph under the title Types of
Paragraphs in a Basic Essay uses enumeration to list the different types of paragraphs.
Narrative paragraphs use a chronological ordering principle and usually relate events
connected by time. Youll usually find narrative paragraphs using transitions of time like
then, next, and finally. There are many other ordering principles used to create
coherent paragraphs including comparison-contrast and causeeffect methods. The important
point is to choose one method that fits your material, and make sure you use it consistently
to link the ideas in your paragraph together. For more on choosing the right ordering
principle, see the section on paragraph development.
Using pronouns to achieve coherence
Another way to help achieve coherence is to use pronouns to refer to nouns in previous
sentences in the paragraph, thus sticking the sentences together. For example, if you refer
to people in one sentence you can point back to that noun in the next sentence by using
the pronoun them. In this case, people is the antecedent of the pronoun them.
A word of caution about using pronouns: make sure it is clear what noun (antecedent) the
pronoun is pointing to or you could cause confusion instead of coherence. Consider these
two sentences, for example: Turnbull chooses words that could be found in any newspaper.
Like a newspaper reporter, he writes it so most readers at a grade nine level could read it.
Here, it is clear that Turnbulls work is being compared to that of a newspaper writer, but
its not clear what noun it refers to. The noun could be newspaper, but then it sounds like
Turnbull is writing a newspaper article, which is probably not what the writer intended. A
simple edit creates coherence by making the antecedent of the pronoun clear: Turnbull
chooses words that could be found in any newspaper. Like a newspaper reporter, he picks
them to make his work readable at a grade nine level. In the edited version, the pronoun
them clearly refers to the antecedent, words and creates a connection between the two
sentences.
Another thing to remember about using pronouns to create coherence is to use them
judiciously. Just as a vague reference can create confusion, so can using too many pronouns
in a paragraph. In this paragraph, notice how the numerous pronouns combine to make the
writers meaning unclear: In addition, Turnbull chooses words that could be found in any
newspaper. Like a newspaper reporter, he writes it so most readers at a grade nine level
could read it. They are also at most, one or two syllables. It makes this very readable and
informal, and they create a nice style. In this case, even though most of the pronouns refer
to a noun in a previous sentence, the sheer number of pronouns makes the whole piece,
well, incoherent.
Using transitional words and phrases to achieve coherence
Transitional words and phrases also help to create coherence by providing bridges between
sentences within the paragraph and between paragraphs. For example, words and phrases
like also, in addition to, additionally and furthermore signal your readers that that
the relationship between two sentences is one of addition. Other word and phrase groups
can create relationships of detail or example (for example, that is, more specifically),
logic (therefore, thus, in conclusion), contrast (yet, nevertheless, on the other
hand) or similarity (likewise, similarly, in other words). See this link for more lists
of transitional words and phrases.
When you use transitional words and phrases, it can be tempting to stick one or two in
without thinking about the meaning, but this can result in confusion instead of flow.. Thus,
make sure that the link you have created between your sentences is a clear and logical one.
If you write therefore, for example, make sure that the sentence that follows does, in fact,
flow logically from the previous one; if you write similarly, make sure that there is, in
fact, similarity between the two ideas. Remember, too, that transitions can come not only at
the beginning of a sentence but also in the middle, as the word too does in this sentence
Using repetition to achieve coherence
Most developing writers are taught to avoid repetition, and this is good advice to a point.
However, judicious repetition of key words and phrases and synonyms throughout a paper
can provide your readers with necessary signposts and strengthen the flow of the essay. For
example, suppose a key concept in a thesis statement was that of mythical structures in
literature. Throughout the essay, a writer might use a number of synonyms, such as
myth, mythical forms, configurations, or patterns to refer to this concept. In
addition, the writer might repeat these phrases and the original one, mythical structures
throughout the paper. The key to using repetition of words and phrases effectively is to
keep your readers in mind. If you use too little variation, they will be bored. If you use too
many terms, your readers could easily become confused. A good rule of thumb is to use no
more than two separate terms or phrases per paragraph. In a short paragraph, that number is
usually enough to create variety without creating confusion.
Sample of a coherent paragraph:
(1)Throughout most of my school days my eyes failed to focus correctly when reading.
(2)Consequently, I saw different symbols every time I read a sentence. (3)As a result, the
printed page was a chaotic kaleidoscope of constantly changing letters that made no sense.
(4) For example, when reading the last sentence I would see: A tters made sense, or As
le ter that made no ense, orLetters mad no sens, depending on how my eyes focused on
a sentence. (5)After my eye problem was corrected, my real problems began because it was
assumed that I could now read like everyone else. (6)This was a big mistake that
overlooked the psychological effects created by my visual disability. (7)Most importantly, I
was left doubting my understanding when reading unfamiliar material while teachers
began to give me increasingly complex material to read.
With permissions from Jeremy Hexham
o In this writers first sentence, he introduces the topic of the paragraph, then creates a
connection of cause and effect with his use of consequently at the beginning of
the next sentence.
o In sentence (3), he creates coherence by creating another cause and effect
relationship with the phrase, as a result, and by referring back to the last
sentence.
o In sentence (5), he creates a narrative relationship between events by beginning his
sentence with after and repeats a key concept, eye problem, from the topic
sentence.
o The writer then creates coherence in sentence (6) by using a pronoun, this, to refer
back to an event he described in sentence (5).
o In sentence (7), he completes the circle by referring to another key idea in his topic
sentence, that of reading.
Exercise 7
Rewrite the following paragraph using linking words to make the

paragraph more coherent:
Hofstedes theories have been hugely influential. They have encouraged people to think
more deeply about cultural differences. They have helped provide people with effective
ways of seeing cultural differences. They have helped provide people with an effective
way of discussing cultural differences. They have given organizations ideas about how to
manage workplace diversity. Not every on agrees with Hofstedes model of cultural
differences. His concept of masculine vs. Feminine cultures has been subject to great
criticism. Some people have argued that his ideas are based on research of atypical groups.
They are atypical in terms of career and class. These groups are not reflective of the
different people who make up the different national cultures. Hofstedes theories continue
to be useful. They are hard to ignore.
2. Cohesion
Extracted from
http://www.hum.uu.nl/medewerkers/h.l.w.pandermaat/coherence_doc/cohesionencoherence2006.pdf
The concept of cohesion was introduced by Halliday and Hasan (1976), whose major
concern is to investigate how sentences are linked in a text. For them, the various parts of a
paragraph are connected together by cohesive ties:
A text has texture, and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text If a
passage of English containing more than one sentence is perceived as a text, there will be
certain linguistic features present in that passage which can be identified as contributing to
its total unity and giving it texture .
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), the writer is able to hold together meanings in the
related sentences in a number of ways, and cohesion is created to establish the structure of
meaning. They also claim that cohesion is a factor that indicates whether a text is well-
connected or merely a group of unrelated sentences. It should, however, be noted that
though involved with meaning between sentences, cohesion does not deal with content of a
text. Halliday and Hasan (1976) explicitly state that cohesion does not concern what a text
means; it concerns how the text is constructed as a semantic edifice. That is, although
cohesion usually plays a role in a paragraph, it does not lead to the global flow of a text
across paragraphs.
2.1 Type of cohesion
Grammatical cohesion: Grammatical cohesion is constructed by the grammatical

structures each component ties each other. Halliday and Hasan5 (1976) classify
grammatical cohesion into 4 major classes: Reference, Substitution. Ellipsis and
Conjunction
a. Reference: It occurs when one item in text points to another element for its
interpretation. Within this class we find endophora cohesion, when the interpretation of
reference lies within the text, exophora cohesion when the interpretation of reference
lies beyond the text.
Example:
Daughter: Mom, what do you think about this pink dress?

Mom: Oh dear, I think thats too short for you. Would you try this? (Showing
another dress she is holding).
that refers to the dress that the daughter is fitting in, and it is presented within the
text. However, this refers to the exphoric reference (another dress that the mother
is holding) which is not presented in the text.
Endophora consists of Anaphora and Cataphora. Anaphora refers to presupposition of

something that has gone before, while Cataphora refers to the presupposed element which
is following.
Example of Anaphora:
The man is living alone. His wife left him for 9 years
In this sentence, his and him are anaphoric which refers to the man. Without
having a presupposed clause the man is living alone, we cannot decide what his
and him refer to. Because we need to look back at the sentence gone before, these
are anaphoric
Example of Cataphora:
Hes a superstar; hes the best in his era. Lets welcome... Justin Bieber!
In this sentence, he is cataphoric to the presupposed subject Justin Bieber. We

need to look forward to the following sentence to reveal what he refers to.
In English these reference items are personals, demonstratives and comparatives (Halliday
and Hasan6, 1976). Personal reference, for instance I, you, she, they (subject pronouns)
him, her, us (object pronoun), my, your (possessive pronoun), or ours, theirs, hers
(reflexive pronoun). Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech
situation through the category of PERSON (Halliday and Hasan7, 1976). Demonstrative
reference, such as: here, there, this, that, etc refers to the location of presupposed elements.
Comparatives, such as: bigger, more diligent, and etc. refers to compared adjectives of one
noun to another. The examples of these references can be seen below.
Example (personal reference):
(1) I never met him before. My friends said that he is a kind and helpful professor. I
wish I can see Professor William soon.
(2) Those three thiefs! Those three thiefs! They were shot by the sheriff!
Example (demonstrative reference)
(1) There I was born and grew up. There I met him, my beloved one. There we
raised our kids. There, in a small town called Slawi.
(2) (In a fitting room) Daughter: Mom, what do you think about this pink dress?
Mom: Oh dear, I think thats too short for you. Would you try this? (Showing
another dress she is holding).
Example (comparative reference)
(1) This dish is too light, I want the heavier one.

(2) (In a boutique) Woman: I think this blouse is too dark for my skin. Can I have
the lighter, please?
b. Substitution: It is the replacement of an item for another one in a text. There are three
main types of substitution:
Nominal substitution is a process of replacement of Nouns with one, ones or same.

Verbal substitution is a replacement process of Verbs with do, did or other auxiliary
verbs. Clausal substitution is replacement process of clause, by so or not. This
substitution is aimed at avoiding the similar words to be repeated exactly at the next
sentences or clauses. The example of each type of substitution is presented below.
Nominal substitution example:

My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one
Verbal substitution example:

You think Joan already knows? - I think everybody does.
Clausal substitution example:

... If you've seen them so often, of course you know what they're like'.
'I believe so,' Alice replied thoughtfully. (Halliday and Hasan 9, 1976)
c. Ellipsis: Ellipsis is the process in which one item within a text or discourse is omitted
or replaced by nothing. Ellipsis occurs when something that is structurally necessary is
left unsaid, as it is has been understood already. Where there is ellipsis, there is a
presupposition, in the structure that something is to be supplied. or 'understood. This is
not quite the same thing as saying that we can tell from the structure of an item whether
it is elliptical or not. For practical purposes we often can; but it is not in fact the
structure which makes it elliptical. An item is elliptical if its structure does not express
all the features that have gone into its make-up - all the meaningful choices that are
embodied in it. (Halliday and Hasan 10, 1976)
The difference between ellipsis with reference and substitution is presented below.
(ibid)
Reference Substitution and ellipsis

Level of abstraction Semantic Lexico-grammatical
Primary source of Situation Text
presupposition
What is presupposed? Meanings Items( words, groups,
clauses)
Is class preserved? Not necessarily Yes
Is replacement Not necessarily Yes
Use as a cohesive device Yes; anaphoric and Yes; anaphoric
cataphoric (occasionally cataphoric)
Example: comparation among ellipsis, reference, and substitution
a. This is a fine hall you have here. Im proud to be lecturing in it. (reference)
b. This is a fine hall you have here. I've never lectured in a finer one. (substitution)
c. This is a fine hall you have here. I've never lectured in a finer. (ellipsis)
Alike substitution, there are also three types of ellipsis, namely nominal ellipsis, verbal
ellipsis, and clausal ellipsis. In nominal ellipsis, the Noun is omitted. In verbal ellipsis, the
Verb is omitted, while in clausal ellipsis, the clause/s is omitted.
Examples of ellipsis types
Nominal ellipsis the omitted noun is bracketed.

They do not like it, yet (they) said nothing.
Verbal ellipsis the omitted noun is bracketed.

Have you been swimming? - Yes, I have (been swimming).
Clausal ellipsis the omitted noun is bracketed.

Who was playing the piano? John was.
Nominal ellipsis the omitted noun is bracketed.

They do not like it, yet (they) said nothing.
d. Conjunction: Conjunction refers to a specification of the way in which what is to

follow is systematically connected to what has gone before. Conjunctions are usually
structure a text/discourse in a precise way and bring the presented elements into a
logical order. Halliday and Hasan (in Brown and Yule11, 1983) mentions four types of
conjunctions, namely additive, adversative, causal, and temporal.
Example:
Additive conjunction
For the whole day he climbed up the steep mountainside, almost without stopping
and in all this time he met no one
Adversative conjunction
He has little money on his pocket. However, he insists to buy the movie ticket. He
will walk home for sure.
Clausal conjunction
She was 5 minutes late submitting her final project. As a result, she lost 5% of her
final score.
Temporal conjunction
First, you need to select fresh lemons. Next, you cut them in two parts and squeeze
them.
Lexical cohesion: Lexical cohesion deals with the meaning in text. this is the cohesive
effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary (Halliday and Hasam, 1976) it concerns the
way the lexical items relate to each other and to other cohesive devices so that textual
continuity created. Lexical cohesion concerns two distinct but related aspects collocation:
reiteration and collocation
a. Reiteration is the repetition of a lexical item or the occurrence of some kind, in the
context of reference, that is, where the two occurrences have the same referent
(Halliday & Hasan 1976). Reiteration could be in the form of repetition, synonym,
hypernym, and general word All these devices have the function of reiterating the
previous item, either in an identical or somewhat modified form, and this is the basis for
the creation of a cohesive tie between the items. Often the tie is strengthened by the fact
that the items are co-referential (Tanskanen, 2006).
Example of reiteration
I've been to see my great-aunt. The poor old girl's getting very forgetful these
days.
Alice caught the baby with some difficulty, as it was a queershaped little
creature and held out its arms and legs in all directions, 'just like a star-fish',
thought Alice. The poor little thing was snorting like a steam-engine when she
caught it.
Henrys thinking of rowing the Atlantic. Do go and talk to the wretched fool.
Collocation is the use of a word that is in some way associated with another word in the
preceding text, because it is a direct repetition of it, or is in some sense synonymous with it,
or tends to occur in the same lexical environment (Halliday & Hasan15, 1976).
Collocation is probably the hardest lexical cohesion to analyze. To clearen this concept, the
place of reiteration and collocation can be figured as follow. In the example of Fat man of
Bombay, smoking collocates with pipe and therefore makes the occurrence of pipe
cohesive.
Example: Fat man of Bombay
Was smoking one very hot day

But a bird called a snipe
Flew away with his pipe
Which vexed the fat man of Bombay
Exercise 8
Identify the types of cohesion in the text below
Reference
Identify the references in the following texts:
Exercise a
Every organization, as soon as it gets to any size (perhaps 1,000 people), begins to
feel a need to systematize its management of human assets. Perhaps the pay scales
have got way out of line, with apparently similar-level jobs paying very different
amounts; perhaps there is a feeling that there are a lot of neglected skills in the
organization that other departments could utilize if they were aware that they
existed. Perhaps individuals have complained that they don't know where they stand
or what their future is; perhaps the unions have requested standardized benefits and
procedures. Whatever the historical origins, some kind of central organization,
normally named a personnel department, is formed to put some system into the
haphazardry. The systems that they adopt are often modelled on the world of
production, because that is the world with the best potential for order and system.
Exercise b
We all tend to complain about our memories. Despite the elegance of the human
memory system, it is not infallible, and we have to learn to live with its fallibility. It
seems to be socially much more acceptable to complain of a poor memory, and it is
somehow much more acceptable to blame a social lapse on 'a terrible memory',
than to attribute it to stupidity or insensitivity. But how much do we know about our
own memories? Obviously we need to remember our memory lapses in order to
know just how bad our memories are. Indeed one of the most amnesic patients I
have ever tested was a lady suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome, memory loss
following chronic alcoholism. The test involved presenting her with lists of words;
after each list she would comment with surprise on her inability to recall the words,
saying: 'I pride myself on my memory!' She appeared to have forgotten just how bad
her memory was'.
Substitution and ellipsis
Identify examples of substitution and ellipsis in this text:
Exercise c
The human memory system is remarkably efficient, but it is of course extremely

fallible. That being so, it makes sense to take full advantage of memory aids to
minimize the disruption caused by such lapses. If external aids are used, it is
sensible to use them consistently and systematically - always put appointments in
your diary, always add wanted items to a shopping list, and so on. If you use
internal aids such as mnemonics, you must be prepared to invest a reasonable
amount of time in mastering them and practicing them. Mnemonics are like tools
and cannot be used until forged. Overall, however, as William James pointed out
(the italics are mine): 'Of two men with the same outward experiences and the same
amount of mere native tenacity, the one who thinks over his experiences most and
weaves them into systematic relations with each other will be the one with the best
memory.'
Exercise d
This conflict between tariff reformers and free traders was to lead to the "agreement
to differ" convention in January 1932, and the resignation of the Liberals from the
government in September 1932; but, until they resigned, the National Government
was a genuine coalition in the sense in which that term is used on the continent: a
government comprising independent yet conflicting elements allied together, a
government within which party conflict was not superseded but rather contained -
in short, a power-sharing government, albeit a seriously unbalanced one.
Exercise e
The number of different words relating to 'camel' is said to be about six thousand.
There are terms to refer to riding camels, milk camels and slaughter camels; other
terms to indicate the pedigree and geographical origin of the camel; and still others
to differentiate camels in different stages of pregnancy and to specify in-numerable
other characteristics important to a people so dependent upon camels in their daily
life (Thomas, 1937)
Exercise f
There were, broadly, two interrelated reasons for this, the first relating to Britain's
economic and Imperial difficulties, the second to the internal dissension in all three
parties.
Conjunction
Identify examples of conjunction in the following texts:
Exercise g
These two forms of dissent coalesced in the demand for a stronger approach to the
Tory nostrum of tariff reform. In addition, trouble threatened from the mercurial
figure of Winston Churchill, who had resigned from the Shadow Cabinet in January
1931 in protest at Baldwin's acceptance of eventual self-government for India.
Exercise h
These two sets of rules, though distinct, must not be looked upon as two co-ordinate
and independent systems. On the contrary, the rules of Equity are only a sort of
supplement or appendix to the Common Law; they assume its existence but they add
something further.
Lexical cohesion
Identify examples of lexical cohesion in the following texts:

Exercise i
The clamor of complaint about teaching in higher education and, more especially,
about teaching methods in universities and technical colleges, serves to direct
attention away from the important reorientation which has recently begun. The
complaints, of course, are not unjustified. In dealing piece-meal with problems
arising from rapidly developing subject matter, many teachers have allowed courses
to become over-crowded, or too specialized, or they have presented students with a
number of apparently unrelated courses failing to stress common principles. Many,
again, have not developed new teaching methods to deal adequately with larger
numbers of students, and the new audio-visual techniques tend to remain in the
province of relatively few enthusiasts despite their great potential for class and
individual teaching.
Exercise j
When we look closely at a human face we are aware of many expressive details - the
lines of the forehead, the wideness of the eyes, the curve of the lips, the jut of the
chin. These elements combine to present us with a total facial expression which we
use to interpret the mood of our companion. But we all know that people can 'put on
a happy face' or deliberately adopt a sad face without feeling either happy or sad.
Faces can lie, and sometimes can lie so well that it becomes hard to read the true
emotions of their owners. But there is at least one facial signal that cannot easily be
'put on'. It is a small signal, and rather a subtle one, but because it tells the truth it
is of special interest. It comes from the pupils and has to do with their size in
relation to the amount of light that is falling upon them.
3. Discourse markers or Connectors
Connectors, also called conjunctions, are words or expressions which we use to establish
different types of relationships between words or sentences. When we use connectors
appropriately, we organize what we say in a more logical, understandable way.
List of discourse markers/ connectors

Listing Adding information Giving ones own opinion
Firstly, Also, too, then In my view; To my mind, In my
At first sight Furthermore... opinion, As I see it,
First of all Moreover... I think that , I believe that , I have
In the first place In addition to that ... come to the conclusion that,
To start with Above all...... I would not say that ..., Therefore
In the second place What is more ... I cannot agree with ...,
Second, Secondly, Additionally I am doubtful whether / certain
Third, Thirdly, And eventually that ...
To begin / start with ..., to Apart from + noun besides , According to the text ...
conclude with In addition to + noun, in addition, It seems to me that ...
In the first place, in the second moreover, what's more. Another argument is that ...
place On the one hand, On the other As far as I am concerned, ....
Next, then, finally, last(ly) hand, One reason is that ...
To conclude... on top of that, I would say that ...
Last but not least... As we have seen, ...
To summarize, to sum up As we know from ...., ...
For all these reasons I would
support the view that ...
As a result ...
In short ...
With regard to ...
It is for this reason that I think ...
I am convinced that ...
I feel that...
Exemplifying Result Reformulating

For example (e.g.), for instance Consequently to put it another way
That is (i.e.) Hence in other words
That is to say Therefore
... Such as ... Thus
Namely... As a result
Because of that ...-
Thats why
Alternative Contrasting Concession
on the one hand... , on the other On the contrary Besides, however, still, though,
hand ... In contrast to that In spite of that, despite that
But , yet, however Admittedly
Nevertheless ... If, unless
Whereas ..., while ...
Neither.... nor ...
On the one hand ..., on the other
hand ...
However
Instead of
Though, although
On the contrary
Concluding/ Summarizing Explaining causes Expressing in other way
All in all... / in conclusion ... Because of + noun In other words,
All in all, Due to + noun In short,
In brief, In short, Due to the fact that + sentence That is (to say),
On the whole, To sum up, For this/that reason
Expressing facts Modifying Narrating
Actually Above all After that
As a matter of fact At least All of a sudden
In fact Basically Finally
Really Especially First of all
essentially In the end
in general In the meantime
in particular Meanwhile
more or less Next
on the whole Suddenly,
to a certain extent Then
While
Exercise 9
Read the following two paragraphs. What is their function? Underline

or Highlight all the discourse markers, especially those associated
with the main function of the texts.
Paragraph 1
If you are planning to buy a personal computer, you should know some of the basic
similarities and differences between PCs and Macs. First of all, both PCs and Macs
are composed of the same elements: a CPU, the electronic circuitry to run the
computer; memory (hard and/or floppy disk drives) for storing information; five
input devices such as a keyboard or mouse for putting information into the
computer; and output devices such as a monitor, printer, and audio speakers for
conveying information. They also have the same uses: PCs are used to communicate
on computer networks, to write (with the help of word processing and desktop
publishing software), to track finances, and to play games. Macs are likewise used
to communicate, write, calculate, and entertain.
Paragraph 2
There are some differences, however. Whereas you will find more PCs in business
offices, you will find more Macs in classrooms. Although Macs are the computers of
choice of people who do a lot of art and graphic design in their work, PCs seem to
be the choice of people who do a lot of number crunching. Finally, there is a
difference in the availability of software, vendors, and service for the two
computers. In general, there is a lot of PC-compatible software, but relatively little
Mac software. Furthermore, for a Mac, you must purchase your machine and get
service from a Macintosh-authorized dealer, whereas many different computer
stores sell and service PCs.
Unit 7: Punctuation
1. Use of punctuation Marks

Extracted from: https://www.kent.ac.uk/learning/resources/studyguides/grammarspellingandpunctuation.pdf
Commas are used to separate parts of a sentence. They tell readers to pause between words or
groups of words, and they help clarify the meanings of sentences.
Commas are used to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
Example: Practice will be held before school, in the afternoon, and at night.
Commas are used after an introductory dependent clause (a group of words before the
subject of a sentence that do not form a complete sentence).
Example: If your friends enjoy Chinese food, they will love this restaurant.
Commas are used to set off introductory words, introductory adverbial, participial, or
infinitive phrases, and longer introductory prepositional phrases.
Example: Incidentally, I was not late this morning. (Word) Hoping for a bigger fish, Rob
spent three more hours fishing. (Phrase)
Commas are used between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
Example: My dog had fleas, so we gave him a bath.
Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses.

Example: The man, I think, had a funny laugh.
Commas set off an appositive (a word or phrase that renames a noun).

Example: Tanya, Debbie's sister, gave a brilliant speech last night.
End of sentence punctuation is used to let the reader know when a thought is finished.
A statement (or declarative sentence) is followed by a period.

Example: Orem is the home of Utah Valley State College.
A direct question (or interrogative sentence) is followed by a question mark.

Example: When did Joe buy a red shirt?
Do not use a question mark after a declarative sentence that contains an indirect
question.
Example: Marie wants to know when Joe bought a red shirt.
An exclamatory sentence is followed by an exclamation point.
Example: What a good movie!
Use exclamation marks sparingly because they can unnecessarily exaggerate

sentences.
Example: Monet was the most influential painter of his time! (Most emphasizes
influential painter; therefore, an exclamation point is not needed.)
Semicolons are used to separate clauses or phrases that are related and that receive equal
emphasis.
Semicolons join independent clauses in a compound sentence if no coordinating

conjunction is used.
Example: Michael seemed preoccupied; he answered our questions abruptly.
Semicolons are used before a conjunctive adverb (transition word) that joins the
clauses of a compound sentence.
Example: The emergency room was crowded; however, Warren was helped
immediately.
Semicolons help avoid confusion in lists where there are already commas.
Example: We traveled to London, England; Paris, France; Berlin, Germany; and
Sofia, Bulgaria
Colons follow independent clauses and are used to call attention to the information that
comes after.
Colons come after the independent clause and before the word, phrase, sentence,
quotation, or list it is introducing.
Examples
Joe has only one thing on his mind: girls. (word)

Joe has only one thing on his mind: the girl next door. (phrase)
Joe has only one thing on his mind: he wants to go out with Linda. (clause)
Joe has several things on his mind: his finals, his job, and Linda. (list)
Never use a colon after a verb that directly introduces a list.
INCORRECT: The things on Joes mind are: finals, work, and Linda.
CORRECT: The things on Joes mind are finals, work, and Linda.
Hyphens are used to form compound words or join word units. They are used to join
prefixes, suffixes, and letters to words.
Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with
fractions used as modifiers.
Examples:
Forty-two applicants two-thirds majority (two-thirds is an adjective modifying

majority)
Three-fourths empty (three-fourths is an adverb modifying empty)
Two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here because
thirds is a noun being modified by two)
Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when it comes before the word it
modifies. However, some compound adjectives are always hyphenated, such as
well-balanced. Look up compound adjectives in the dictionary if you are unsure
whether or not to hyphenate them.
Example:
A well-liked author (an author who is well liked)

A world-renowned composer (a composer who is world renowned)
Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix -elect; and with all
prefixes before a proper noun or proper adjective.
Example:
All-star, ex-mayor, pro-Canadian, senator-elect, anti-Semitic, non-European, self-

control self-image
Dashes connect groups of words to other groups of words in order to emphasize a point or
show that the information is unessential. Usually the dash separates words in the middle of
a sentence from the rest of the sentence, or it leads to material at the end of the sentence.
In the middle of a sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a group of words or
make them stand out from the rest of the sentence.
Example:
Linda Simpson's prescription for the economy, lower interest rates, higher
employment, and less government spending, was rejected by the president's
administration.
BECOMES:
Linda Simpson's prescription for the economylower interest rates, higher
employment, and less government spendingwas rejected by the president's
administration.
The dash can also be used to attach material to the end of a sentence when there is a
clear break in the continuity of the sentence or when an explanation is being
introduced.
Example: The president will be unable to win enough votes for another term of
officeunless, of course, he can reduce unemployment and the deficit soon.
Example: It was a close callthe sudden gust of wind pushed the helicopter to
within inches of the power line.
Apostrophes are used to show possession or to indicate where a letter has been omitted to
form a contraction.
To show possession, add an apostrophe and an -s to singular nouns or indefinite

pronouns that end in one or body.
Example: Susan's wrench, anyone's problem
Add only an apostrophe for plural possessive nouns ending in -s.

Example: my parents' car, the musicians' instruments
Add an apostrophe and an -s for plural possessive nouns that do not end in -s.
Example: the men's department, my children's toys
Add an apostrophe and an -s for singular possessive nouns that end in -s.
Example: Chris's cookbook, the business's system
Do not use an apostrophe with possessive personal pronouns including yours, his,
hers, its, ours, their, and whose.
Apostrophes are also used in contractions, two words which have been combined
into one, to mark where the missing letter or letters would be.
Example: I am= I'm; I have = I've; who is = who's; let us = let's; cannot = can't
Quotation marks are used to show the beginning and end of a quotation or a title of a short
work.
Quotation marks enclose the exact words of a person (direct quotation).
Example: Megan said, "Kurt has a red hat."
Do not use quotation marks around a paraphrase (using your own words to express
the authors ideas) or a summary of the author's words.
Example: Megan said that Kurts hat was red.
Quotation marks set off the titles of magazine articles, poems, reports, and chapters
within a book. (Titles of books, magazines, plays, and other whole publications
should be underlined or italicized.)
Example: "The Talk of the Town" is a regular feature in Time magazine.
Quotation marks with other punctuation
Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.

Example: Aida said, Aaron has a blue shirt.
Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.

Example: He calls me his "teddy bear"; I'm not a bear.
Place question marks or exclamation points inside the quotation marks if they
punctuate the quotation only.
Example: "Are we too late?" she asked.
Place question marks or exclamation points outside the quotation marks if they
punctuate the entire sentence.
Example: Why did she say, "We are too late"?
Parentheses: Elements inside parentheses are related to the sentence but are nonessential.
Parentheses set off additions or expressions that are not necessary to the sentence.
They tend to de-emphasize what they set off.
Example: We visited several European countries (England, France, Spain) on our
trip last year.
Parentheses enclose figures within a sentence.

Example: Grades will be based on (1) participation, (2) in-class writing, and (3)
exams.
When the group inside the parentheses forms a complete sentence but is inserted
inside a large sentence, no period is needed. However, if a question mark or
exclamation point is needed, it may be used.
Example: The snow (she saw it as she passed the window) was now falling heavily.
When parentheses are used to enclose an independent sentence, the end punctuation
belongs inside the parentheses.
Example: Mandy told me she saw Amys new car. (I saw Amys car before Mandy.)
She said it was a nice car.
Exercise 10
For questions 1-18 below, correct all punctuation errors by writing in

the correct marks in their correct places. Some sentences only need
basic punctuation, like apostrophes and periods; others require more
complex forms, such as dashes, hyphens, colons, and ellipses
1. The paper was clear pertinent and well written

2. Harry and Donnas honeymoon was just as frantic as their wedding
3. She won the race easily in fact she set a state record
4. I am recalling his story I believe as accurately as I can
5. The last year of the twentieth century is 2000 not 99
6. I expected a package this morning however I waited all day for it
to arrive
7. Rainy days arent all that bad they provide the water crucial for
all life
8. She witnessed a crime on her street she promptly locked her doors
9. We traveled to Rome Italy Athens Greece and Paris France
10. Shakespeare said it best Alls well that ends well
11. He is not well- liked although he says he is everyones friend
12. Sarah she had always loved animals took in the stray kitten
13. Certainly you may borrow my book Gary
14. The 1950s singer Patty Paige sang the novelty song How Much is
That Doggie in the Window
15. Nearly all Americans own a Bible but few including scholars of
literature have read it
16. Hmmm its a tough decision but Ill take the red one
17. Tuesday July 25 1967 is my birthday
18. I do the laundry make dinner and pick up the kids I should
receive a medal for all of these chores
Unit 8: Style of the written text
2. Elements of style
Style in literature is the literary element that describes the ways that the author uses words
the author's word choice, sentence structure, figurative language, and sentence
arrangement all work together to establish mood, images, and meaning in the text. Style
describes how the author describes events, objects, and ideas.
Plain and clear language

The point of research is to illuminate and clarify, not to obscure and muddle. So, use
language that is clear, straightforward. Avoid a flowery style, obscure words, buzz words
and long complex sentences.
Tenses
Most of your empirical research will be written in the past tense since you are reporting on
the data collecting process you have already undertaken and the findings that resulted from
this. Some sections, like the Review of Literature, will be written in the present tense since
you are discussing what others are thinking, and the Discussion will be a combination of
past and present.
First person authorship

The trend in academic writing is to use the first person as the author of the text, e.g. I
will discuss etc. However, check with your Department first whether this is acceptable
in your discipline. Some disciplines still insist on the use of the third person (e.g. the
researcher found that ). Check with your supervisor.
Gender pronouns
In order to avoid clumsy constructions when the gender is not clear, (e.g. A personal
trainer would advise his or her clients on), scientific writers use plural constructions
(e.g. Personal trainers advise their clients on). Use gender-neutral constructions like
speaker, police officer, representative instead of spokesman or policeman.
Active and passive voice

Use of "voice" shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. When the subject of the
sentence performs the action expressed by the verb, the voice is said to be "active". When
the subject undergoes the action of the verb, the voice is "passive". A simple example of the
active voice is "we carried it" which, when written passively, becomes "it was carried".
Writing in the active voice is more interesting for a reader, and is increasingly the preferred
style in academic writing because the agent in the active voice is clearly identified (e.g.
Smith found that aflatoxins infected the blood) rather than obscuring the agent (e.g. It
was found that the blood was infected by aflatoxins).
Clear referents (determiners)

With words such as it, we, this, them it is important that you have indicated very
clearly who at what is being referred to. Look out especially for the use of it when the
previous sentence doesnt make clear what it stands for, e.g. The response indicated a
link with previous research. It is an issue that needs further research? What does it refer
to: The response? The link? Previous research?
Also, ensure that danglers (dangling participles ending in ing) match with the subject
that follows immediately after the comma. E.g. Drawing the sample for the case study,
time constraints limited the size. Who drew the sample?, the time constraints? No, you did.
So re-write to read Drawing the sample, I had to limit the size because of time
constraints.
3. Twelve common academic writing mistakes

Extracted from:
https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PDF/twelve_common_errors_uwmadison_writingcenter_rev_sept2012.pdf
The following list contains only brief examples and explanations intended for you to use as
reminders while you are editing your papers.
Sentence Fragments: Make sure each word group you have punctuated as a sentence
contains a grammatically complete and independent thought that can stand alone as an
acceptable sentence.
Incorrect: Tests of the Shroud of Turin have produced some curious findings. For
example, the pollen of forty-eight plants native to Europe and the Middle East.
Revised: Tests of the Shroud of Turin have produced some curious findings. For
example, the cloth contains the pollen of forty-eight plants native to Europe and the
Middle East.
Incorrect: Scientists report no human deaths due to excessive caffeine consumption.

Although caffeine does cause convulsions and death in certain animals.
Revised: Scientists report no human deaths due to excessive caffeine consumption,
although caffeine does cause convulsions and death in certain animals.
Sentence Sprawl: Too many equally weighted phrases and clauses produce tiresome sent
Incorrect: The hearing was planned for Monday, December 2, but not all of the
witnesses could be available, so it was rescheduled for the following Friday.
[There are no grammatical errors here, but the sprawling sentence does not
communicate clearly and concisely.]
Revised: The hearing, which had been planned for Monday, December 2, was
rescheduled for the following Friday so that all witnesses would be able to attend.
Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers: Place modifiers near the words they describe; be sure
the modified words actually appear in the sentence.
Incorrect: When writing a proposal, an original task is set for research [Who is
writing a proposal?]
Revised: When writing a proposal, a scholar sets an original task for research.
Incorrect: Many tourists visit Arlington National Cemetery, where veterans and
military personnel are buried every day from 9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m.
Revised: Every day from 9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m., many tourists visit Arlington
National Cemetery, where veterans and military personnel are buried
Faulty Parallelism: Be sure you use grammatically equal sentence elements to express two
or more matching ideas or items in a series
.
Incorrect: The candidates goals include winning the election, a health program,
and education.
Revised: The candidates goals include winning the election, enacting a national
health program, and improving the educational system.
Incorrect: Some critics are not so much opposed to capital punishment as

postponing it for so long.
Revised: Some critics are not so much opposed to sentencing convicts to capital
punishment as they are to postponing executions for so long.
Unclear Pronoun Reference: Pronouns must clearly refer to definite referents [nouns]. Use
it, they, that, these, those, and which carefully to prevent confusion.
Incorrect: Einstein was a brilliant mathematician. This is how he was able to

explain the workings of the universe.
Revised: Einstein, who was a brilliant mathematician, used his quantitative ability
to explain the workings of universe.
Incorrect: Because Senator Martin is less interested in the environment than in
economic development, she sometimes neglects it.
Revised: Because of her interest in economic development, Senator Martin
sometimes neglects the environment.
Pronoun Agreement: Be sure that each pronoun agrees in number (singular or plural) with
the noun to which it refers (its antecedent or referent).
Incorrect: When a candidate runs for office, they must expect to have their personal
life scrutinized.
Revised: When candidates run for office, they must expect to have their personal
lives scrutinized.
Incorrect: According to tenets of the new urbanism, everyone needs to consider

the relationship of their house to the surrounding community.
Revised: According to tenets of the new urbanism, everyone needs to consider the
relationship of his or her house to the surrounding community.
Incorrect Pronoun Case: Determine whether the pronoun is being used as a subject, object,
or possessive in the sentence, and select the pronoun form to match.
Incorrect: Castros communist principles inevitably led to an ideological conflict

between he and President Kennedy.
Revised: Castros communist principles inevitably led to an ideological conflict
between him and President Kennedy.
Incorrect: Because strict constructionists recommend fidelity to the Constitution as

written, no one objects more than them to judicial reinterpretation.
Revised: Because strict constructionists recommend fidelity to the Constitution as
written, no one objects more than they [object] to judicial reinterpretation.
Omitted Commas: Use commas to signal nonrestrictive or nonessential material to prevent

confusion, and to indicate relationships among ideas and sentence parts
Incorrect: When it comes to eating people differ in their tastes.

Revised: When it comes to eating, people differ in their tastes.
Incorrect: The Huns who were Mongolian invaded Gaul in 451.

Revised: The Huns, who were Mongolian, invaded Gaul in 451.
[Who were Mongolian adds information but does not change the core meaning of
the sentence because Huns were a Mongolian people; it is therefore nonrestrictive or
nonessential and should be set apart with commas.]
Superfluous Commas: Unnecessary commas make sentences difficult to read.
Incorrect: Field trips are required, in several courses, such as, botany and geology.
Revised: Field trips are required in several courses, such as botany and geology.
Incorrect: The term scientific illiteracy, has become almost a clich in

educational circles.
Revised: The term scientific illiteracy has become almost a clich in educational
circles.
Comma Splice: Do not link two independent clauses with a comma (unless you also use a
coordinating conjunction and, or, but, for, nor, so yet). Instead use a period or semicolon, or
rewrite the sentence.
Incorrect: In 1952 Japans gross national product was one third that of France, by
the late 1970s it was larger than the GNPs of France and Britain combined.
Revised: In 1952 Japans gross national product was one third that of France. By
the late 1970s it was larger than the GNPs of France and Britain combined.
Incorrect: Diseased coronary arteries are often surgically bypassed, however half of
bypass grafts fail within ten years.
Revised: Diseased coronary arteries are often surgically bypassed; however, half of
bypass grafts fail within ten years.
Apostrophe Errors: Apostrophes indicate possessives and contractions but not plurals.
Caution: its, your, their, and whose are possessives (but no apostrophes). Its, youre,
theyre, and whos are contractions.
Incorrect: In the current conflict its uncertain whos borders their contesting.
Revised: In the current conflict it is [its] uncertain whose borders they are [theyre]
contesting.
Incorrect: The Aztecs rituals of renewal increased in frequency over the course of
time.
Revised: The Aztecs rituals of renewal increased in frequency over the course of
time.
Words Easily Confused: Effect is most often a noun (the effect) and affect is most often a
verb. Other pairs commonly confused: lead/led and accept/except. Check a glossary of
usage to find the right choice.
Incorrect: The recession had a negative affect on sales.

Revised: The recession had a negative effect on sales. (or) The recession affected
sales negatively.
Incorrect: The laboratory instructor choose not to offer detailed advise.

Revised: The laboratory instructor chose not to offer detailed advice.
Exercise 11
Here is a list of common English mistakes intermediate, upper-intermediate,

and advanced ESL students make. Generally, these are grammar mistakes. Find
and correct the mistakes. Explain what each mistake is about.
There is very cold in the summer.

According to me, thats true.
If I will be late, Ill call you.
I am used to wake up early on weekdays.
She sat in the end of the table.
I stopped to smoke cigarettes because it was unhealthy.
It is very good weather.
I need to concentrate myself on my homework.
Did you ever read the book Moby Dick?
Brian is so stupid man.
In Spain are many nice beaches.
I told that I will come back later.
In my city, bars are closing at 10 p.m. on weeknights.
Lets have a dinner together sometime.
Do you know where is the nearest police station?
I often do mistakes when I speak English.
I cant find nothing in my neighborhood.
Ive seen that movie last Thursday.
How does your new painting look like?
I look forward to see you next month.
Can I have a question?
The news on TV are always sad.
What means this word?
The capital of the United Kingdom is the London.
Doctor is a hard job.
Surprising is that no one was hurt.
I suggested to buy a new car.
My teacher is a 34-years old woman.
If I would be taller, Id play basketball.
Thats not that bad idea.
It depends on countries.
Even I was tired, I went to the party.
I explained her the problem twice.

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UNIVERSIDAD DE SUCRE

Faculty of Education and Sciences

Two class meetings each week: 2 hours each, 64 per semester

In short, writing is not private; it is always a form of social dialogue, a way of

1.1 General Purposes of Writing

1.2 Kinds of Writing

Writing to inform: (Exposition)

Writing to convince: (Persuasion and Argumentation)

Writing to create: (Narration and Description)

Writing to express the self: (Journals, Autobiographies, and Personal Essays)

In teaching of writing activities, a teacher is expected to be able to recognize the general

Content: the substance of the writing the ideas expressed.

Meanwhile, Nunan (1988) says Successful writing then involves:

Mastering the mechanics of letter formation;

1.4 Characteristics of Good Writing

Thought-provoking or emotionally inspiring: Perhaps the most important quality of

2.1 Defining academic writing

2.2 Type of Academic Writing

Literature Review (or Review of Literature): In this assignment, often a precursor to an

Consider the nature of Speaking and Writing, both productive skills.

Consider the characteristics of good writing and then, brainstorm to

1. The significance of critical thinking in higher education

When it comes to university contexts, critical thinking is defined in terms of abilities or

3. The Connection between Reading and Writing Skills

David Pearson writes about the connection between Reading and

Go to the web and search the video

3.1 Understanding different types of text

An advert is written to persuade you to buy something.

Persuasive texts: A persuasive text tries to encourage you to do something. It may:

Enjoy an Enchanting Holiday in the Maldives

What can our holiday offer you?

Luxurious accommodation aboard the fabulous Orient Explorer

Prices start from just 899 per person.

3.2 Ways of reading texts

be looking for something quite specific;

Read the opening paragraph and the conclusion carefully.

Critical reading: Critical reading is a further dimension of in-depth reading. Reading a

Interpretation: When we read critically for interpretation, we read to discover meaning

Evaluation: This is a process by which we establish the worth or merit of a text.

How do we arrive at an estimate of merit or worth?

First - We use interpretation to discover the meaning of the text.

To put a value on a case or argument we draw on:

Our own knowledge and expertise;

1.2 Basic elements of sentences

The lawyer wrote.

The lawyer wrote the brief.

To win is her objective.

What President Aquino wants most is political stability.

President Roosevelt ordered the evacuation.

After two years, Senator Harris resigned.

The building inspector examined the wiring.

Pandas eat voraciously

[Subject + transitive verb + direct object]

[Subject + transitive verb + indirect object + direct object]

[Subject + verb + complement]

[Subject + verb + complement]

Modifiers (typically adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases used as adjectives

Long speeches are unacceptable. [What kind of speeches?]

Marion will go either to Butler University to study pharmacology or to Indiana

Because she was outspoken on the subject of women writers, Virginia

Identify each of the underlined words or phrases as a subject (S), verb

1.2 Sentence types and functions