Tissues
Ms. Marie Vonne Olivar-Venus
Tissues
- Group of cells with a common embryonic origin
and
with similar structure and function
- The arrangement of tissues determine each
organs structure and function
- Histology the science that deals with the
study of tissues
Primary types of Tissues
1. epithelium (covering)
2. connective (support)
3. nervous (control)
4. muscle (movement)
Origin of tissues
- 8 days after fertilization several cell divisions
formation of mass cells mass cells embeds in
the lining of the uterus formation of the
primary germ layers
- (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm)
- The primary germ layers are the embryonic
tissues from which all tissues and organs of the
body develop
- Epithelial tissue all three germ layers
- Connective tissue mesoderm
- Muscle tissue mesoderm
- Nervous tissue - ectoderm
Cell junctions
- The points of contact between adjacent plasma
membrane
- Most cells are closely joined to form a functional
unit
Types:
1. tight junction
2. anchoring junction
3. gap junction
Tight junctions
- Form fluid-tight seals between cells like the seal
on a sandwich bag
- Common among epithelial cells that line the
stomach, intestines, urinary bladder
- Prevents fluid in a cavity from leaking into the
body by passing between cells
Anchoring junction
- Fasten cells to one another or to the
extracellular fluid material
- Common in tissues subjected to friction and
stretching
e.g. outer layer of skin, cardiac muscle, epithelial
lining of GIT
- Desmosome most common type
- forms firm attachments between cells like spot
welds
- on the cytoplasmic surface, intermediate
filaments of the cytoskeleton attach to a dense
plaque of proteins
Gap junctions
- Permit electrical or chemical signals to pass
from one cell to cell
- Allow the rapid spread of action potentials from
one cell to the next in some parts of the nervous
system and in muscle of the heart and GIT
- Chemical and electrical signals that regulate
growth and differentiation may travel by way of
gap junctions in a developing embryo
- Connexons proteins spanning the gap
forming minute fluid-filled tunnels
- a tunnel where ions and small molecules
( glucose and amino acids ) can pass directly
from the cytosol of one cell into the cytosol of the
next
- Cancer cells do not have gap junctions and
therefore cannot communicate with each other,
resulting to uncoordinated cell division and occurs
in an uncontrolled manner
Types of Tissues
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
Epithelial tissue
- Epithelium
- The lining, covering, and the glandular tissue of
the body
- Glandular epithelium forms various glands in
the body
the cells of the most epithelial tissues are
constantly replaced by mitosis of progenitor cells,
thus, epithelial tissue is constantly being
regenerated
- Covering and lining epithelium covers all free
body surfaces and contains versatile cells
- (outer layer of the skin and others dip into the
body to line its cavities)
- Nearly all substances given off or received by
the body must pass through the epithelium forms
the boundaries that separate human body from
the environment
Functions of Epithelial tissue
1. protection
2. absorption
3. filtration
4. secretion
Protection
 - The epithelium of the skin protects against
bacterial and chemical damage
- The epithelial lining of the respiratory tract has
cilia, which sweep dust and other debris away
from the lungs
absorption
- Epithelial linings of the stomach and small
intestine, which absorbs food into the body
Filtration
- Epithelium in the kidney both filters and
absorbs
secretion
- Specialty of the gland, which produce such
substances as perspiration, oil, digestive
enzymes, and mucus
Special characteristics
1. epithelial cells fit closely together to form
continuous sheets
- neighboring cells are bound together at many
points by cell junctions ( desmosomes and tight
junctions )
2. presence of apical surface
- apical surfaces one free surface or edge
present in all membranes
- exposed to the body exterior or to the cavity of
an internal organ
- the exposed surfaces of some epithelia are slick
and smooth, but others exhibit cell surface
modifications such as microvilli or cilia
3. presence of basement membrane
- basement membrane structureless material
secreted by cells, where the lower surface of an
epithelium rest
4. avascular epithelial tissue have no blood
supply of their own and depend on diffusion from
the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue
for food and oxygen
5. easy regeneration if epithelial cells are well
nourished
Classification of epithelium
Classified by the relative number of cell layers it
has:
1. simple epithelia
2. stratified epithelia
Simple epithelia
- One layer of cells
- Concerned with absorption, secretion, filtration
- Protection is not one of their specialties because
they are very thin
Types of simple epithelia
1. simple squamous
2. simple cuboidal
3. simple columnar
4. pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Simple squamous
- Flattened like fish scales (squam = scale)
- Single layer of thin squamous cells resting on a
basement membrane
- The cells fit closely together
- Usually form membranes where filtration or
exchange of substances by rapid diffusion occurs
- Forms the serous membranes or serosae
- (slick membranes that line the ventral body
cavity and cover the organs in that cavity)
Simple cuboidal
- One layer of cube shaped cells like dice resting
on a basement membrane
- Common in glands and their ducts (salivary
glands and pancreas)
- Forms the walls of the kidney tubules and
covers the surface of the ovaries
Simple columnar
- Made up of a single layer of tall cells that firm
closely together
- Goblet cells producing a lubricating mucus
- Lines the entire length of the digestive tract
from the stomach to the anus
Mucosae / mucosa / mucus membrane
- epithelial tissues that line body cavities open to
the body exterior
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- All types rest on a basement membrane
- Some of its cells are shorter than others and
their nuclei appear at different heights above the
basement membrane
- It has different length and height of nuclei
- Functions mainly for absorption and secretion
PSCCE lines the respiratory tract
- the mucus produced by the goblet cells in this
epithelium traps dust and other debris, and the
cilia propel the mucus upward and away from the
lungs
Stratified epithelia
- Consist of two or more layers
- More durable than the simple epithelia
- Primary function is protection
Types of stratified epithelia
1. stratified squamous
2. stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar
3. transitional epithelium
4. glandular epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Most common stratified epithelium in the body
- The cells at the free edge are squamous cells,
whereas those close to the basement are
cuboidal and columnar
- Found in sites that receive a good deal of abuse - Sweat and oil glands
or friction - (external) liver
- Esophagus, mouth, outer portion of the skin - (internal) pancreas

Stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar Connective tissue

- Stratified cuboidal consists of two cell - Connects body parts
layers with cuboidal surface cell - Found everywhere in the body
- Stratified columnar columnar cells, but its - The most abundant and widely distributed of
basal cell vary in size and shape the tissue types
- Both of these epithelia are rare in the body,
found mainly in the ducts of large glands Functions:
1. protection
Transitional epithelium 2. support
- Highly modified, stratified squamous epithelium 3. binding together other body structures
- Cells of the basal layer are cuboidal and
columnar, with varying appearance at the free Common characteristics of CT
surface 1. variation in blood supply
- Forms the lining of only few organs (urinary 2. extracellular matrix
bladder, ureters and urethra) Variations in Blood Supply
- This are also subjected to considerable - Well vascularized (good blood supply)
stretching - Tendons and ligaments have poor blood supply
When the organs are not stretched, the and cartilages are avascular
membrane is multi-layered, and the superficial - Tendons, ligaments and cartilages heal very
cells are rounded and dome-like slowly when injured (due to poor blood supply)
- When the organs are distended with urine, the Extracellular matrix
epithelium thins, and the surface cells flatten and - Non-living substance outside the connective
become squamous-like tissue cells
- This ability of transitional cells to slide past to - Produced by the CT cells and then secreted to
one another and change their shape allows the the exterior
ureter wall to stretch as a greater volume of - Consist of living cells that are surrounded by
urine flows through the tube like organ matrix
- It allows more urine stored I he bladder - Maybe liquid, semi-solid or gel-like, or very
hard (depending on CT type)
Glandular epithelium - The strength depends on the amount of cell
- Gland consists of one or more cells that matrix concentration
make and secret particular product - Provides the CT to bear weight and withstand
Secretion the product produced by the gland stretching and other abuses, abrasion, that is no
- typically contains protein molecules in an other tissue could endure
aqueous (water based fluid) Types of fibers in extracellular matrix
- an active process in which the glandular 1. collagen ( white ) fibers
cells obtain needed materials from the blood and 2. elastic ( yellow ) fibers
use them to make their secretion, which then 3. reticular ( fine collagen ) fibers
discharge - The fibers are made by CT cells and then
secreted
Two major types of glands
1. endocrine Types of Connective tissues
2. exocrine The major differences of CT are their fiber type
and the number of fibers in the matrix
Endocrine glands 1. bone
- Lose their connection (duct) to the surface 2. cartilage
(ductless) 3. dense CT
- Their secretions (hormones) diffuse directly into 4. loose CT
the blood vessels that weave through the gland 5. areolar CT
- Thyroid, adrenals, pituitary 6. adipose CT
7. reticular CT
Exocrine glands 8. blood
- With ducts, where their secretions empty
through the ducts to the epithelial surface Bone
- Both internal and external - Osseous tissue
- Composed of bone cells sitting in cavities called
lacunae and surrounded by layers of a very hard
matrix that contains calcium salts in addition to
larger number of collagen fibers
- Has an exceptional ability to protect and
support other body organs because of its rock-
like hardness
- e.g. the skull protects the brain
Cartilage
- Less hard and more flexible than bone
- Found only in few places in the body
Types:
1. hyaline cartilage
2. fibrocartilage
3. elastic cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
- Most common / widely distributed in the body
- Have abundant collagen fibers hidden by a
rubbery matrix with a glassy (hyaline = glass),
- Blue white appearance
- Form the supporting structures of the larynx
- 1. supporting structures of the larynx
- 2. costal cartilages (attaching the ribs of the
breastbone)
3. articular surface of the bone
4. fetal skeleton (most of the cartilage has been
replaced by bone by the time the baby is born)
Fibrocartilage
- Form the cushion-like discs between the
vertebrae of the spinal column
Elastic cartilage
- Found where a structure with elasticity is
desired
- e.g. cartilage supporting the ear
Dense connective tissue
- Dense fibrous tissue
- Collagen fibers as its main matrix element
- Fibroblasts fiber forming cells located between
the collagen fibers
- manufacture the fibers
- Form strong rope-like structures such as
tendons and ligamnets
Type/sites of dense ct
1. tendons
2. ligaments
3. dermis of the skin
Tendons attach skeletal muscles to bones
Ligaments connects bone to bone at joints
- more stretchy and contain more elastic
fibers than tendons
Dermis of the skin arranged in sheets
Loose ct
- Softer and have more cells and fewer fibers
than any other CT type except blood
Areolar tissue
- Anchors internal organs
- Soft pliable tissues
- Its fluid matrix contains all types of fibers
forming a loose network
- Most of the matrix appears to be an empty
space, explaining the name of the tissue
- (areola = small open space)
Functions:
1. provides reservoir of water and salts for the
surrounding tissue
2. provides nutrients to all body cells
3. dump site for cellular wastes
4. anchors internal organs
5. cushions and protects organs
- Many types of phagocytes wander through this
tissue scavenging for bacteria, dead cells, and
other debris that they destroy
- Lamina propia soft layer of areolar CT
underlies all mucous membranes
- Edema swelling of the area where the areolar
tissue soaks up the excess fluid (like a sponge)
due to inflammation
Adipose tissue
- Fat
- An areolar tissue where fat cells predominate
- Glistening droplet of stored oil occupies most of
a fat cells volume, compressing the nucleus,
displacing it to one side
- Signet ring appearance containing the bulging
nucleus looks like a ring with a seal
Functions of adipose tissue
1. form the subcutaneous tissue beneath the
skin, where it insulates the body and protects it
from extreme cold or heat
2. fat corpuscles surrounding the kidneys and
cushions the eyeballs in their sockets
3. fat depots in the body (hips and breasts),
where fat is stored and available for fuel if
needed
Reticular ct
- Consists of a delicate network of interwoven
reticular fibers associated with reticular cells,
with resemble fibroblasts
Limited to certain sites
Functions:
1. it forms the stroma (bed or matress)
2. internal support framework, supporting many
free blood cells (largely lymphocytes)
- In lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes,
spleen, and bone marrow
Blood
- Vascular tissue
- Considered as connective tissue because it
consists of blood cells surrounded by a non-
living, fluid matrix called blood plasma
Muscle tissue
- Highly specialized to contract or shorten to
produce movement
- Called muscle fibers because of its elongated
muscle cells to provide a long axis for contraction
Types of Muscle Tissue:
1. skeletal
2. cardiac
3. smooth
Skeletal tissue
- Packaged by CT sheets into organs
- Can be controlled voluntarily, forming the flash
of the body
- Pulls the bones and skin when it contracts
- Contraction causes gross body movements or
changes in facial expressions
- The cells of skeletal muscles are long,
cylindrical and multinucleated with obvious
striations (stripes)
Cardiac muscle
- Found only in the heart
- The heart acts as pump and propels blood
through the blood vessels because of its
contraction
- Cardiac cells are straited, uninucleated,
branched cells that fit tightly together (like
clasped fingers) at junctions called intercalated
disk
- Intercalated disk contain gap junctions that
allow ions to pass freely from cell to cell,
resulting in rapid conduction of the exciting
electrical impulse across the heart
- Involuntary muscle, which means that we
cannot continuously control the activity of the
heart
Smooth muscle
- Visceral organs (absence of striations)
- Smooth muscle cells have a single nucleus and
are spindle-shaped
- (pointed at each end)
- Found in the walls of hollow organs such as
stomach, bladder, uterus, blood vessels
- Smooth muscle contraction causes alternating
constriction (becomes smaller) and dilation
(enlarges) of the cavity of an organ to propel
substances through the organ along a specific
pathway
- Peristalsis wave-like motion that keeps food
moving through the small intestine
Nervous tissue
- The fibers of blood are soluble protein
molecules that become visible only during blood
clotting
- Neurons receive and conduct electrochemical
impulses from one part of the body to another
Major functional characteristics:
1. irritability
2. conductivity
- The cytoplasm is drawn out into long extensions
(as much as 3 feet or more in the leg, which
allows a single neuron to conduct an impulse
over long distances in the body)
- Neurons along with a special group of
supporting cells (that insulate, support, and
protect the delicate neurons) make up the
structures of the nervous system (brain, spinal
cord, and nerves)
Tissue repair (wound healing)
- Begins almost immediately when tissue injury
occurs, stimulating the bodys inflammatory and
immune responses
- Inflammatory response generalized non-
specific body response that attempts to prevent
further injury
- Immune response extremely specific and
mounts a vigorous attack against recognize
invaders (bacteria, viruses or toxins)
Factors affecting wound healing
1. type of tissue damaged
2. severity of the injury
- Clean cuts (incisions) heal much more
successfully than ragged tears (lacerations) of
the tissue
Types of wound healing
1. regeneration
2. fibrosis
- Regeneration replacement of destroyed tissue
by the same kind of cells
- Fibrosis involves repair by dense (fibrous)
connective tissue, forming scar tissue
Types of skin wound healing
1. epidermal wound healing
2. deep wound healing
Epidermal wound healing
- Occurs within 24-48 hours after injury
- Skin injury (abrasion) response to injury
basal epidermal cells in the area of the wound
break their contacts with the basement
membrane enlargement of the basal epidermal
cells migration of basal epidermal cells as a
sheet across the wound until all advancing cells
from opposite sides of the wound meet
inhibition of continued migration / fusion of basal
epidermal cells
- (Contact inhibition) epidermal growth factor
stimulates other epidermal cells to divide and
replace the ones that have left resurface of the
wound division of the migrated cells to form
new strata thickening of the epidermis
Contact inhibition
- Inhibition / cessation of the continued migration
/ fusion of basal epidermal cells
- An epidermal cell changes its direction of
movement when it encounters another epidermal
cell, until it encounters another cell and so on
- Continued migration of the epidermal cells stops
when it is finally in contact on all sides with other
epidermal cells
- Rule: contact inhibition occurs only among like
cells (it does not occur between epidermal cells
and other types of cells)
- Malignant cells do not obey the rules of contact
inhibition
- Malignant cells have the ability to invade body
tissues with few restrictions
Deep wound healing
Phases:
1. inflammatory
2. migratory
3. proliferative
4. maturation
Inflammatory phase
- Vascular and cellular response that serves to
dispose microbes, foreign material and dying
tissue in preparation for repair vasodilation and
permeability of blood vessels migration of
WBC (neutrophils and monocytes / macrophages)
and mesenchymal cells from the bloodstream into
the wound phagocytosis of microbes, dead
tissues /cells and other harmful substances clot
formation clot hold the edges of the wound
together walls off the wounded area
- Prevention of bacteria and other harmful
substances from spreading to surrounding tissues
exposure of clot to the air
- (hemostasis) drying and hardening of the clot
scab formation
Migratory phase
- Migration of epithelial cells beneath the scab to
bridge the wound migration of fibroblasts along
fibrin threads fibroblasts synthesizes collagen
fibers and glycoproteins scar tissue formation
(fibrosis) regrowth of the damaged blood
vessels granulation tissue formation composed
of capillaries
- Granulation tissue delicate pink tissue filling
the wound
- The capillaries are fragile and bleed freely, as
when a scab is picked away from a skin wound
Proliferative phase
- Extensive growth of epithelial cells benaeth the
scab deposition of collagen by the fibroblasts in
random patterns continuing growth of blood
vessels
Maturation phase
- Restoration of dermis to normal thickness
scab sloughs off collagen fibers become more
organized - number of fibroblasts restoration
of blood vessels to normal
Fibrosis
- The process of scar tissue formation
- Sometimes so much scar tissue is formed that
that a raised scar results, one that is elevated
above the normal epidermal surface
Types of Pathologic scar:
1. hypertrophic scar
2. keloid scar
Hypertrophic scar
- The scar remain within the boundaries of the
original wound
Keloid scar
- Scar extends beyond the boundaries of the
original wound into normal surrounding tissues
Developmental aspects of cells and tissues
- It begins as a single cell, which divides
thousands of times to form multicellular
embryonic body
- The cells begin to specialize to form the primary
tissue during the very early embryonic
development and by birth, most organs are well
formed and functioning
Cell division and growth period
- Cell division is very important during the bodys
growth period
- Most cells (except neuron) undergo mitosis until
the end of puberty and maturity
- Cells that continually divides (even after
maturity)
1. cells exposed to abrasion, that continually
wear away (skin and intestinal cells)
2. liver cells (when damaged)
- Cells that completely lose their ability to divide
(amitotic)
1. heart muscle
2. nervous tissue
- Amitotic tissues are severely handicapped body processes that they control (such as
because the lost cells cannot be replaced by the metabolism and reproduction) become less
same type of cells efficient or stop altogether

Aging process Connective tissues

- Begins once maturity has been reached 1. decrease collagen in the body
- The cause of aging is still unknown 2. bones become porous and weak
Theories: 3. slow repair or tissue injuries
1. chemical insults
2. radiation Muscle tissue / nervous tissue
3. aging biologic clock 1. atrophy
- Major factor is the decreased efficiency of the
Chemical insults circulatory system, reducing nutrient and oxygen
- Occurs continually through life delivery to the body tissues
- the presence of toxic chemicals (alcohol,
certain drugs, or carbon monoxide) in the blood, Cell & tissue modifications
or the temporary absence of needed substances 1. neoplasm
such as glucose or oxygen 2. hyperplasia
- Has a cumulative effect and finally succeeds in 3. atrophy
upsetting the delicate chemical balance of the
body cells Neoplasm
- New growth
Radiation - An abnormal mass of proliferating cells that
- X-rays or ultraviolet waves contribute to the multiply wildly caused by the failure of the cells
aging process to honor normal controls on cell division
- May be benign or malignant (cancerous)
Biologic Clock
- Genetically programmed or built into our genes Hyperplasia
- An abnormal increase in the number of normal
Effects of aging cells in a tissue or organ, increasing its size
1. epithelial tissues - Enlargement of body tissues (or organs) due to
2. connective tissues local irritant or condition that stimulates the cells
3. muscle tissue - e.g. a. anemia the bone marrow goes
4. nervous tissue hyperplasia so that RBC may be produced at a
faster rate
Epithelial tissues - b. breast breast enlargement during
1. epithelial membranes become thinner and pregnancy in response to increased hormones
are more easily damaged
- Which causes sagging and loss of elasticity of Atrophy
the skin - Decrease in size of cells or tissues
2. Exocrine glands of the body (ET) become - Can occur in an organ or body area if it loses its
much less active normal stimulation
causes reduced production of oil, mucus, - e.g. muscles that are not used or that have lost
and sweat (drying out) its nerve supply begin to atrophy and waste away
3. Some endocrine glands produce rapidly
decreasing amounts of hormones and the