com/gye
ISSN: 0951-3590 (print), 1473-0766 (electronic)
REVIEW ARTICLE
Abstract Keywords
The concept of immunosenescence reflects age-related changes in immune responses, both Aging, immune system, immunosenescence,
Gynecol Endocrinol Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 88.18.136.187 on 11/13/13
cellular and serological, affecting the process of generating specific responses to foreign and innate and adaptive responses
self-antigens. The decline of the immune system with age is reflected in the increased
susceptibility to infectious diseases, poorer response to vaccination, increased prevalence of History
cancer, autoimmune and other chronic diseases. Both innate and adaptive immune responses
are affected by the aging process; however, the adaptive response seems to be more affected Received 8 September 2013
by the age-related changes in the immune system. Additionally, aged individuals tend to Accepted 3 October 2013
present a chronic low-grade inflammatory state that has been implicated in the pathogenesis Published online 12 November 2013
of many age-related diseases (atherosclerosis, Alzheimers disease, osteoporosis and diabetes).
However, some individuals arrive to advanced ages without any major health problems,
referred to as healthy aging. The immune system dysfunction seems to be somehow mitigated
in this population, probably due to genetic and environmental factors yet to be described. In
this review, an attempt is made to summarize the current knowledge on how the immune
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In order to effectively play their role as sentinels in the entry differences have been observed in the expression of adhesion or
points of the organism, DCs recognize conserved pathogen- chemokine receptors [23,30,31]. Cytokine secretion by NK cells
associated molecular patterns using pattern recognition receptors also seems to be reduced [31] as well as variably diminished
(PRRs) [17], including Toll-like receptors whose function has proliferative response to stimulation with IL-2 [26].
been shown to be compromised in the elderly [18]. Phagocytosis
and migration are also negatively affected by old age via the Neutrophils
phosphoinositide 3-kinase-signaling pathway [19].
The effects of aging on the inflammatory response and T cell Neutrophils are short-lived phagocytic cells circulating in blood
priming by DCs remain unclear [16], although most studies show vessels until they are recruited to site of infection by cytokines
an impaired inflammatory response that might be related to a and chemokines, mainly IL-1 and IL-8. They are the first
decrease in IL-15, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a and IFN-a responders to microbial and parasitic infections and act by three
expression in response to viral infections and vaccines [1921]. main mechanisms: phagocytosis (requiring opsonization), gener-
ation of reactive oxygen species and degranulation (releasing
Natural killer cells enzymes and antimicrobial peptides) and neutrophil extracellular
traps [32,33].
Natural killer cells (NK cells) play an important role within the Most studies suggest that age does not affect the number of
innate immune response. They recognize and eliminate cells neutrophils, but it seems that their ability to increase their life
lacking MHC class I molecules without previous sensitization or span in response to survival signals (IFN-1, GM-CSF) produced
activation by other cells; they play a role in maintaining innate at the site of infection is decreased [34,35]. Chemotaxis results in
and adaptive immune responses by secreting a variety of adhesion to endothelial cells and migration through them into the
cytokines [22,23]. These two main mechanisms, cell cytotoxicity affected tissue. The mechanisms of adhesion and migration seem
and cytokine secretion, are carried out by two main subpopula- to remain unaffected [36,37], but it remains unclear whether
tions: CD56dimCD16 NK cells, which are truly cytotoxic cells chemotaxis is affected by age [33,3638]. In regards to phago-
with low cytokine production and CD56brightCD16- NK cells, cytosis, most authors agree that the phagocytic function and the
which are less differentiated cells whose main response upon intracellular respiratory burst necessary to kill bacteria are
activation is cytokine and chemokine production [24]. reduced in the elderly [36,3943]. The defect in phagocytosis of
It is widely accepted that there is an increase in the number of opsonized bacteria and superoxide generation seems to depend on
NK cells in the elderly [22,23,25]. This increase seems to be the a reduced expression of CD16 (Fc receptor) [41]. How age affects
result of an accumulation of mature cells in the organism and as the generation of neutrophil extracellular traps remains to be
such, results in an increase in the CD56dim population [26]. clarified [44].
Nonetheless, this increase in NK cells is not associated with an
increase in global cytotoxicity. It can be that this increase in NK
Macrophages
cells constitutes a compensation mechanism of the reduced per-
cell cytotoxicity that seems to be secondary to a decreased Macrophages are tissue resident phagocytes, derived from
perforin secretion [27]. circulating monocytes and like the DCs possess abundant Toll-
In murine models NK cells migration has been shown to be like receptors being, therefore, capable of recognizing pathogens
affected [28,29], although in human studies no age-related with conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns and
4 C. Castelo-Branco & I. Soveral Gynecol Endocrinol, Early Online: 17
initiating the inflammatory response. Tissue-macrophages play an immunoglobulin production and these present lower affinities
important role in the recruitment of neutrophils by synthetizing toward the antigens [66]. Although fewer plasma cells are
pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as TNF-a, generated, their individual antibody secreting function seems to
IL-1, IL-6 and IL-8 [32]. They are also capable of processing and be intact [66] and the somatic hypermutation apparatus seems to
presenting antigens to T cells and participate in the regulation of be preserved [67].
the adaptive immune response [38]. Additionally, when a primary antibody response is needed in
In older people, macrophages present a reduced production of the presence of new antigens, a delayed response with lower levels
cytokines such as TNF-a and IL-6 in response to TLR1/2 but not of high-affinity antibodies is observed in the elderly that is
other TLR that might be responsible for a less potent recruitment compensated later by clonal expansion, which can be explained
of neutrophils and other cells [45]. Additionally, TLR-induced by the decrease in nave B cell pool [68]. Globally, the
expression of B7 (B7 CD80 and CD86 unite to either CD28 or circulating immunoglobulins become dominated by those with
CD152 in the T cell producing a co-stimulatory signal) is somatic mutations compatible with their generation primarily
decreased in the elderly [46]. Also, they show an altered by memory B cells and an increase in auto-antibodies is
expression of MHC class II molecules (with decreased observed [69].
HLA-DR/DQ and increased HLA-DQ), whose significance Accompanying the decrease in high-affinity antibodies, the
remains unclear but can contribute to a poorer T cell response ability of the humoral response to produce antibodies capable of
[47]. Studies on mouse models have shown that macrophages opsonizing bacteria for neutralization by phagocytosis is also
from aged individuals express less MHC class [48] after impaired in older people [70].
stimulation with IFN-gamma II, show impaired phagocytosis It would seem that three major impairments affect B cells with
Gynecol Endocrinol Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 88.18.136.187 on 11/13/13
[49,50] and present a decreased ability to produce reactive oxygen aging: a decrease in the number of nave B cells and therefore an
species [51], although these findings are yet to be replicated impaired capacity for response to new antigens; a reduced clonal
in humans. expansion capability of memory B cells that correlates with a
lower level of circulating antibodies after contact with a
previously known antigen and functionally impaired antibodies
The adaptive response
with lower affinities and decreased opsonizing abilities.
Lymphoid progenitors
Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are found mainly in the bone T cells
marrow and are responsible for the continuous supply of both
T cells are characterized by the presence of T cell receptors
myeloid and lymphoid progenitors necessary for an adequate
(TCRs) and can be categorized in two main subsets by the cell
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immune response.
surface expression of either CD4 or CD8. CD4 cells, which
With age, the proliferative capacity of the HSC diminishes [52]
recognize antigens in the context of Class II major histocompati-
and a shift is seen toward the production of myeloid progenitors
bility complex (MHC), are mainly regulatory cells, whereas
[53,54]. Several mechanisms have been proposed, including the
CD8 cells are mainly cytotoxic cells that recognize antigen
shortening of telomeres [55], epigenetic changes secondary to a
presented within Class I MHC molecules. Both functions are of
decreased DNA methylation in the HSC that could be responsible
vital importance in the adaptive and innate immune responses.
for the shift toward the myeloid series (as myeloid progenitors
The absolute number of T cells decrease with age and, as in
present lower DNA methylation than the lymphoid progenitors)
B cells, this decrease affects more importantly the nave subset
[5658] and changes in the HSC niche including the cytokine
[71]. T cell differentiation takes place in the thymus and results in
milieu [59].
the production of CD4 or CD8 nave cells, which are then
exported to the periphery [72]. During maturation, T cells
B cells
rearrange TCR genes resulting in the production of DNA
B cells main function is the production of specific antibodies in fragments known as T cell receptor excision circles (TRECs)
response to a specific antigen and this function is crucial to the that have been used as an indirect measure of thymopoietic
effective response against bacterial infections and vaccination potential [73,74]
[60]. High-affinity-specific antibodies are generated by somatic Thymic involution has been well established in the literature
hypermutation of immunoglobulin genes in the germinal center of and is considered to be the main mechanism by which the pool of
secondary lymphoid tissue after which professional antibody nave T cells declines with age [72,75]. This decline affects
secreting plasma cells migrate to the blood stream [61]. CD4 and CD8 cells differently with a greater contraction in
In line with the reduced ability of HSCs to generate new B CD8 numbers and a better preserved population of nave CD4
lymphocytes, the total number of B cells seems to diminish with cells [74,7678]. Accompanying the numeric defect in nave
age [62,63]. Additionally, a decrease in diversity of the B cell T cells, functional defects (especially in the CD8 subset) have
repertoire is seen in older people, characterized by a decrease in been described such as antigen-independent activation and
nave B cells (CD27; with few somatic mutations in immuno- proliferation rates. These cells that maintain a nave phenotype
globulin genes) and an increase in memory B cells (CD27; with are less capable of producing an adequate response when
multiple somatic mutations) [60,62,64]. These memory B cells presented with a new antigen [77].
present an increased resistance to apoptosis. Furthermore, some Activation of both nave and memory T cells is a complex
studies describe a subtype of B cell called aging-associated process that requires the intervention of co-stimulatory molecules
B-cell that accumulates with age (possibly displacing nave after the binding of TCR to MHC molecules [72]. CD28 is an
B cells) [58] that respond to innate but not adaptive immunity important co-stimulatory molecule present in T cells and the
stimuli [65], although more studies are needed to clarify their role binding of CD28 to its co-receptor (B7, present in antigen
in humans. presenting cells) results in potent activation stimuli for T cells
Consistent with the change in B cell subsets, antibody [79]. CD28 presence in T cells decreases with cell differentiation
production is also affected by age. In response to vaccines, from naive to central memory to effector memory cells as a result
older people present a slower response, a reduced clonal of persistent antigenic stimulation and repeated proliferation
expansion of plasma cells that correlates with a decrease in cycles [80]. The activation of T cells via TCR-CD28 does not
DOI: 10.3109/09513590.2013.852531 Immunosenescence 5
seem to be impaired in old people [81]. However, with age, CD28 Telomere shortening
Thymus
expression decreases in both CD4 and CD8 T cells [82,83], Oxidave stress
involuon
consistent with a decreased naive cell pool and the accumulation
of highly differentiated T cells. CD27, a TNF receptor, suffers the Immunosenescence
same changes as CD28 with decreased expression as T cells
differentiate [71,72,77]. As such, CD27/CD28 T cells repre- Hormonal Decreased
sent highly differentiated effector T cells that accumulate in old Chronic infecons T cell funcon
changes
Autoimmune diseases
age. They have limited proliferative capability but as they are
apoptosis resistant, an accumulation is seen with age, mainly in
CD8 cells [84]. However, the proliferative capability of these Increased inammatory acvity
CD27/CD28 cells seems to be better preserved in the CD4
population, because these cells maintain a certain antigen-induced
telomerase activity [85].
Type 2 Diabetes
Another change seen in differentiated T cells in old age is the Demena Atherosclerosis
Osteoporosis
acquisition, mainly in CD8 cells but also in CD4, of NK
markers, such as CD56 [8688]. The presence of the NK cell Figure 3. Inflamm-aging consequences.
markers is associated with an increased presence of cytotoxic
molecules [89] and allows CD28 T cells to be activated
independently of TCR and maintaining their cytotoxic capabil- Table 2. Shift in cytokines with age.
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