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Inertial and Gravitational Mass
There are two kinds of mass define by the m in their equations:
inertial (F=ma) and gravitational ( g=Gm/r2 ).
Should the two mass (m) be the same ?
But we now know that the two mass kinds are the same (relativity).
A detail is that force, momentum, and velocity are vectors in 3-space.
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Inverse square laws result from spherical area scaling
1/r*2 fall-off
The area of a spherically symmetric field increase as the radius squared; therefore,
for the field energy to be conserved (as it must), then the field energy must
decrease as the radius squared: e.g., the gravity law, coulomb electrical force law.
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Calculate
m1 m2
F (r ) G N
r2
m1 m
g1 (r ) G 2
( 2) Fm1 on m2 m2 g1
r s
m m
g 2 (r ) G 22 ( 2 ) Fm2 on m1 m1 g 2
r s
Assume G=1 m1=1 m2=2
Does the force of mass-1 ON mass-2 equal the force of mass-2 ON mass-1 ?
Using the inertial force law F=ma, which mass accelerate more and why ?
How can the gravity fields for the two masses be different, BUT the forces on
each mass has the same magnitude (albeit opposite direction) ?
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Gravitational force field around spheres
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Calculating gravity for general shapes
Easy, divide the general shape into little squares (2-d) or cubes (3-d)
and label them (I and J) and then add up the vector forces applied by
all the little cubes on mass m2.
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Calculating gravity of perfect spheres
mass
volume
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Calculating gravity at different points on surface
To calculate the gravity effect of the An important detail. The gravity field is a vector
irregular body above at point P1 , quantity (has magnitude and direction). When
the body is divided into small measuring the gravity of the above situation,
squares (parcels) and the many both the pull of rest of Earth and the total pull
gravity vectors from all the parcels of excess mass of body are measured. Note that
are added up to get the total with respect to point P, the Earth and the body
gravity. Do the same analysis to get pull at different directions. When can ignore this
the gravity at the other points. detail, because the Earths pull is so much
greater, and just assume we are measuring the
vertical component of Fb . 12
Gravity field of a sphere on the 2-d surface
If we measured the gravity at every point in the 45 km square plane and reduce it to
bouguer gravity, this is what the gravity field would look like for a buried spherical
mass.
What is the sign of the mass difference between the spherical mass anomaly and the
background material ?
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Gravity anomalies of a sphere a cylinder
The y-axis is the gravity anomaly (mgal) and the x-axis is distance from the center of
the sphere/cylinder (m). These graphs are cross-section through these 3-d objects.
The cylinder extends to +/- infinite in and out of the page. This is why, for the same
depth object and mass anomaly, the cylinder and sphere anomalies are different.
Important: Note that the peak amplitude reduces and the anomalies half-width
widens as the anomaly is placed deeper. This is just a consequence of gravity being
an inverse square law.
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Gravity anomalies of dipping narrow mass sheets
Note three gravity effects:
The gravity anomaly of an infinite horizontal sheet at depth d and width t provides an
interesting rendezvous with infinity. First, note that the sheet depth d is NOT in the
equation. Second, even though the mass sheet anomaly extends to infinity, the gravity
is finite because of the inverse square law. Third, the gravity effect is the same
everywhere as demonstrated above where it can be seen that the gravity at points P1
and P2 are the same. Thus, an infinite sheet anomaly makes the gravity everywhere
change by the same values as given by Eqn. 8.6. Therefore, one cannot detect an infinite
mass sheet. But, we will use this concept to calculate the Bouguer gravity correction.
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Gravity effects of half-sheets
F = k * dx where k is the spring stiffness and dx is a small displacement of the spring from
equilibrium position.
So, as the force of gravity applied to the mass (m) varies as one moves the gravimeer
around a survey, the mass position changes (dx) proportional to the spring stiffness (k).
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Note: we are only measuring relative variations, not the absolute value of gravity.
Measuring gravity redux
In practice, measuring gravitational
variations requires a very precise
instrument that costs >40,000 dollars.
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Gravity Corrections
As is true of most all measurement of physical properties, there are always
effects that change the measured values that we are NOT interested in and that
we desire to remove (or correct for) as accurately as possible.
In the case of gravity , there are five gravity effects to correct for:
1. Latitude
2. Free-air: Distance above mean sea-level (or another datum).
3. Bouguer: extra masses gravity associated with changes from datum.
4. Topography: the irregular gravity pull of the mountains and valleys.
5. Eotvos: moving E-W with a non-zero velocity (airplane or boat) adds or
subtracts to the earths Centrifugal force.
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Latitudinal gravity corrections
Gravity varies from 9.78 m/s2 at the equator (lat=0) to 9.83 m/s2 at the poles (lat: north = +90; south =
-90). This is a huge change: a 0.052 m/s2 variation equals 5200 mgals! This is much larger than other
gravitational effects. The gravity varies with latitude for two reasons:
The Earth is not a sphere, but a flattened spheroid with an equatorial radius of 6,378 km and a polar
radius of 6,356 km (21 km different). Thus, the gravity is LESS at the equator because it is FARTHER
AWAY from the Earths center of mass.
The Earth is a non-inertial reference frame because it is a rotating body that spins once per day. At
the equator any object has a rotational velocity of 465 m/s, whereas at the poles the rotational
velocity is zero! Physics requires that a rotational reference frame has non-inertial (fictitious) forces
such as the outward directed centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is the force that any mass
rotating with the planet feels in response to the centripetal force that the planets gravity field
provides to continually curve an objects path on the earth intoa circular path. Recall Newtons first
law says that all masses go in a straight line in a INTERTIAL reference frame unless acted on by an
unbalanced force (it is gravity that provides the unbalanced force as a centripetal acceleration).
The International gravity formula that describes latitudinal () gravity variations in m/s2 units is:
The Bouguer correction uses the infinite sheet gravity equation to approximate the
gravity of the material above or below sea-level. The relevant quantities are the
thickness of the sheet (h), the sheets density, and the sign of h (positive if above base
station negative if below base station).
The free-air effect is added if you are above sea-level and is subtracted if you are below
sea-level.
The Bouguer effect is subtracted if you are above sea-level (+h) and added if you are
below sea-level (-h).
Total Bouguer correction : Bouguer = observed latitude +/- free-air +/- Bouguer
The sign of the free-air and Bouguer correction depends on whether the measurements
was made above or below ones datum.
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Regional and residual anomalies
Note that there are three different structures
- dyke, granite, dipping strata - associated with
mass anomalies that create different
gravitational effects.
Note that in (a) that three different gravity (mass) models make the same gravity!
Note in (b) that two different gravity (mass) models make the same gravity!
A positive mass excess on the left side make the same relative gravity profile as a negative
mass excess on the right side!
Remember we are NOT measuring absolute gravity. If we were, the sign of the mass
anomaly would be detectable. Why is this?
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Depth/half-width rules for
different geometry mass anomalies
Note systematic variations
between the depth to bodies
and the half-width of the
gravity profiles.
(a) Sphere.
(b) Horizontal cylinder.
(c) Steeply dipping sheet.
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Modelling a basin
To model irregular shapes like
a basin, a set of rectangular
mass anomalies can be used
to approximate the geometry
of the basin. Then, the total
gravity effect of the basin is
found by adding up all the
gravity from the rectangles.
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United states bouguer gravity map
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Wyoming isostatic and bouguer gravity
Isostatic
Bouguer
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Colorado Bouguer/Isostastic gravity
Isostatic
Bouguer
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CREST project
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Chicxulub K-T Impact crater Bouguer gravity:
Yucatan, Mexico
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Free air gravity from Satellites
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Temporal gravity variations
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Mars Free Air Gravity
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