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Chapter One:

Boundary Layer Theory


1.1 Introduction

1.2 Boundary layer definitions and characteristics

1.2.1 Boundary layer thickness,

1.2.2 Boundary layer displacement thickness, *

1.2.3 Boundary layer momentum thickness,

1.3 Blassius Boundary Layer Solution

1.4 Von-Karmann Momentum Integral Equation

1.4.1 Linear velocity profile

1.4.2 Second order polynomial

1.4.3 Third order polynomial

1.4.4 sin-cos velocity distribution

1.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer


1.1Introduction

The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by a German engineer, Prandtl in 1904.

According to Prandtl theory, when a real fluid flows past a stationary solid boundary, the

flow will be divided into two regions.

i) A thin layer adjoining the solid boundary where the viscous force and rotation cannot

be neglected.

ii) An outer region where the viscous force is very small and can be neglected. The flow

behaviour is similar to the upstream flow.

1.2 Boundary layer definitions and characteristics

Consider a flow over a flat plate aligned in the direction of the flow as shown in Figure 1.1

U
Outer flow region

Boundary layer flow


y

Flat plate
x

Figure 1.1 Flow over a flat horizontal surface

The flow region can be divided into two layers

i) 0 y inner layer/boundary layer flow where the viscous force effect is

significant. Due to no-slip condition at the boundary surface, the first layer of fluid undergoes

retardation. This retarded layer causes further retardation for the adjacent layer, thereby

developing a thin region where the flow velocity increases from zero at the solid boundary

and approaches the velocity of the main stream.


U

Flat plate
x

Figure 1.2 Distortion of fluid particles in boundary layer flow

Due to the presence of velocity gradient inside the boundary layer region, the fluid particle

begins to distort at the top of particle which has a larger speed than its bottom. This force

causes the fluid particle begins to rotate as it enters the boundary layer region (See Figure

1.2). Therefore, this layer of fluid is also known as rotational flow.

ii) y > Outer flow region where the viscous force is very small and can be neglected.

There is no velocity gradient in this layer and the fluid particle will not rotate as it enters the

outer region of flow. Therefore, the flow is also known as irrotational flow.

As shown by the figure, the boundary layer conditions are that the fluid sticks to the solid

boundary

u = v = 0 on y = 0 (1.1)

and at the outside of the boundary layer, the flow velocity is equal to the free stream velocity,

that is

u = U on y = (1.2)

The following boundary condition is also true for boundary layer flow

u
= 0 when y (1.3)
y

indicates that the velocity distribution is uniform in y-direction outside the boundary layer.
1.2.1 Boundary layer thickness,

The boundary layer thickness is defined as the vertical distance from a flat plate to a point

where the flow velocity reaches 99 per cent of the velocity of the free stream.

The other definitions of boundary layer are the

Boundary layer displacement thickness, *

Boundary layer momentum thickness,

1.2.2 Boundary layer displacement thickness, *

Consider two types of fluid flow past a stationary horizontal plate with velocity U as shown

in Figure 1.3.

a b
U U U U

u
a Flat plate b Flat plate

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3 Flow over a horizontal solid surface for the case of (a) Ideal fluid (b) Real fluid.

Since there is no viscosity for the case of ideal fluid (Figure 1.3a), a uniform velocity profile

is developed above the solid wall. However, for the case of real fluid with the presence of

viscosity and no-slip on the wall, the velocity gradient is developed in the boundary layer

region as shown in Figure 1.3b.

The velocity deficits through the element strip of cross section b-b is U u . Then the

reduction of mass flow rate is obtained as


(U u )bdy (1.4)

where b is the plate width. The total mass reduction due to the presence of viscosity

compared to the case of ideal fluid

(U u )bdy
0
(1.5)

However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance * in section a-a to give mass

reduction of Ub * , then the deficit of flowrates for the both cases will be identical if

(U u )bdy = Ub
*
(1.6)
0

and


u
* = 1 dy (1.7)
0
U

Here, * is known as the boundary layer displacement thickness.

The displacement thickness represents the vertical distance that the solid boundary must be

displaced upward so that the ideal fluid has the same mass flowrate as the real fluid.

U U
Equal
areas


Flat plate

Figure 1.4 boundary layer displacement thickness


1.2.3 Boundary layer momentum thickness,

Another definition of boundary layer thickness, the boundary layer momentum thickness , is

often used to predict the drag force on the object surface.

Referring to Figure 1.3, again the velocity deficit through the element strip of cross section b-

b contributes to deficit in momentum flux as

u(U u )bdy (1.8)

Thus, the total momentum reductions

u (U u )bdy
0
(1.9)

However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance at section a-a to give momentum

reduction of U 2 b , then the momentum deficit for the both cases will be identical if

u (U u )bdy = U b
2
(1.10)
0

and


u u
= 1 dy (1.11)
0
U U

Here, is known as the boundary layer displacement thickness.

The momentum thickness represents the vertical distance that the solid boundary must be

displaced upward so that the ideal fluid has the same mass momentum as real fluid.

Question:

1. If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is assumed to be

given by first order polynomial u = a + by , where a and b are constant, determine


a) The ratio of displacement thickness to boundary layer thickness

b) The ratio of momentum thickness to boundary layer thickness

Solution

Velocity distribution: u = a + by

The following boundary conditions must be satisfied

i) At y = 0, u = 0

0 = a + b(0) = a

ii) At y = , u = U

U = b or
U
b=

Hence form of the velocity distribution is

U
u= y

Next, derive the expression for * and

u y
* = 1 dy = 0 1 dy =
0
U

1 y2 1 2 1 1
= y = = =
2 0 2 2 2

* 1
= (Ans)
2

u u y y
= 1 dy = 0 1 dy =
0 U U

1 y2 1 y3 1 1 1
= 2
= =
2 3 0 2 3 6

1
= (Ans)
6
2. Show that, if the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is

assumed to be given by second order polynomial, the velocity distribution can be expressed

as follow

2
u y y
= 2
U

Solution

Second order polynomial of velocity distribution is expressed as

u = a + by + cy 2

The following boundary conditions must be satisfied

i) At y = 0, u = 0

0 = a + b(0) + c(0)2 a = 0

ii) At y = , u = U

U = b + c 2 (i)

du
iii) At y = , =0
dy

du
= b + 2cy = b + 2c = 0 b = 2c
dy y =

Substitute b = 2c in (i), we get

U = ( 2c ) + c 2 = c 2 or

U
c=
2

U 2U
b = 2c = 2 2
=

Hence form of the velocity distribution is

2U U
u= y 2 y 2 or

2
u y y
= 2 (Ans)
U

3. By assuming that the velocity gradient in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is in

the form of second order polynomial, calculate

a) The displacement thickness

b) The momentum thickness

Solution

Displacement thickness, * :

u y y2 y y2
* = 1 dy = 0 1 2 2 dy = 0 1 2 + 2 dy
U
0


2 y 2 1 y3 1 1
= y + 2
= + =
2 3 0 3 3

1
* = (Ans)
3

Momentum thickness, :

u u y y 2 y y 2
=
0 U
1
U
dy = 0 2 1 2 2 dy
2

y y 2 y y2
= 2 2 1 2 + 2 dy
0

y y2 y3 y2 y3 y4 y y2 y3 y4
= 2 4 2 + 2 3 2 + 2 3 4 dy = 2 5 2 + 4 3 4 dy
0
0


2 y2 5 y3 4 y4 1 y5 5 1 2
= + 4
= + =
2 3 4 5 0
2 3
3 5 15

2
= (Ans)
15
4. If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is assumed to be

u y
given by = sin , determine
U 2

a) The ratio of momentum thickness to displacement thickness

b) The ratio of momentum thickness to boundary layer thickness

Solution

u y
Velocity distribution: = sin
U 2


a) :
*

u y y
* = 1 dy = 0 1 sin dy = 0 1 sin dy
U 2 2
0


y
cos
= y + 2 = ( + 0 ) 0 + 2 = 2


2
0

u u y y
= 1 dy = 0 sin 1 sin dy
0 U U 2 2
y
1 cos

2
y y y dy
= sin sin dy = 0 sin
0
2 2 2 2


1 cos 2
Q sin =
2

2

y y
cos 2 y sin
= + = 0 + 0 2 0 + 0 = 4

2 2 2
2
2 0

4

2 4 4
Q * = = = 2
2 2 2 2


4
= 2 (Ans)
2
*


(b) :

4

2 4
= =
2

4
= (Ans)
2

5. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by

1
u y 7
=
U

Calculate the displacement thickness and momentum thickness

Solution

1
u y 7
Velocity distribution: =
U

y 7
1
u
= *
1 dy = 0 1 dy
0
U


7 y 7
8
7 7
8

= y
= = 7 = 1
8 17 8 17 8 8
0

1
* =
8 (Ans)

1
y 17 1 2
7
u u y
1 dy = y y dy
7 7
= 1 dy = 0 0
0 U U


7 y 87 7 y 97 7 7 7
= 1
2
= =
8 7 9 7 8 9 72
0
7
=
72 (Ans)

6. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer over the surface of highway was

observed to be

0.22
u y
=
U

The free stream velocity is 20m/s and boundary layer thickness of 5cm in a certain section.

Calculate the displacement thickness and momentum thickness in the section under

consideration.

Solution

0.22
u y
Velocity distribution: =
U

U = 20 m/s; = 5 cm

The displacement thickness, *

y
0.22
u
= *
1 dy = 0 1 dy
U
0


1 y 1.22 0.22 0.22
= y 0.22
= = = 5
1.22 0 1.22 1.22 1.22

= 0.9016 cm(Ans)

0.22
y 0.22
0.22 0.44

u u 1 dy = y y dy
y
= 1 dy = 0 0
0 U U


1 y1.22 1 y1.44 0.22 0.22
= 0.44
= = = 5
1.22 1.44 0 1.22 1.44 1.7568
0.22
1.7568

= 0.6261 cm(Ans)
Expression for * and using various types of velocity profiles in boundary layer is tabulated

in Table 1.1

Table 1.1 * and for various types of velocity profiles in the boundary layer

Types of velocity Boundary layer Boundary layer momentum

distribution displacement thickness, * thickness,

u y
Linear profile , =
U 2 6

Parabolic profile,
2
2
u y y 3 15
= + 2
U

Cubic profile,
3 39
3
u 3 y 1 y 8 280
=
U 2 2

Sin-Cos profile,
2 2 1
1
u y 2
= sin
U 2

Turbulent profile,
7
1
u y 7
8 72
=
U

1.3 Blassius Boundary Layer Solution

In 1908, H. Blassius, one of Prandtl student proposed simplified equations for the boundary

layer flow by assuming that

v << u (1.12)

<< (1.13)
x y

Therefore, the fluid flow equations are reduced to

u u 1 p 2u
u +v = + 2 (1.14)
x y x y

From the Bernoulli equation, we know that

1 p U
= U (1.15)
x x

Then, the equation in the boundary layer becomes

u u U 2u
u +v =U + 2 (1.16)
x y x y

For the flow specifically over the flat surface, we can assume uniform horizontal velocity and

therefore U x = 0 , thus

u u 2u
u +v = 2 (1.17)
x y y

Here we introduce the equation of stream function as follow


u= ,v = (1.18)
y x

Substitute back into the above equation gives

2 2 3
= (1.19)
y xy x y 2 y 3

Blassius then introduced the dimensionless similarity variable = (U x) y and the stream
12

function = (xU ) f ( ) , where f ( ) is an unknown function.


12

By using the rules of differentiation, we obtain as the following


1

1 U 2
= [ f f ]
x 2 x

= Uf
y
2 1
= Uf (1.20)
xy 2x
1
2 U 2
= U f
y x
2

3 U 2
= f
y 3 x

2 3
where f = f , f = 2 f , f = 3 f

Substituting all the differentiation terms into Eq. (1.19) leads to

1
f + ff = 0 (1.21)
2

Eq. (1.21) can be solved numerically by taking the boundary conditions as follow

f (0 ) = 0
f (0 )
=0 (1.22)

f
0 when

The solution (Blassius solution) is tabulated as follow

Table 1.2 The Blassius solution

f ( ) = u U f ( )
= y(U x)1 2

0 0 3.6 0.9233

0.4 0.1328 4.0 0.9555

0.8 0.2647 4.4 0.9759

1.2 0.3938 4.8 0.9878

1.6 0.5168 5.0 0.9916


2.0 0.6298 5.2 0.9943

2.4 0.7290 5.6 0.9975

2.8 0.8115 6.0 0.9990

3.2 0.8767 1.0000

From the solution, it is found that u U 0.99 when = 5 , thus, from the similarity variables

1
U 2
5= (1.23)
x

or

5x
= where Rex = U x (1.24)
Re1x 2

Using some manipulations of algebra, the displacement and momentum thickness can be

expressed as

1.721x
* = (1.25)
Re1x 2

and

0.664x
= (1.26)
Re1x 2

The wall shear stress is then determined by taking u y y =0 and give


w = 0.332U 3 2 (1.27)
x

1.4. Von-Karmann Momentum Integral Equation

One of the main drawbacks of the Blassius solution is the limitation to the laminar flow over

a flat surface only. In reality, most of the flowsare turbulent. Therefore, the demand to

replace Blassius solution with other equation which can predict the turbulent boundary layer
flow leads to a great work done by Von-Karmann in 1921. Von Karmann formulated a

general equation from the conservation of momentum theory which can predict the boundary

layer flow covers from laminar to turbulent regions. His equation contributes to advancement

in the prediction of drag caused by shear forces on a body.

To see the formulation, consider a uniform flow past a flat plate and the fixed control volume

as shown in Figure 1.5

y
U U

h
u

Flat plate

Figure 1.5 Control volume for the derivation of Von Karmann momentum integral equation

We apply the horizontal component of the momentum equation. It gives

F x = uV ndA + uV ndA (1.28)


1 2

or

F x = U ( U )dA + u 2 dA (1.29)
1 2

F x = U bh + b u 2 dy
2
(1.30)
0

Since there is no cross flow through streamline, the mass flow rate must be equal through

section (1) and (2)



Ubh = ubdy (1.31)
0

which can be modified as


U 2bh = b Uudy (1.32)
0

Substituting into Eq. (1.30)

F x = b Uudy + b u 2 dy (1.33)
0 0

or

Fx = b u (U u )dy (1.34)
0

We can see that Eq. (1.34) can be written in terms of the momentum thickness as follow

F x = bU 2 (1.35)

However, we know that the change of momentum contributes to the development of drag

force on the solid surface such as

F x = D =
surface
w dA = b
surface
w dx (1.36)

This gives

b w dx = bU 2 (1.37)

Differentiating both sides gives

d
b w = bU 2 (1.38)
dx

Now, we obtained the Von-Karmann momentum integral equation for the boundary layer

flow over a flat plate

d
w = U 2 (1.39)
dx
l
U

y
b

x dx

Figure 1.6 Wall shear stress

Referring to Figure 1.6, the drag force on the solid surface can be determined by considering

the drag force on small area dA as

dFD = wbdx (1.40)

Then the total drag force on one side of plate with length L

L
FD = dFD = wbdx (1.41)
0

It is also often convenient to use the dimensionless local friction coefficient cf and friction

drag coefficient cD which are

w
cf = (1.42)
1
U 2
2

and

FD
cD = where A: total area (for this case, A=bl) (1.43)
1
U 2 A
2

Respectively.

The Blassius solution for these two coefficients is

0.664
cf = (1.44)
Re1x 2

and
1.328
cD = (1.45)
Re1L 2

where Re L = UL

Next we demonstrate the derivation of the equations of boundary layer thickness, boundary

layer displacement thickness, boundary layer momentum thickness, local friction coefficient

and total drag coefficient based on the following velocity distributions using the Von-

Karmann momentum integral equation;

i) Linear velocity distribution

ii) Second order polynomial

iii) Third order polynomial

iv) Sin-cos profile

u y
1.4.1 Linear velocity profile, =
U

d u
w = U 2 and w = (1.46)
dx y y =0

u U
Since = therefore
y y =0

d U
U 2 = (1.47)
dx


From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
6

U 2 d U
= (1.48)
6 dx

or
6
d = dx (1.49)
U

We integrate both sides and gives

2 6
= x+C (1.50)
2 U

At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0

12x
2 =
U
12xx
=
Ux
12 x 2 (1.51)
=
Ux

12 x 2
=
Re x

Then we obtained the following

3.464 x
= (1.52)
Re x

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow

1.732 x
* = = (1.53)
2 Re x

0.5773 x
= = (1.54)
6 Re x

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

U U
w = = 0.2887 Re x (1.55)
x

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as


w
cf =
1
U 2
2
U
0.2887 Re x
= x
1
U 2
2

= 0.5774 Re x (1.56)
Ux
Re x
= 0.5774
Re x
0.5774
=
Re x

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

FD
cD = (1.57)
1
U 2 A
2

where

L L U
FD = wbdx = 0.2887 Re x bdx
0 0 x
(1.58a)
L U Ux L U 2
1
= 0.2887 bdx = 0.2887 U x bdx
0 x 0

L
1
U x 2
FD = b 0.2887 U
1 2
0 (1.58b)
U 12
= b 0.5774U

(
L = b 0.5774U Re L
)

Therefore

cD =
(
b 0.5774U Re L )
1
U 2bL
2
Re L
= 1.1548 Re L = 1.1548 (1.59)
UL Re L
1.1548
=
Re L
2
u y y
1.4.2 Second order polynomial = + 2
U

d u
w = U 2 and w = (1.60)
dx y y =0

u 2U
Since = therefore
y y =0

d U
U 2 =2 (1.61)
dx

2
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
15

2 U 2 d U
=2 (1.62)
15 dx

or

15
d = dx (1.63)
U

we integrate both sides and gives

2 15
= x+C (1.64)
2 U

At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0

30x
2 =
U
30xx
=
Ux
30 x 2 (1.65)
=
Ux

30 x 2
=
Re x

Then we obtained the following


5.48 x
= (1.66)
Re x

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow

1.826 x
* = = (1.67)
3 Re x

2 0.730 x
= = (1.68)
15 Re x

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

U U
w = 2 = 0.365 Re x (1.69)
x

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as

w
cf =
1
U 2
2
U
0.365 Re x
= x
1
U 2
2

= 0.730 Re x (1.70)
Ux
Re x
= 0.730
Re x
0.730
=
Re x

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

FD
cD = (1.71)
1
U 2 A
2

where
L L U
FD = wbdx = 0.365 Re x bdx
0 0 x
L U Ux L U 2
1
(1.72a)
= 0.365 bdx = 0.365U x bdx
0 x 0
L
1
U x 2
FD = b 0.365U
1 2
0 (1.72b)
U 1 2
= b 0.730U

L = b 0.730U Re L ( )

Therefore

cD =
(
b 0.730U Re L )
1
U 2bL
2
Re L
= 1.46 Re L = 1.46 (1.73)
UL Re L
1.46
=
Re L

3
u 3 y 1 y
1.4.3 Third order polynomial =
U 2 2

d u
w = U 2 and w = (1.74)
dx y y =0

du 3U
Since = therefore
dy y =0
2

d 3 U
U 2 = (1.75)
dx 2

39
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
280

39 d 3U
U 2 = (1.76)
280 dx 2

or
3 280 dx 420
d = U = dx (1.77)
2 39 U 2
39 U

We integrate both sides and gives

2 420
= x+C (1.78)
2 39 U

At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0

840
2 = x
39 U
x
= 21.538 x
Ux
x2 (1.79)
= 21.538
Ux

2
x
= 21.538
Re x

Then we obtain the following

4.64 x
= (1.80)
Re x

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow

3 1.74 x
* = = (1.81)
8 Re x

39 0.646 x
= = (1.82)
280 Re x

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

3U U
w = = 0.323 Re x (1.83)
2 x

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as


w
cf =
1
U 2
2
U
0.323 Re x
= x
1
U 2
2

= 0.647 Re x (1.84)
Ux
Re x
= 0.647
Re x
0.647
=
Re x

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

FD
cD = (1.85)
1
U 2 A
2

where

L L U
FD = wbdx = 0.323 Re x bdx
0 0 x
L U Ux L U 2
1
(1.86a)
= 0.323 bdx = 0.323U x bdx
0 x 0
L
1
U x 2
FD = b 0.323U
1 2
0 (1.87a)
U 12
= b 0.646U

(
L = b 0.646U Re L
)

Therefore

cD =
(
b 0.646U Re L )
1
U 2bL
2
Re L
= 1.292 Re L = 1.292 (1.88)
UL Re L
1.292
=
Re L
u y
1.4.4 sin-cos velocity distribution : = sin
U 2

d u
w = U 2 and w = (1.89)
dx y y =0

Since

du y
= U cos
dy 2 2 (1.90)

and

du U
= therefore
dy y =0
2

U d
= U 2 (1.91)
2 dx

2 1
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
2

2 1 2 d U
U = (1.92)
2 dx 2

or

1 2 dx 2 U
d = U = dx (1.93)
2 4 U
2
(4 ) U 2
or


d = 11.4975 dx (1.94)
U

Integrating both sides, we get

2
= 11 .4975 x+C (1.95)
2 U

At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0

2 = 22.995 x
U
x
= 22.995 x
Ux
x2 (1.96)
= 22.995
Ux

2
x
= 22.995
Re x

Then we obtain the following

4.795 x
= (1.97)
Re x

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow

2 7.847 x
* = 1 = (1.98)
Re x

4 0.651x
= = (1.99)
2 Re x

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

U U
w = = 0.328 Re x (1.100)
2 x

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as


w
cf =
1
U 2
2
U
0.328 Re x
= x
1
U 2
2

= 0.655 Re x (1.101)
Ux
Re x
= 0.655
Re x
0.655
=
Re x

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

FD
cD = (1.102)
1
U 2 A
2

where

L L U
FD = wbdx = 0.328 Re x bdx
0 0 x
L U Ux L U 2
1
(1.103a)
= 0.328 bdx = 0.328U x bdx
0 x 0
L
1
U x 2
FD = b 0.328U
1 2
0 (1.103b)
U 12
= b 0.656U

(
L = b 0.656U Re L
)

Therefore

cD =
(
b 0.656U Re L )
1
U 2bL
2
Re L
= 1.312 Re L = 1.312 (1.104)
UL Re L
1.312
=
Re L
As mentioned earlier, most of the flow is turbulent in nature. When the Reynolds number of

the surface exceed approximately Re = 5 105 , the boundary layer transitions from laminar

to turbulent.

U
Laminar Turbulent boundary layer
boundary
layer
y

Flat plate
x
Rex = 5 x 105

Figure 1.7 Turbulent boundary layer

The velocity distribution for the turbulent boundary layer is given by the one-seventh power

law as follow

1
u y 7
= (1.105)
U

However, the difficulty arises when determining the wall shear stress as it approaches infinity

as below

u 1 U
= = . (1.106)
y y =0
7 1 7 y6 7

Here, the correlation for shear stress is taken from experimental work as

14

w = 0.0226U
2
(1.107)
U

1.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer

Now we will determine , c f and cD for the region of turbulent boundary layer.
7
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
72

14
7 d
U 2 = 0.0226U 2 (1.108)
72 dx U

or

14

1 4 d = 0.232 dx (1.109)
U

We integrate both sides and gives

14
4 54
= 0.232 x + C (1.110)
5 U

At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0

14

5 4 = 0.291 x
U
14
x
= 0.291 x
Ux (1.111)
14

= 0.291 x 5 4
Ux
x5 4
= 0.291 1 4
Re x

Then we obtain the following

0.372 x
= (1.112)
Re1x 5

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow

0.047 x
* = = (1.113)
8 Re1x 5

7 0.036 x
= = (1.114)
72 Re1x 5

The wall shear stress is then calculated as


14


2
w = 0.0226 U
0.372 x
U Re1 5
x
14

Re1 5 14
Re1 5 1
14

= 0.0289 U 2 x = 0.0289 U x
2
= 0.0289 U 4 5
2
(1.115)
Ux Re x Re x


0.0289 U 2
=
Re1x 5

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as

w
cf =
1
U 2
2
14
1
0.0289U 4 5
2

= Re x
1 (1.116)
U 2
2
14
1
= 0.0579 4 5
Re x
0.0579
=
Re1x 5

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

FD
cD = (1.117)
1
U 2 A
2

where
L L 0.0289U 2
FD = wbdx = bdx
0 0 Re1x 5
15 15
(1.118a)

1
L L
= 0.0289U bdx = 0.0289U 2b x 5 dx
2
0
Ux 0
U

L
54 15


FD = 0.0289 U 2b
x
U 4 5
0 (1.118b)
15

= 0.036 U b L4 5
2

Therefore

15

0.036 U 2b L4 5
cD = U
1
U 2bL
2
15

15 1
1
= 0.072 = 0.072 (1.119)
U L1 5 UL


0.072
=
Re1L 5

Now the formulated expression for , c f and cD for various velocity distribution in laminar

region and turbulent region are tabulated in Table 1.3

Table 1.3 Results for various assumed laminar and turbulent flow velocity profiles

Types of velocity cf cD
distribution

Blassius Solution 5x 0.664 1.328


Re x Re x Re L

u y 3.46 x 0.58 1.15


Linear profile , =
U Re x Re x Re L
Parabolic profile, 5.48 x 0.730 1.46
Re x Re x Re L
2
u y y
= + 2
U

Cubic profile, 4.64 x 0.647 1.292


Re x Re x Re L
3
u 3 y 1 y
=
U 2 2

Sin-Cos profile, 4.795x 0.655 1.312


Re x Re x Re L
u y
= sin
U 2

Turbulent profile, 0.372x 0.058 0.072


1
Re1x 5 Re1x 5 Re1L 5
u y 7
=
U

Question:

1. Consider a flow over a horizontal flat plate (1.25m x 2.5m) with velocity 3.0m/s.

Calculate

a. Boundary layer thickness at trailing edge

b. Shear stress at the middle of the flat plate

c. Resultant drag force on both sides of the flat plate


3 -5 2
(Take = 850 kg/m , = 10 m /s)

Solution

Given: U = 3.0 m/s, b = 1.25 m, L = 2.5 m

UL 3.0 2.5
Re L = = = 7.5 10 5
10 5

Since Re L > 5 10 5 so the boundary layer at the trailing edge is turbulent. The Von-

karmann equation gives,


0.372x
x =
Re1x 5

At the trailing edge x = L

0.372 2.5
L = = 0.06215 m = 62.15mm (Ans)
(7.5 10 ) 5
1
5

Shear stress at the middle of the flat plate

At the middle of the plate, x = L = 1.25 m,


2

the Reynolds number is calculated as

Ux 3.0 1.25
Re x = = = 3.75 10 5 m.
10 5

Hence the boundary layer at this point is laminar and the Blassius equation for the local wall

0.664 0.664
friction coefficient gives C f = = = 0.00108
12
Re x (
3.75 10 5 ) 1
2

U 2 850 3.0 2
By definition w = C f = 0.00108
2 2

= 4.147 N/m2 (Ans)

Resultant drag force on both sides of the flat plate, FD

1
FD = C D AU 2
2

0.072 0.072
where C D = = = 0.00481
15
Re L (
7.5 105 ) 1
5

and A = area of the plate = L b = 2.5 1.25 = 3.125 m2.

1
FD = 0.00481 850 3.125 3.0 2 = 57.494 N
2

The resultant force on both sides of the plate is calculated as


FD 2 sides = 114.988 N (Ans)

2. A submarine can be assumed to have cylindrical shape with rounded nose. Assuming

its length to be 50m and diameter 5.0m. Determine the total power required to overcome

boundary friction if it cruises at 8m/s velocity in sea water.


3 -6 2
(Take = 1030 kg/m , = 10 m /s)

Solution

Given: U = 8.0 m/s, D = 5.0 m, L = 50 m

The transition of laminar to turbulent boundary layer occurs at Re = 5 10 5 or

Ux 8 x
= = 5 10 5 at
10 6

x = 0.0652 m

Since the laminar boundary layer is too small and can we can assume the drag force is due to

the turbulent boundary layer only. Hence, CD is given by

0.072 0.072
CD = 1
= 1
= 0.00137
Re L5 8 50 5
6
10

Area, A = DL = 5 50 = 785.4 m2

1 1
Drag force FD = C D AU 2 = 0.00137 1030 785.4 82 = 35464 N
2 2

Hence total power required to overcome boundary friction,

P = FDU = 35464 8 = 283712 Watt or 283.7kW (Ans)


3. A barge with a rectangular bottom surface 30m long times 10m wide is traveling

down a river with a velocity of 0.6m/s. A laminar boundary layer exists up to a Reynolds
5
number equivalent to 5 x 10 and subsequently abrupt transition occurs to turbulent boundary

layer.

a. The maximum distance from the leading edge up to which laminar boundary layer

thickness persists and the boundary layer thickness at that point.

b. The total drag force on the flat bottom surface of the barge.

c. The power required to push the bottom surface through water at the given velocity.
3 -6 2
(Take = 998 kg/m , = 10 m /s)

Solution

Given: U = 0.6 m/s, b = 10.0 m, L = 30 m

Maximum distance of laminar boundary layer

Maximum distance of laminar boundary layer occurs at the point of transition from laminar to

Ux 0.6 x
turbulent or at Re x = 5 10 5 = = and therefore
10 6

x = 0.833 m (Ans)

At this point, the boundary layer thickness can be calculated as

5x 5 0.833
= = = 0.00589 m or 5.89 mm (Ans)
Re x (5 10 )
5
1
2

The total drag force on the flat bottom surface of the barge

Since the length of laminar boundary layer is very small, contribution to total drag from

laminar boundary layer is negligible.

UL 0.6 30
The Reynolds number at the trailing edge, Re L = = = 1.8 10 7
10 6
0.072 0.072
The wall friction coefficient is calculated as C D = = = 0.00255
15
Re L (
1.8 10 7 ) 1
5

Area, A = bL = 10 30 = 300 m2

1 1
Drag force FD = C D AU 2 = 0.00255 998 300 0.6 2 = 137.4 N
2 2

= 137.4 N (Ans)

The power required to push the bottom surface through water at the given velocity can be
calculated as follow

P = FDU = 137.4 0.6 = 82.45 Watt (Ans)

4. Determine the total power required to pull the timber (diameter 0.4m and length 15m)

with velocity 0.8m/s. Only half of the timber on the water surface. Neglect the drag force due

to front surface.

1.31 0.074
Take C Dla min ar = , C Dturbulence = 5
, water = 1000 kg m 3 , v = 1 10 6 m 2 s
Re Re

Solution

Given: U = 0.8 m/s, D = 0.4 m, L = 15 m

The transition of laminar to turbulent boundary layer occurs at Re = 5 10 5 or


Ux 0.8 x
= = 5 10 5 at
10 6

x = 0.652 m

Since the laminar boundary layer is too small and can we can assume the drag force is due to
the turbulent boundary layer only. Hence, CD is given by

0.072 0.072
CD = 1
= 1
= 0.00276
Re L5 0.8 15 5
6
10

D 0.4
Area, A = L= 15 = 9.426 m2
2 2
1 1
Drag force FD = C D AU 2 = 0.00276 1000 9.426 0.8 2 = 8.325 N
2 2

Hence total power required to overcome boundary friction,

P = FDU = 8.325 0.8 = 6.66 Watt (Ans)

5. Calculate the ratio of drag force on the front half and rear half of the flat plate

(Length, L and width, b) in a uniform velocity, if the boundary layer is turbulent over the

whole plate.

Solution

The wall friction coefficient CD for turbulent boundary layer is given by

0.0072
CD = 1
Re L5

UL
Reynolds number for the first half of the plate, Re L 2 =
2

Drag force for the first half of the plate is calculated as

1 0.0072 1 L
FD = C D bLU 2 = 1
b U 2
2 UL 5 2 2

2

15
= 0.0072 1
bL U 2 2
1
2 2
5
UL

Similarly, the drag force for the entire plat is calculated as

1 0.0072 1
FD = C D bLU 2 = 1
bL U 2
2 UL 5 2

Then the drag force for the rear half of the plate can be calculated as follow

Drag force for the entire plate drag force for the front half of the plate
or



0.0072 1 bL U 2 0.0072 1 b L U 2 =
1
2 1
2 2
UL UL
5 5

2

1

0.0072 1 bL U 2 1 2 5
1
2 2
UL 5


Hence the ratio of drag force on the front half and rear half of the flat plate


15
0.0072 1 bL U 2 2
1 2 2 15
UL
5 2

2
= 1 =
0.5743
2 5 1 0.5743
1
5
1
0.0072 1 bL U 2 1 2 2

1
2 2
UL
5

= 1.374 (Ans)

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