The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by a German engineer, Prandtl in 1904.
According to Prandtl theory, when a real fluid flows past a stationary solid boundary, the
i) A thin layer adjoining the solid boundary where the viscous force and rotation cannot
be neglected.
ii) An outer region where the viscous force is very small and can be neglected. The flow
Consider a flow over a flat plate aligned in the direction of the flow as shown in Figure 1.1
U
Outer flow region
significant. Due to no-slip condition at the boundary surface, the first layer of fluid undergoes
retardation. This retarded layer causes further retardation for the adjacent layer, thereby
developing a thin region where the flow velocity increases from zero at the solid boundary
Flat plate
x
Due to the presence of velocity gradient inside the boundary layer region, the fluid particle
begins to distort at the top of particle which has a larger speed than its bottom. This force
causes the fluid particle begins to rotate as it enters the boundary layer region (See Figure
ii) y > Outer flow region where the viscous force is very small and can be neglected.
There is no velocity gradient in this layer and the fluid particle will not rotate as it enters the
outer region of flow. Therefore, the flow is also known as irrotational flow.
As shown by the figure, the boundary layer conditions are that the fluid sticks to the solid
boundary
u = v = 0 on y = 0 (1.1)
and at the outside of the boundary layer, the flow velocity is equal to the free stream velocity,
that is
u = U on y = (1.2)
The following boundary condition is also true for boundary layer flow
u
= 0 when y (1.3)
y
indicates that the velocity distribution is uniform in y-direction outside the boundary layer.
1.2.1 Boundary layer thickness,
The boundary layer thickness is defined as the vertical distance from a flat plate to a point
where the flow velocity reaches 99 per cent of the velocity of the free stream.
Consider two types of fluid flow past a stationary horizontal plate with velocity U as shown
in Figure 1.3.
a b
U U U U
u
a Flat plate b Flat plate
(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 Flow over a horizontal solid surface for the case of (a) Ideal fluid (b) Real fluid.
Since there is no viscosity for the case of ideal fluid (Figure 1.3a), a uniform velocity profile
is developed above the solid wall. However, for the case of real fluid with the presence of
viscosity and no-slip on the wall, the velocity gradient is developed in the boundary layer
The velocity deficits through the element strip of cross section b-b is U u . Then the
where b is the plate width. The total mass reduction due to the presence of viscosity
(U u )bdy
0
(1.5)
However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance * in section a-a to give mass
reduction of Ub * , then the deficit of flowrates for the both cases will be identical if
(U u )bdy = Ub
*
(1.6)
0
and
u
* = 1 dy (1.7)
0
U
The displacement thickness represents the vertical distance that the solid boundary must be
displaced upward so that the ideal fluid has the same mass flowrate as the real fluid.
U U
Equal
areas
Flat plate
Another definition of boundary layer thickness, the boundary layer momentum thickness , is
Referring to Figure 1.3, again the velocity deficit through the element strip of cross section b-
u (U u )bdy
0
(1.9)
However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance at section a-a to give momentum
reduction of U 2 b , then the momentum deficit for the both cases will be identical if
u (U u )bdy = U b
2
(1.10)
0
and
u u
= 1 dy (1.11)
0
U U
The momentum thickness represents the vertical distance that the solid boundary must be
displaced upward so that the ideal fluid has the same mass momentum as real fluid.
Question:
1. If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is assumed to be
Solution
Velocity distribution: u = a + by
i) At y = 0, u = 0
0 = a + b(0) = a
ii) At y = , u = U
U = b or
U
b=
U
u= y
u y
* = 1 dy = 0 1 dy =
0
U
1 y2 1 2 1 1
= y = = =
2 0 2 2 2
* 1
= (Ans)
2
u u y y
= 1 dy = 0 1 dy =
0 U U
1 y2 1 y3 1 1 1
= 2
= =
2 3 0 2 3 6
1
= (Ans)
6
2. Show that, if the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is
assumed to be given by second order polynomial, the velocity distribution can be expressed
as follow
2
u y y
= 2
U
Solution
u = a + by + cy 2
i) At y = 0, u = 0
0 = a + b(0) + c(0)2 a = 0
ii) At y = , u = U
U = b + c 2 (i)
du
iii) At y = , =0
dy
du
= b + 2cy = b + 2c = 0 b = 2c
dy y =
U = ( 2c ) + c 2 = c 2 or
U
c=
2
U 2U
b = 2c = 2 2
=
2U U
u= y 2 y 2 or
2
u y y
= 2 (Ans)
U
3. By assuming that the velocity gradient in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is in
Solution
Displacement thickness, * :
u y y2 y y2
* = 1 dy = 0 1 2 2 dy = 0 1 2 + 2 dy
U
0
2 y 2 1 y3 1 1
= y + 2
= + =
2 3 0 3 3
1
* = (Ans)
3
Momentum thickness, :
u u y y 2 y y 2
=
0 U
1
U
dy = 0 2 1 2 2 dy
2
y y 2 y y2
= 2 2 1 2 + 2 dy
0
y y2 y3 y2 y3 y4 y y2 y3 y4
= 2 4 2 + 2 3 2 + 2 3 4 dy = 2 5 2 + 4 3 4 dy
0
0
2 y2 5 y3 4 y4 1 y5 5 1 2
= + 4
= + =
2 3 4 5 0
2 3
3 5 15
2
= (Ans)
15
4. If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is assumed to be
u y
given by = sin , determine
U 2
Solution
u y
Velocity distribution: = sin
U 2
a) :
*
u y y
* = 1 dy = 0 1 sin dy = 0 1 sin dy
U 2 2
0
y
cos
= y + 2 = ( + 0 ) 0 + 2 = 2
2
0
u u y y
= 1 dy = 0 sin 1 sin dy
0 U U 2 2
y
1 cos
2
y y y dy
= sin sin dy = 0 sin
0
2 2 2 2
1 cos 2
Q sin =
2
2
y y
cos 2 y sin
= + = 0 + 0 2 0 + 0 = 4
2 2 2
2
2 0
4
2 4 4
Q * = = = 2
2 2 2 2
4
= 2 (Ans)
2
*
(b) :
4
2 4
= =
2
4
= (Ans)
2
1
u y 7
=
U
Solution
1
u y 7
Velocity distribution: =
U
y 7
1
u
= *
1 dy = 0 1 dy
0
U
7 y 7
8
7 7
8
= y
= = 7 = 1
8 17 8 17 8 8
0
1
* =
8 (Ans)
1
y 17 1 2
7
u u y
1 dy = y y dy
7 7
= 1 dy = 0 0
0 U U
7 y 87 7 y 97 7 7 7
= 1
2
= =
8 7 9 7 8 9 72
0
7
=
72 (Ans)
6. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer over the surface of highway was
observed to be
0.22
u y
=
U
The free stream velocity is 20m/s and boundary layer thickness of 5cm in a certain section.
Calculate the displacement thickness and momentum thickness in the section under
consideration.
Solution
0.22
u y
Velocity distribution: =
U
U = 20 m/s; = 5 cm
y
0.22
u
= *
1 dy = 0 1 dy
U
0
1 y 1.22 0.22 0.22
= y 0.22
= = = 5
1.22 0 1.22 1.22 1.22
= 0.9016 cm(Ans)
0.22
y 0.22
0.22 0.44
u u 1 dy = y y dy
y
= 1 dy = 0 0
0 U U
1 y1.22 1 y1.44 0.22 0.22
= 0.44
= = = 5
1.22 1.44 0 1.22 1.44 1.7568
0.22
1.7568
= 0.6261 cm(Ans)
Expression for * and using various types of velocity profiles in boundary layer is tabulated
in Table 1.1
Table 1.1 * and for various types of velocity profiles in the boundary layer
u y
Linear profile , =
U 2 6
Parabolic profile,
2
2
u y y 3 15
= + 2
U
Cubic profile,
3 39
3
u 3 y 1 y 8 280
=
U 2 2
Sin-Cos profile,
2 2 1
1
u y 2
= sin
U 2
Turbulent profile,
7
1
u y 7
8 72
=
U
In 1908, H. Blassius, one of Prandtl student proposed simplified equations for the boundary
v << u (1.12)
<< (1.13)
x y
u u 1 p 2u
u +v = + 2 (1.14)
x y x y
1 p U
= U (1.15)
x x
u u U 2u
u +v =U + 2 (1.16)
x y x y
For the flow specifically over the flat surface, we can assume uniform horizontal velocity and
therefore U x = 0 , thus
u u 2u
u +v = 2 (1.17)
x y y
u= ,v = (1.18)
y x
2 2 3
= (1.19)
y xy x y 2 y 3
Blassius then introduced the dimensionless similarity variable = (U x) y and the stream
12
1 U 2
= [ f f ]
x 2 x
= Uf
y
2 1
= Uf (1.20)
xy 2x
1
2 U 2
= U f
y x
2
3 U 2
= f
y 3 x
2 3
where f = f , f = 2 f , f = 3 f
1
f + ff = 0 (1.21)
2
Eq. (1.21) can be solved numerically by taking the boundary conditions as follow
f (0 ) = 0
f (0 )
=0 (1.22)
f
0 when
f ( ) = u U f ( )
= y(U x)1 2
0 0 3.6 0.9233
From the solution, it is found that u U 0.99 when = 5 , thus, from the similarity variables
1
U 2
5= (1.23)
x
or
5x
= where Rex = U x (1.24)
Re1x 2
Using some manipulations of algebra, the displacement and momentum thickness can be
expressed as
1.721x
* = (1.25)
Re1x 2
and
0.664x
= (1.26)
Re1x 2
w = 0.332U 3 2 (1.27)
x
One of the main drawbacks of the Blassius solution is the limitation to the laminar flow over
a flat surface only. In reality, most of the flowsare turbulent. Therefore, the demand to
replace Blassius solution with other equation which can predict the turbulent boundary layer
flow leads to a great work done by Von-Karmann in 1921. Von Karmann formulated a
general equation from the conservation of momentum theory which can predict the boundary
layer flow covers from laminar to turbulent regions. His equation contributes to advancement
To see the formulation, consider a uniform flow past a flat plate and the fixed control volume
y
U U
h
u
Flat plate
Figure 1.5 Control volume for the derivation of Von Karmann momentum integral equation
or
F x = U ( U )dA + u 2 dA (1.29)
1 2
F x = U bh + b u 2 dy
2
(1.30)
0
Since there is no cross flow through streamline, the mass flow rate must be equal through
U 2bh = b Uudy (1.32)
0
F x = b Uudy + b u 2 dy (1.33)
0 0
or
Fx = b u (U u )dy (1.34)
0
We can see that Eq. (1.34) can be written in terms of the momentum thickness as follow
F x = bU 2 (1.35)
However, we know that the change of momentum contributes to the development of drag
F x = D =
surface
w dA = b
surface
w dx (1.36)
This gives
b w dx = bU 2 (1.37)
d
b w = bU 2 (1.38)
dx
Now, we obtained the Von-Karmann momentum integral equation for the boundary layer
d
w = U 2 (1.39)
dx
l
U
y
b
x dx
Referring to Figure 1.6, the drag force on the solid surface can be determined by considering
Then the total drag force on one side of plate with length L
L
FD = dFD = wbdx (1.41)
0
It is also often convenient to use the dimensionless local friction coefficient cf and friction
w
cf = (1.42)
1
U 2
2
and
FD
cD = where A: total area (for this case, A=bl) (1.43)
1
U 2 A
2
Respectively.
0.664
cf = (1.44)
Re1x 2
and
1.328
cD = (1.45)
Re1L 2
where Re L = UL
Next we demonstrate the derivation of the equations of boundary layer thickness, boundary
layer displacement thickness, boundary layer momentum thickness, local friction coefficient
and total drag coefficient based on the following velocity distributions using the Von-
u y
1.4.1 Linear velocity profile, =
U
d u
w = U 2 and w = (1.46)
dx y y =0
u U
Since = therefore
y y =0
d U
U 2 = (1.47)
dx
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
6
U 2 d U
= (1.48)
6 dx
or
6
d = dx (1.49)
U
2 6
= x+C (1.50)
2 U
At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0
12x
2 =
U
12xx
=
Ux
12 x 2 (1.51)
=
Ux
12 x 2
=
Re x
3.464 x
= (1.52)
Re x
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
1.732 x
* = = (1.53)
2 Re x
0.5773 x
= = (1.54)
6 Re x
U U
w = = 0.2887 Re x (1.55)
x
FD
cD = (1.57)
1
U 2 A
2
where
L L U
FD = wbdx = 0.2887 Re x bdx
0 0 x
(1.58a)
L U Ux L U 2
1
= 0.2887 bdx = 0.2887 U x bdx
0 x 0
L
1
U x 2
FD = b 0.2887 U
1 2
0 (1.58b)
U 12
= b 0.5774U
(
L = b 0.5774U Re L
)
Therefore
cD =
(
b 0.5774U Re L )
1
U 2bL
2
Re L
= 1.1548 Re L = 1.1548 (1.59)
UL Re L
1.1548
=
Re L
2
u y y
1.4.2 Second order polynomial = + 2
U
d u
w = U 2 and w = (1.60)
dx y y =0
u 2U
Since = therefore
y y =0
d U
U 2 =2 (1.61)
dx
2
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
15
2 U 2 d U
=2 (1.62)
15 dx
or
15
d = dx (1.63)
U
2 15
= x+C (1.64)
2 U
At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0
30x
2 =
U
30xx
=
Ux
30 x 2 (1.65)
=
Ux
30 x 2
=
Re x
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
1.826 x
* = = (1.67)
3 Re x
2 0.730 x
= = (1.68)
15 Re x
U U
w = 2 = 0.365 Re x (1.69)
x
w
cf =
1
U 2
2
U
0.365 Re x
= x
1
U 2
2
= 0.730 Re x (1.70)
Ux
Re x
= 0.730
Re x
0.730
=
Re x
FD
cD = (1.71)
1
U 2 A
2
where
L L U
FD = wbdx = 0.365 Re x bdx
0 0 x
L U Ux L U 2
1
(1.72a)
= 0.365 bdx = 0.365U x bdx
0 x 0
L
1
U x 2
FD = b 0.365U
1 2
0 (1.72b)
U 1 2
= b 0.730U
L = b 0.730U Re L ( )
Therefore
cD =
(
b 0.730U Re L )
1
U 2bL
2
Re L
= 1.46 Re L = 1.46 (1.73)
UL Re L
1.46
=
Re L
3
u 3 y 1 y
1.4.3 Third order polynomial =
U 2 2
d u
w = U 2 and w = (1.74)
dx y y =0
du 3U
Since = therefore
dy y =0
2
d 3 U
U 2 = (1.75)
dx 2
39
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
280
39 d 3U
U 2 = (1.76)
280 dx 2
or
3 280 dx 420
d = U = dx (1.77)
2 39 U 2
39 U
2 420
= x+C (1.78)
2 39 U
At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0
840
2 = x
39 U
x
= 21.538 x
Ux
x2 (1.79)
= 21.538
Ux
2
x
= 21.538
Re x
4.64 x
= (1.80)
Re x
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
3 1.74 x
* = = (1.81)
8 Re x
39 0.646 x
= = (1.82)
280 Re x
3U U
w = = 0.323 Re x (1.83)
2 x
FD
cD = (1.85)
1
U 2 A
2
where
L L U
FD = wbdx = 0.323 Re x bdx
0 0 x
L U Ux L U 2
1
(1.86a)
= 0.323 bdx = 0.323U x bdx
0 x 0
L
1
U x 2
FD = b 0.323U
1 2
0 (1.87a)
U 12
= b 0.646U
(
L = b 0.646U Re L
)
Therefore
cD =
(
b 0.646U Re L )
1
U 2bL
2
Re L
= 1.292 Re L = 1.292 (1.88)
UL Re L
1.292
=
Re L
u y
1.4.4 sin-cos velocity distribution : = sin
U 2
d u
w = U 2 and w = (1.89)
dx y y =0
Since
du y
= U cos
dy 2 2 (1.90)
and
du U
= therefore
dy y =0
2
U d
= U 2 (1.91)
2 dx
2 1
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
2
2 1 2 d U
U = (1.92)
2 dx 2
or
1 2 dx 2 U
d = U = dx (1.93)
2 4 U
2
(4 ) U 2
or
d = 11.4975 dx (1.94)
U
2
= 11 .4975 x+C (1.95)
2 U
At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0
2 = 22.995 x
U
x
= 22.995 x
Ux
x2 (1.96)
= 22.995
Ux
2
x
= 22.995
Re x
4.795 x
= (1.97)
Re x
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
2 7.847 x
* = 1 = (1.98)
Re x
4 0.651x
= = (1.99)
2 Re x
U U
w = = 0.328 Re x (1.100)
2 x
FD
cD = (1.102)
1
U 2 A
2
where
L L U
FD = wbdx = 0.328 Re x bdx
0 0 x
L U Ux L U 2
1
(1.103a)
= 0.328 bdx = 0.328U x bdx
0 x 0
L
1
U x 2
FD = b 0.328U
1 2
0 (1.103b)
U 12
= b 0.656U
(
L = b 0.656U Re L
)
Therefore
cD =
(
b 0.656U Re L )
1
U 2bL
2
Re L
= 1.312 Re L = 1.312 (1.104)
UL Re L
1.312
=
Re L
As mentioned earlier, most of the flow is turbulent in nature. When the Reynolds number of
the surface exceed approximately Re = 5 105 , the boundary layer transitions from laminar
to turbulent.
U
Laminar Turbulent boundary layer
boundary
layer
y
Flat plate
x
Rex = 5 x 105
The velocity distribution for the turbulent boundary layer is given by the one-seventh power
law as follow
1
u y 7
= (1.105)
U
However, the difficulty arises when determining the wall shear stress as it approaches infinity
as below
u 1 U
= = . (1.106)
y y =0
7 1 7 y6 7
Here, the correlation for shear stress is taken from experimental work as
14
w = 0.0226U
2
(1.107)
U
Now we will determine , c f and cD for the region of turbulent boundary layer.
7
From the previous calculation, we know that = , therefore
72
14
7 d
U 2 = 0.0226U 2 (1.108)
72 dx U
or
14
1 4 d = 0.232 dx (1.109)
U
14
4 54
= 0.232 x + C (1.110)
5 U
At x = 0, = 0 and therefore C = 0
14
5 4 = 0.291 x
U
14
x
= 0.291 x
Ux (1.111)
14
= 0.291 x 5 4
Ux
x5 4
= 0.291 1 4
Re x
0.372 x
= (1.112)
Re1x 5
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
0.047 x
* = = (1.113)
8 Re1x 5
7 0.036 x
= = (1.114)
72 Re1x 5
= 0.0289 U 2 x = 0.0289 U x
2
= 0.0289 U 4 5
2
(1.115)
Ux Re x Re x
0.0289 U 2
=
Re1x 5
w
cf =
1
U 2
2
14
1
0.0289U 4 5
2
= Re x
1 (1.116)
U 2
2
14
1
= 0.0579 4 5
Re x
0.0579
=
Re1x 5
FD
cD = (1.117)
1
U 2 A
2
where
L L 0.0289U 2
FD = wbdx = bdx
0 0 Re1x 5
15 15
(1.118a)
1
L L
= 0.0289U bdx = 0.0289U 2b x 5 dx
2
0
Ux 0
U
L
54 15
FD = 0.0289 U 2b
x
U 4 5
0 (1.118b)
15
= 0.036 U b L4 5
2
Therefore
15
0.036 U 2b L4 5
cD = U
1
U 2bL
2
15
15 1
1
= 0.072 = 0.072 (1.119)
U L1 5 UL
0.072
=
Re1L 5
Now the formulated expression for , c f and cD for various velocity distribution in laminar
Table 1.3 Results for various assumed laminar and turbulent flow velocity profiles
Types of velocity cf cD
distribution
Question:
1. Consider a flow over a horizontal flat plate (1.25m x 2.5m) with velocity 3.0m/s.
Calculate
Solution
UL 3.0 2.5
Re L = = = 7.5 10 5
10 5
Since Re L > 5 10 5 so the boundary layer at the trailing edge is turbulent. The Von-
0.372 2.5
L = = 0.06215 m = 62.15mm (Ans)
(7.5 10 ) 5
1
5
Ux 3.0 1.25
Re x = = = 3.75 10 5 m.
10 5
Hence the boundary layer at this point is laminar and the Blassius equation for the local wall
0.664 0.664
friction coefficient gives C f = = = 0.00108
12
Re x (
3.75 10 5 ) 1
2
U 2 850 3.0 2
By definition w = C f = 0.00108
2 2
1
FD = C D AU 2
2
0.072 0.072
where C D = = = 0.00481
15
Re L (
7.5 105 ) 1
5
1
FD = 0.00481 850 3.125 3.0 2 = 57.494 N
2
2. A submarine can be assumed to have cylindrical shape with rounded nose. Assuming
its length to be 50m and diameter 5.0m. Determine the total power required to overcome
Solution
Ux 8 x
= = 5 10 5 at
10 6
x = 0.0652 m
Since the laminar boundary layer is too small and can we can assume the drag force is due to
0.072 0.072
CD = 1
= 1
= 0.00137
Re L5 8 50 5
6
10
Area, A = DL = 5 50 = 785.4 m2
1 1
Drag force FD = C D AU 2 = 0.00137 1030 785.4 82 = 35464 N
2 2
down a river with a velocity of 0.6m/s. A laminar boundary layer exists up to a Reynolds
5
number equivalent to 5 x 10 and subsequently abrupt transition occurs to turbulent boundary
layer.
a. The maximum distance from the leading edge up to which laminar boundary layer
b. The total drag force on the flat bottom surface of the barge.
c. The power required to push the bottom surface through water at the given velocity.
3 -6 2
(Take = 998 kg/m , = 10 m /s)
Solution
Maximum distance of laminar boundary layer occurs at the point of transition from laminar to
Ux 0.6 x
turbulent or at Re x = 5 10 5 = = and therefore
10 6
x = 0.833 m (Ans)
5x 5 0.833
= = = 0.00589 m or 5.89 mm (Ans)
Re x (5 10 )
5
1
2
The total drag force on the flat bottom surface of the barge
Since the length of laminar boundary layer is very small, contribution to total drag from
UL 0.6 30
The Reynolds number at the trailing edge, Re L = = = 1.8 10 7
10 6
0.072 0.072
The wall friction coefficient is calculated as C D = = = 0.00255
15
Re L (
1.8 10 7 ) 1
5
Area, A = bL = 10 30 = 300 m2
1 1
Drag force FD = C D AU 2 = 0.00255 998 300 0.6 2 = 137.4 N
2 2
= 137.4 N (Ans)
The power required to push the bottom surface through water at the given velocity can be
calculated as follow
4. Determine the total power required to pull the timber (diameter 0.4m and length 15m)
with velocity 0.8m/s. Only half of the timber on the water surface. Neglect the drag force due
to front surface.
1.31 0.074
Take C Dla min ar = , C Dturbulence = 5
, water = 1000 kg m 3 , v = 1 10 6 m 2 s
Re Re
Solution
x = 0.652 m
Since the laminar boundary layer is too small and can we can assume the drag force is due to
the turbulent boundary layer only. Hence, CD is given by
0.072 0.072
CD = 1
= 1
= 0.00276
Re L5 0.8 15 5
6
10
D 0.4
Area, A = L= 15 = 9.426 m2
2 2
1 1
Drag force FD = C D AU 2 = 0.00276 1000 9.426 0.8 2 = 8.325 N
2 2
5. Calculate the ratio of drag force on the front half and rear half of the flat plate
(Length, L and width, b) in a uniform velocity, if the boundary layer is turbulent over the
whole plate.
Solution
0.0072
CD = 1
Re L5
UL
Reynolds number for the first half of the plate, Re L 2 =
2
1 0.0072 1 L
FD = C D bLU 2 = 1
b U 2
2 UL 5 2 2
2
15
= 0.0072 1
bL U 2 2
1
2 2
5
UL
1 0.0072 1
FD = C D bLU 2 = 1
bL U 2
2 UL 5 2
Then the drag force for the rear half of the plate can be calculated as follow
Drag force for the entire plate drag force for the front half of the plate
or
0.0072 1 bL U 2 0.0072 1 b L U 2 =
1
2 1
2 2
UL UL
5 5
2
1
0.0072 1 bL U 2 1 2 5
1
2 2
UL 5
Hence the ratio of drag force on the front half and rear half of the flat plate
15
0.0072 1 bL U 2 2
1 2 2 15
UL
5 2
2
= 1 =
0.5743
2 5 1 0.5743
1
5
1
0.0072 1 bL U 2 1 2 2
1
2 2
UL
5
= 1.374 (Ans)