MT 30001

Materials Engineering (3-0-0)

Instructor: Sumantra Mandal

Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engg
Email: sumantra.mandal@metal.iitkgp.ernet.in

Chapter 9 - 1
Difference between Crystal & Lattice

Chapter 9 - 2
Difference between Crystal & Lattice

Chapter 9 - 3
Unit Cell

Chapter 9 - 4
Crystal system and Bravais Lattice

Chapter 9 - 5
Cubic Bravais Lattice

Chapter 9 - 6
 Lattice Defects

Real crystals deviate from the perfect periodicity

While the concept of the perfect lattice is adequate for explaining the
structure-insensitive properties of metal, it is necessary to consider
a number of types of lattice defects to explain structure-sensitive
properties

Chapter 9 - 7
Different Types of Lattice Defects

Point defects

Line defects

Surface defects

Volume defects

Chapter 9 - 8
 Point Defects

Number of vacant sites (n)

Vacancy

Interstitial Impurity Chapter 9 - 9

 Line Defects - Dislocations

Edge dislocation produced Atomic arrangement near

by slip in cubic system edge dislocation

Chapter 9 - 10
 Deformation by slip

Schematic drawing of classical idea of slip

Chapter 9 - 11
 Slip in perfect lattice

Shear displacement of plane of

atoms over another Relation between shear
stress and displacement

The max. stress at which

slip should occur

Variation of shearing stress with

displacement in slip direction Chapter 9 - 12
 Slip by dislocation movements

If dislocations don't move,

deformation doesn't occur!

Chapter 9 - 13
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
perpendicular to dislocation line
Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector
Edge dislocation

From Fig. 10.2

Callisters Materials Science
and Engineering, Adapted
Version.

Screw dislocation

Chapter 9 - 14
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress for Slip

Slip begins when the shearing stress on the slip plane in

the slip direction reaches a threshold value called as
critical resolved shear stress (CRSS)

Chapter 9 - 15
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.
Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR

A
F slip plane
tR tR = FS /AS
normal, ns
AS Fcos l A/cos f
FS
F nS f
l A
tR FS AS
F

tR = s cos l cos f
Chapter 9 - 16
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Condition for dislocation motion: tR > tCRSS
Crystal orientation can make typically
it easy or hard to move dislocation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
tR = s cos l cos f
s s s

tR = 0 tR = s/2 tR = 0
l =90 l =45 f =90
f =45

t maximum at l = f = 45 Chapter 9 - 17
Single Crystal Slip

From Fig. 10.9,

Callisters Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.

From Fig. 10.8

Callisters Materials Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version. Chapter 9 - 18
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
f=60
tcrss = 3000 psi
l=35
t = s cos l cos f
s = 6500 psi

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
t = (6500 psi) (cos 35o )(cos 60o )
= (6500 psi) (0.41)
Callister 7e.

t = 2662 psi < tcrss = 3000 psi

s = 6500 psi
So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the
crystal to yield.
Chapter 9 - 19
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, sy)?

tcrss = 3000 psi = s y cos l cos f = s y (0.41)

tcrss 3000 psi

\ sy = = = 7325 psi
cos l cos f 0.41

So for deformation to occur the applied stress must

be greater than or equal to the yield stress

s s y = 7325 psi
Chapter 9 - 20
 Assignment
Determine the tensile stress that need to be applied
along the [1-10] axis of a silver crystal to cause slip
on the (1-1-1)[0-11] system. The CRSS is 6 MPa.

Chapter 9 - 21
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
Stronger - grain boundaries
s
pin deformations
Slip planes & directions
(l, f) change from one
From Fig. 10.10,
Callisters Materials
Science and
crystal to another. Engineering,
Adapted Version.

tR will vary from one (Fig. 10.10 is

courtesy of C.
crystal to another. Brady, National
Bureau of
Standards [now the
The crystal with the National Institute of
Standards and
largest tR yields first. Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)

Other (less favorably

oriented) crystals
300 mm
yield later.
Chapter 9 - 22
 Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys

From Fig. 9.1

Ferrous Nonferrous Callisters Materials Science
and Engineering,
Adapted Version.
Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite
d
cementite
1400 L From Fig. 7.24
g+L Callisters Materials Science and Engineering,
1200 g 1148C L+Fe3C Adapted Version.
(Fig. 7.24 adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
austenite Eutectic: Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-
1000 4.30
in-Chief), ASM International, Materials Park,
g+Fe3C OH, 1990.)
a800 727C Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C Chapter 9 - 23
 Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Phase Diagram
T(C)
2 important 1600
points d
-Eutectic (A): 1400 L
L g + Fe3C g g +L
1200 1148C A L+Fe3C
(austenite)

Fe3C (cementite)
-Eutectoid (B): R S
g a + Fe3C 1000
g g g +Fe3C
g g
a
800 727C = Teutectoid
B
R S
600
a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) 0.76 4.30 Co, wt% C
120 mm
C eutectoid

Result: Pearlite = Fe3C (cementite-hard)

alternating layers of a (ferrite-soft)
a and Fe3C phases
(From Fig. 7.27, Callister Adapted Version.) From Fig. 7.24, Callister Adapted Version.
Chapter 9 - 24
 Hypoeutectoid Steel
T(C)
1600
d
1400 L
g g (Fe-C
g g +L
g g 1200 1148C L+Fe3C System)

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite)
g g 1000
g g g + Fe3C From Figs. 7.24 and 7.29
Callisters Materials
a Science and Engineering,
ag g 800 r s 727C Adapted Version.
g ag a RS (Fig. 7.24 adapted from
Binary Alloy Phase
w a =s/(r +s) 600
w g =(1- wa )
a + Fe3C Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol.
1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-
Chief), ASM International,
a 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7 Materials Park, OH,
(Fe) Co , wt% C 1990.)
0.76

C0
pearlite
w pearlite = w g
Hypoeutectoid
w a =S/(R+S) 100 mm
steel
w Fe3 =(1-w a )
C
pearlite proeutectoid ferrite
From Fig. 7.30
Callisters Materials Science and Chapter 9 - 25
Engineering, Adapted Version.
 Hypereutectoid Steel
T(C)
1600
d
1400 L (Fe-C
g g +L System)
g g
g g
1200 1148C L+Fe3C

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite)
g g 1000
g g g +Fe3C From Figs. 7.24 and 7.32,
Callisters Materials
Fe3C
g g
Science and Engineering,
800 r s Adapted Version.
g g a R S
(Fig. 7.24 adapted from
Binary Alloy Phase
w Fe3C =r/(r +s) 600
a +Fe3C Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol.
1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-
w g =(1-w Fe3C ) Chief), ASM International,
400
0 1 Co 2 3 4 5 6 6.7 Materials Park, OH,
0.76

(Fe) Co , wt%C 1990.)

pearlite
w pearlite = w g
w a =S/(R+S)
w Fe3C =(1-w a ) 60 mmHypereutectoid
steel
pearlite proeutectoid Fe3C
From Fig. 7.33, Callisters Materials Science Chapter 9 - 26
and Engineering, Adapted Version.
 Alloying Steel with More Elements

Teutectoid changes: Ceutectoid changes:

Ceutectoid (wt%C)
Ti
T Eutectoid (C)

Si
Mo W Ni
Cr
Cr Si
Mn
Mn W
Ti Mo
Ni

wt. % of alloying elements wt. % of alloying elements

From Fig. 7.34 From Fig. 7.35
Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Callisters Materials Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version. Adapted Version.
(Fig. 7.34 from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of the (Fig. 7.35 from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of the
Alloying Elements in Steel, American Society for Alloying Elements in Steel, American Society for
Metals, 1939, p. 127.) Metals, 1939, p. 127.)

Chapter 9 - 27
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt% C 0.25-0.6wt% C 0.6-1.4wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Chapter 9 - 28
Based on data provided in Tables 9.1(b), 9.2(b), 9.3, and 9.4, Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.
 Ferrous Alloys
Iron containing Steels - cast irons

Nomenclature AISI & SAE

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)

where xx is wt% C x 100

example: 1060 steel plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C

Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr

Chapter 9 - 29
 Cast Iron
Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast

Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C 3 Fe (a) + C (graphite)

generally a slow process

Chapter 9 - 30
 Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. From Fig. 10.14,
Callisters Materials Science and Engineering,
Smaller grain size: Adapted Version.

more barriers to slip. (Fig. 10.14 is from A Textbook of Materials

Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

Hall-Petch Equation: s yield = so + k y d -1 / 2

Chapter 9 - 31
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions

Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.

Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

Chapter 9 - 32
Stress Concentration at Dislocations

From Fig. 10.4,

Callisters Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.
Chapter 9 - 33
 Strengthening by Alloying
small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
reduce mobility of dislocation \ increase strength

From Fig. 10.17,

Callisters Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version. Chapter 9 - 34
 Strengthening by alloying
large impurities concentrate at dislocations on low
density side

From Fig. 10.18,

Callisters Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.
Chapter 9 - 35
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

From Fig. 10.16 (a)
400 and (b),
Callisters Materials
120 Science and
300 Engineering,
Adapted Version.

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

Empirical relation: sy ~ C1/ 2

Alloying increases sy and TS.

Chapter 9 - 36
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
advances but
precipitates act as
S pinning sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
Result: sy ~
S
Chapter 9 - 37
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
From chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 11,
Callister 5e. (courtesy of
G.H. Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
From Fig. 10.31,
Callisters Materials
Science and
Engineering, Adapted
Version.

(Fig. 10.31 is
courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
1.5mm Miller, Boeing
Commercial Airplane
Company.) Chapter 9 - 38
Interaction between precipitates and dislocation

When the particles are small and/or soft, dislocations can

cut and deform the particles as shown in the Figure

Chapter 9 - 39
Interaction between precipitates and dislocation

For the case of averaged non-coherent precipitates Orowan

proposed the mechanism illustrated in the Fig. below. The
yield stress is determined by the shear stress required to
bow a dislocation line between two particles separated by a
distance l, where l>R.

Schematic drawing, of stages in passage of a dislocation between

widely separated obstacles, based on Orowan's mechanism of
dispersion hardening Chapter 9 - 40
Stage 1: A straight dislocation line approaching two particles.

Stage 2: The line is beginning to bend.

Stage 3: It has reached the critical curvature. The dislocation can then
move forward without further decreasing its radius of curvature (R).

and l = 2R, so that the shear stress required to force the dislocation
between the obstacles is:

Chapter 9 - 41
Stage 4: Since the segments of dislocation that meet on the other
side of the particle are of opposite sign. they can annihilate each
other over part of their length, leaving a dislocation loop around
each particle

Stage 5: The original dislocation is then free to move on

Every dislocation gliding over the slip plane adds one loop around
the particle. These loops exert a back stress on dislocation sources
which must be overcome for additional slip to take place. This
requires an increase in shear stress, with the result that dispersed
non-coherent particles cause the matrix to strain-harden rapidly
Chapter 9 - 42
 Exercise
An alurninum-4% copper alloy has a yield stress of 600 MPa.
Estimate the particle spacing in this alloy. Given G ~ 27.6 GPa;
b~0.25 nm.

At this strength level we are dealing with a precipitation-hardening

alloy that has been aged beyond the maximum strength. The
strengthening mechanism is dislocation bypassing of particles.

G ~ 27.6 GPa; b~0.25 nm; t0= 600/2 = 300 MPa

Chapter 9 - 43
 Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

From Fig. 9.9, Callisters Materials Science and Engineering,

Adapted Version.
(Fig. 9.9 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, Chapter 9 - 44
p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
 Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

Chapter 9 - 45
 Poisson's ratio, n
eL
Poisson's ratio, n:

eL
n=- e
e

metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless

Chapter 9 - 46
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain From Fig. 9.16 (a),

Callisters Materials Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.

Chapter 9 - 47
 Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = Dz/z
\ Dz = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 From Fig. 9.16 (a),
Callisters Materials Science and Engineering
Adapted Version. Chapter 9 - 48
 Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
From Fig. 9.17
Callisters Materials
TS Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 9 - 49
 Ductility
L f - Lo
Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
From Fig. 9.19
Callisters Materials
Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.
. Engineering tensile strain, e

Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter 9 - 50
 Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
From Fig. 9.19 very small toughness
Callisters Materials (unreinforced polymers)
Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 9 - 51
 Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region

ey
Ur = sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
From Fig. 9.21
Callisters Materials Science
and Engineering, Chapter 9 - 52
Adapted Version.
 Elastic Strain Recovery

From Fig. 9.23

Callisters Materials
Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version. Chapter 9 - 53
.
 True Stress & Strain
Note: specimen area changes when sample stretched

True stress sT = F Ai sT = s(1 + e )

True Strain eT = ln(l i l o ) eT = ln(1 + e )

From Fig. 9.22

Callisters Materials
Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.

Chapter 9 - 54
Assignment

Chapter 9 - 55
 Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0

e
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT ( )n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true stress (F/A) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 9 - 56
 Assignment
Compute the strain-hardening exponent (n) for an
alloy in which a true stress of 415 MPa produces
true strain of 0.10. Assume a value of 1035 MPa for
K.

Chapter 9 - 57
 Instability in Tension
Necking generally begins at maximum load during the tensile
deformation of a ductile metal.

An ideal plastic material in which no strain hardening occurs

would become unstable in tension and begin to neck just as
soon as yielding took place.

However, a real metal undergoes strain hardening, which

tends to increase the load-carrying capacity of the specimen
as deformation increases. This effect is opposed by the
gradual decrease in the cross-sectional area of the specimen
as it elongates.

Chapter 9 - 58
 Instability in Tension - Necking
Necking or localized deformation begins at maximum load,
where the increase in stress due to decrease in the cross-
sectional area of the specimen becomes greater than the
increase in the load-carrying ability of the metal due to
strain hardening.

This condition of instability leading to localized deformation

is defined by the condition dP = 0.
P = sA
dP = s dA + Ads = 0

This leads to the following relationship,

.(1)
Chapter 9 - 59
 Instability in Tension - Necking
From the constancy-of-volume relationship,

.(2)

So that at a point of tensile instability (combining Equation

1 and Equation 2)

Graphical interpretation of necking

criterion

Chapter 9 - 60
 Exercise
If the true-stress-true-strain curve is given by the relationship:
, where stress is in MPa, what is the ultimate
tensile strength of the material?

Hints:
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT ( )
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true stress (F/A) true strain: ln(L/Lo)

e T = n .How you get the relationship??

sT = s(1 + e )
eT = ln(1 + e )
Answer: 698 MPa Chapter 9 - 61
 Strain Rate

Strain rate is defined as e& = de

dt
Engineering Strain rate
d ( L - L0 ) / L0 1 dL v
e& = de dt
= = =
dt L 0 dt L 0
True Strain rate d [ln( L )
e&T = de T
L0 1 dL v
= = =
dt dt L dt L

Here v is crosshead velocity of the machine

Chapter 9 - 62
 Relation between Stress and Strain Rate

A general relationship exists between tensile stress and strain

rate, at constant strain and temperature:

s T = C (e&T ) m

where m is known as the strain-rate sensitivity

Chapter 9 - 63
 Exercise
The parameters obtained from tensile tests of a commercially pure
aluminum are as follows at a true strain of 0.25.

Determine the change in flow stress for a two order of magnitude

change (say 1 to 100 s-1) in strain rate at each of the temperatures.

Chapter 9 - 64
 Variability in Material Properties
Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
Statistics
n
S xn
Mean x=
n
1
n 2
( )
2
S xi - x
Standard Deviation s=
n -1

where n is the number of data points
Chapter 9 - 65
 Design or Safety Factors
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
sy
sworking = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa
(
p d2 / 4)
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 9 - 66
 4 Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (%CW)
Room temperature deformation.
Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao - Ad
%CW = x 100
Ao Chapter 9 - 67
 Dislocations During Cold Work
Ti alloy after cold working:

Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

From Fig. 5.10,

Callisters Materials
Science and
Engineering, Adapted
Version.

0.9 mm (Fig. 5.10 is courtesy

of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
University.) Chapter 9 - 68
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
Carefully grown single crystal
ca. 103 mm-2
Deforming sample increases density
109-1010 mm-2
Heat treatment reduces density
105-106 mm-2
s
Yield stress increases
sy1 large hardening
as rd increases: sy0 small hardening

e
Chapter 9 - 69
 Effects of Stress at Dislocations

From Fig. 10.5,

Callisters Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.

Chapter 9 - 70
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
Yield strength (sy) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

From Fig. 10.20

Callisters Materials Science
and Engineering,
Adapted Version.

Chapter 9 - 71
 Cold Work Analysis
What is the tensile strength & Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
pro2 - prd2
%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
2
pro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
sy = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
From Fig. 10.19, Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.
(Fig. 10.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B.
Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Chapter
Metals, 9 - 72
1979, p. 276 and 327.)
 s-e Behavior vs. Temperature
800
Results for -200C

Stress (MPa)
polycrystalline iron: 600
-100C
400
From Fig. 9.20
Callisters Materials Science
and Engineering, 200 25C
Adapted Version.

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
sy and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
%EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
move past obstacles. atoms on the obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

Chapter 9 - 73
Effect of Heating (Annealing) After Cold Working
q Annealing of the cold worked structure at high
temperature softens the metal and reverts to a strain-
free condition.
q Annealing restores the ductility to a metal that has been
severely strain hardened.
q Annealing can be divided into three distinct processes:

Recovery
Recrystallization
Grain growth

Chapter 9 - 74
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
Scenario 2
3. Climbed disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to climb
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
cant move to the right

Chapter 9 - 75
Recovery

Various stages in the

recovery of a plastically
deformed material

Chapter 9 - 76
 Recrystallization

(a) (b)
Schematic illustration of nucleation event: (a) subgrain (SG) initially grows
within Grain I and reaches the critical size which allows it to overcome the
capillary force; (b) subsequently it can bulge into Grain II as a new strain
free grain

Chapter 9 - 77
 Recrystallization
New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

From Fig. 10.21

(a),(b),
Callisters
Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.
(Fig. 10.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
33% cold New crystals Company.)
worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

Chapter 9 - 78
 Further Recrystallization
All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

From Fig. 10.21

(c),(d),
Callisters
Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.
(Fig. 10.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
After 4 After 8 Company.)
seconds seconds

Chapter 9 - 79
 Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
From Fig. 10.21 (d),(e)
Callisters Materials Science and
Engineering, Adapted Version.
(Fig. 10.21 (d),(e) are courtesy of
J.E. Burke, General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580C 580C
coefficient dependent
Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
- d on = Kt
Chapter 9 - 80


TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

From Fig. 10.22,

Callisters Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.

Chapter 9 - 81
Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point of
highest rate of property change
1. Tm => TR 0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
Dislocation can move easily in pure metals =>
lower TR

Chapter 9 - 82
 Summary
Recovery : The restoration of the physical properties of the
cold worked metal without any observable change in
microstructure. Strength is not affected.

Recrystallization : The cold worked structure is replaced by

a new set of strain-free grains due to migration of high angle grain
boundaries. Hardness and strength decrease but ductility
increases.

Grain growth : Occurs at higher temperature where some of

the recrystallized fine grains start to grow rapidly.

Chapter 9 - 83