COMPUTER SCIENCE PAPER 1

Chapter 1: Teaching Aptitude (From I to VII)

I. Concept of Teaching

Education is important for:

Preservation and transmission of culture

Preparation for a vocation

A proper definition of teaching should:

Identify whether teaching is a process or product

Indicate Constitutional factors

Reveal Objectives

Reveal Organizational & Structural Aspect

Definitions of Teaching

1. Morrison

A disciplined social process

Where the teacher influences the behaviour of less experienced pupil
Helps them develop according to the need & ideas of the society

2. Smith
An organized system of specific activities aimed to help the learner learn something
Considered a tripolar process involving an agent, goal & intervening variables

3. Brubacher
Where the pupils play a central role

4. Gage
Personal relationship between teacher & taught resulting in behaviour modification

5. Amidon
A process of cooperative social interaction between teacher and taught

6. Clarke
All organized activities resulting in behaviour modification

7. Green
What a teacher does for the development of a child
II. Nature and Characteristics of Teaching

Nature of Teaching:

a. Dynamic, Social & Humane: Influenced by human & social factors

b. An Art & Science: Exercise of being systematic & including talent & creativity

c. Diverse in Application: There are various forms of teaching

Characteristics of Teaching

a. A system of actions

b. A professional activity

c. Subjected to analysis & assessment

d. An interactive process

e. A specialized task

f. A collection of various modes

III. Aims & Modes of Teaching

Aims of Teaching

a. Change the behaviour of students Teaching

b. Improve learning skills of students Conditioning

c. Shaping behaviour & conduct Training

d. Acquisition of knowledge Instruction

e. Formation of beliefs - Indoctrination

 Modes of Teaching

1. Training helps to shape conduct and various skills

2. Instruction & Indoctrination work on a higher footing than conditioning & training

3. Instruction is concerned with the development of knowledge & understanding in an individual

4. Teaching is aimed towards the shaping of a total individual

5. Indoctrination is a high level of teaching shaping beliefs & ideals

IV. Objectives of Teaching

Desired changes in pupils

Shape behaviour & conduct

Acquisition of knowledge

Improve learning skills

Formation of a belief system

Provide a social & efficient member to the society

V. Modern Concepts of Teaching

a. Questioning

By the teacher to the student and student to the teacher

b. Discussion

Clears doubts of students

Expression of thought

Teacher directs discussion

 c. Investigation

Either individual or group after the teacher presents the information

Can be followed by expression of thoughts of the students

d. Expression

Can be in the form of practical activities

VI. Basic Requirements in Teaching

a. Three variables in teaching Includes the Teacher, Student & Environmental factors

b. Professionalism

c. Suitable Environment

d. Teacher Student Relationship

e. Students Discipline

f. Teacher & Students devotion to teaching & learning

Learner Characteristics

i. Readiness Motivation, interest & curiosity to learn

ii. Exercise Practice what is learnt

iii. Effect Activities associated with pleasure are preferred over those that lead to pain or punishment

iv. Attitudes & Habits Must be positive & encouraging

v. Absence of anger & jealousy- They weaken learning abilities

vi. Slow beginning followed by gradual development of interests

VII. Factors Effecting Teaching

The three variables of the teacher, student & environment

Teacher student relationship

Methods of teaching used

 Teacher- Administration relationship

The social environment

VIII. Methods of Teaching

Teaching is an exercise of both talent & creativity involving a repertoire of skills, techniques and procedures. The teaching
profession has faced many challenges and transformations and has adopted recent and sophisticated technology.

The act of teaching has three phases mainly,

Pre-Active: Planning phase

Inter-Active: Implementation of what was planned i.e. actual teaching
Post- Active: Evaluating activities that serve as feedback

There are five steps involved in the process of teaching:

a. Preparation

Of both the teacher and student

Teacher must identify the level of the children
The teacher can introduce the lesson by asking appropriate questions from a previous chapter to connect it to the new
chapter
Relevant topics/stories can be discussed & narrated in class
Introduction must be brief and create interest to stimulate curiosity in students

b. Presentation

Teacher must state the aim of the lesson to be taught so that the students can prepare themselves for what they are expecting
The teacher then presents the lesson by using different materials, presenting facts and other principles relevant to the lesson
The teacher can leave some area of the lesson for the student to explore

c. Comparison

The third step of learning where the student is presented with the opportunity to compare two sets of facts

d. Generalization

By observation and comparison various conclusions can be drawn

Teachers must aid the students when they arrive at incorrect generalizations
The students must understand the law/principle taught by the teacher for this stage to be successful

e. Application

Knowledge loses half its value unless if used in the discovery of further facts and their application to new situations
Makes learning meaningful and permanent
Serves purpose of revision of what has been learnt
Children can be evaluated through examinations
 A. Methods of Teaching According to Different Schools
of Philosophy
a. Methods by Idealism

- They speak of the general nature of teaching methods only

- They dont specify any method to be adopted while learning (used during the Upanishadic period too in India)
- aka informal dialectic method
- Idealist value use of well prepared & presented lectures
- Socrates Question method
- Plato Conversational method
- Aristotle Inductive and Deductive methods
- Hegel Logical method
- Pestalozzi Self activity method
- Herbart Discussion method
- Froebels metaphor of Kindergarten

b. Methods by Naturalism

- Rousseau believed education lasts throughout life & is gained everyday through various life experiences
- He believes learning should be based on actual experience & a practical problem must be studied in its natural setting
- Learning can also take place in the spirit & methods of play
- The methods recommended by Rousseau maybe identified with the heuristic method & experimental method advocated by
John Dewey

c. Pragmatic Methods

- Focus on child and society and the activities therein

- Learning occurs as a result of an activity
- Children must learn how to discover & method of teaching experimental
- It must develop reflective thinking in children so that they ask Why?
- The Project method of teaching is where a problematic act has to be carried out in completion in its natural setting

d. Existential Methods

- Ask questions until an acceptable conclusion is reached.

- Focuses on Inductive thinking
- Emphasis on individual education
- Homeschooling preferred over School Education
- Does not believe in indoctrination but enhancing the child's creativity

B. Methods of Teaching recommended by Secondary

School Commission (1952-1953)

i. Methods of teaching must provide opportunities for children to develop clear thinking & expression

ii. Individual - centered methods & opportunities for practical application of knowledge must be adapted

iii. Activity and Project method must be used in school practice

iv. Experimental & Demonstrative Schools must be encouraged (e.g: NCC)

C. Specific Methods in Teaching

1. Inferential Problem Solving Technique

It involves Inductive and Deductive Reasoning which is the basis for problem solving

Steps in Inductive Reasoning

i. Recognition of the problem

ii. Searching for data
iii. Organization for data
iv. Framing tentative solutions
v. Elimination
vi. Verification

(Note: For Deductive Reasoning one begins from vi. to i.)

2. Team - Teaching / Co-operative teaching

- Its a recent idea in the field of education

- Here two ore more teachers make a plan of the subjects cooperatively, carry it out and evaluate the effects on the students
periodically

3. Micro - Teaching

- Term coined by Dwight Allen of Stanford University in 1963

Features of Micro - Teaching

i. Teacher training technique

ii. Focus on developing teachers skills
iii. Reduces class size to 5-10 students
iv. Topics taught are small
v. Individualized training skill
vi. Feedback for trainee's performance
vii. Effective device to prepare competent teachers
viii. Learners are provided with immediate knowledge of the correctness of response.

Steps in Micro - Teaching

i. Defining the skill

ii. Demonstrating the skill
iii.Planning the lesson
iv. Teaching the lesson
v.Discussion
vi. Re planning
vii. Re- Teaching
viii. Re-discussion
ix. Repeating the cycle till desired level of skill is achieved

4. Question Answer technique in teaching

 Purpose of questioning

i. Test knowledge
ii. Locate difficulty
iii.Arouse motivation
iv. Participation of students
v. Apply knowledge

D. Teaching Aids
Teaching aids helps students to improve their skills and make learning fun. There are various kinds of teaching aids.

1. Chart - Shows group facts in the form of a diagram, table or graph & includes an outline or word definitions

2. Flash Cards - A set of cards that have number, letters, pictures or words on it & are used for facts and enhance
memory

3. Flip Charts - Useful for teaching large groups at a time and while teaching a lesson which involves stages or a
process.

4. Maps - Used in social studies so that students can understand spatial relations

5. Newspapers - Used to learn about different places, cultures, grammar & current events.

6. Graphs - Can be used in any subject. To compare population growth in social studies, numbers & ratios

7. Surveys - Can be used by the teacher to gain feedback.

8. Audio Visual Aids - Things to remember while using AV aids:

- Select the one suited for the topic
- Use AV to support or reinforce the activity
- Make sure the AV aid can be seen & heard clearly
- Practice using the aids before hand

9. Hardware - Radio, TV & Tape recorder

10. Software - Board, Cartoons & Models

E. Evaluative Systems

They are a device through which we can gauge what exactly a student achieve from the teaching-learning
experience

1. Examinations

- Help in testing achievements of students

- Evaluating students interests, aptitude & intelligence
- Helps to classify students and provide them guidance
2. Psychological Evaluation

-Helps to know about the physical, mental, emotional and social behavior of the individual
- Aids in guidance of the pupil
- Three methods of personality assessment: Psychometric, Projective & Behavioral

Projective Tests

- Helps to uncover unconscious motives

- An ambiguous stimulus is presented to the client who interprets it as they like thus projecting their personality
through their responses.
- Two widely used Projective tests are : Rorschach Test & Thematic Apperception Test

a. Rorschach Test

- Developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in the 1920's

- Series of 10 cards each displaying different inkblots either colored or black & white
- The subject is asked to look at each card one at a time & report everything seen on the card
- After all 10 cards are done, the examiners goes over every response to ask them what features of the blot game
them that particular impression

b. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

- Developed at Harvard University by Henry Murray in 1930's

- Less ambiguous than Rorschach as it consists of actual scenes on 20 cards
- The subject is asked to base a story depending on the picture
- The test is intended to reveal the 'themes' that occur in the persons imaginations
- Apperceptions is perceptions of things in a certain way due to past experience
- If a problem is bothering a particular subject, they may show up in a number of stories.

3. Philosophical Evaluation

- Evaluation based on mastery of subject matter

- Test the memory, mastery and ability to apply the skills learnt

Mudaliar commission

http://abhideep.org/mudaliar-commission-1952-1953/
 COMPUTER SCIENCE PAPER 2

Discrete Structures:

Discrete Mathematics by Lipschutz Seymour

Computer Arithmetic:

Digital Logic and Computer Design M. Morris Mano

Programming in C and C++:

Programming in C - Byron Gottfried

OOPS using C++ - E. Balagurusamy

Relational Design and Database:

Fundamentals of Database Systems -Ramez Elmasri, Navathe

Database Management G.V. Post

Data and File Structure:

Data structure Seymour Lipschutz

Theory of Computation:
Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and Computation by John E. Hopcroft and
Ullman

Computer Networks:

Computer Networks - Andrew S. Tanenbaum

Data and Computer Communications - William Stallings

System Software:

Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and Applications with the 8085 Ramesh S.

Gaonkar

Compilers:

Compilers: Principles, Techniques and Tools Aho, Lam, Sethi and Ullman

Operating Systems with Unix:

Operating System Concepts Galvin and Silberschatz

Unix-Concepts and Applications -M. J. Back, S. Das

Software Engineering:

Software Engineering A Practitioners Approach Roger S. Pressman

Software Engineering concepts- Richard fairley

Computer Graphics:

Introduction to Computer Graphics -Hearn and Baker, Rogers

Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence - Elaine Rich and Kevin Knight

 COMPUTER SCIENCE PAPER 3

Combinational circuit is a circuit in which we combine the different gates in the circuit, for
example encoder, decoder, multiplexer and demultiplexer. Some of the characteristics of
combinational circuits are following

The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends only on the levels
present at input terminals.

The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous state of input does
not have any effect on the present state of the circuit.
 A combinational circuit can have an n number of inputs and m number of outputs.

Block diagram

We're going to elaborate few important combinational circuits as follows.

Half Adder
Half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two inputs and two outputs. The half adder
circuit is designed to add two single bit binary number A and B. It is the basic building block
for addition of two single bit numbers. This circuit has two outputs carry and sum.

Block diagram

Truth Table
Circuit Diagram

Full Adder
Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder circuit. It can add two one-
bit numbers A and B, and carry c. The full adder is a three input and two output
combinational circuit.

Block diagram

Truth Table
Circuit Diagram

N-Bit Parallel Adder

The Full Adder is capable of adding only two single digit binary number along with a carry
input. But in practical we need to add binary numbers which are much longer than just one
bit. To add two n-bit binary numbers we need to use the n-bit parallel adder. It uses a number
of full adders in cascade. The carry output of the previous full adder is connected to carry
input of the next full adder.

4 Bit Parallel Adder

In the block diagram, A0 and B0 represent the LSB of the four bit words A and B. Hence Full
Adder-0 is the lowest stage. Hence its Cin has been permanently made 0. The rest of the
connections are exactly same as those of n-bit parallel adder is shown in fig. The four bit
parallel adder is a very common logic circuit.
Block diagram

N-Bit Parallel Subtractor

The subtraction can be carried out by taking the 1's or 2's complement of the number to be
subtracted. For example we can perform the subtraction (A-B) by adding either 1's or 2's
complement of B to A. That means we can use a binary adder to perform the binary
subtraction.

4 Bit Parallel Subtractor

The number to be subtracted (B) is first passed through inverters to obtain its 1's complement.
The 4-bit adder then adds A and 2's complement of B to produce the subtraction. S3 S2 S1 S0
represents the result of binary subtraction (A-B) and carry output Cout represents the polarity
of the result. If A > B then Cout = 0 and the result of binary form (A-B) then Cout = 1 and the
result is in the 2's complement form.

Block diagram
Half Subtractors
Half subtractor is a combination circuit with two inputs and two outputs (difference and
borrow). It produces the difference between the two binary bits at the input and also produces
an output (Borrow) to indicate if a 1 has been borrowed. In the subtraction (A-B), A is called
as Minuend bit and B is called as Subtrahend bit.

Truth Table

Circuit Diagram

Full Subtractors
The disadvantage of a half subtractor is overcome by full subtractor. The full subtractor is a
combinational circuit with three inputs A,B,C and two output D and C'. A is the 'minuend', B
is 'subtrahend', C is the 'borrow' produced by the previous stage, D is the difference output
and C' is the borrow output.

Truth Table

Circuit Diagram

Multiplexers
Multiplexer is a special type of combinational circuit. There are n-data inputs, one output and
m select inputs with 2m = n. It is a digital circuit which selects one of the n data inputs and
routes it to the output. The selection of one of the n inputs is done by the selected inputs.
Depending on the digital code applied at the selected inputs, one out of n data sources is
selected and transmitted to the single output Y. E is called the strobe or enable input which is
useful for the cascading. It is generally an active low terminal that means it will perform the
required operation when it is low.

Block diagram

Multiplexers come in multiple variations

2 : 1 multiplexer

4 : 1 multiplexer

16 : 1 multiplexer

32 : 1 multiplexer
Block Diagram

Truth Table
Demultiplexers
A demultiplexer performs the reverse operation of a multiplexer i.e. it receives one input and
distributes it over several outputs. It has only one input, n outputs, m select input. At a time
only one output line is selected by the select lines and the input is transmitted to the selected
output line. A de-multiplexer is equivalent to a single pole multiple way switch as shown in
fig.

Demultiplexers comes in multiple variations.

1 : 2 demultiplexer

1 : 4 demultiplexer

1 : 16 demultiplexer

1 : 32 demultiplexer

Block diagram

Truth Table
Decoder
A decoder is a combinational circuit. It has n input and to a maximum m = 2n outputs.
Decoder is identical to a demultiplexer without any data input. It performs operations which
are exactly opposite to those of an encoder.

Block diagram

Examples of Decoders are following.

Code converters

BCD to seven segment decoders

Nixie tube decoders

Relay actuator

2 to 4 Line Decoder
The block diagram of 2 to 4 line decoder is shown in the fig. A and B are the two inputs
where D through D are the four outputs. Truth table explains the operations of a decoder. It
shows that each output is 1 for only a specific combination of inputs.

Block diagram
Truth Table

Logic Circuit
Encoder
Encoder is a combinational circuit which is designed to perform the inverse operation of the
decoder. An encoder has n number of input lines and m number of output lines. An encoder
produces an m bit binary code corresponding to the digital input number. The encoder accepts
an n input digital word and converts it into an m bit another digital word.

Block diagram
Examples of Encoders are following.

Priority encoders

Decimal to BCD encoder

Octal to binary encoder

Hexadecimal to binary encoder

Priority Encoder
This is a special type of encoder. Priority is given to the input lines. If two or more input line
are 1 at the same time, then the input line with highest priority will be considered. There are
four input D0, D1, D2, D3 and two output Y0, Y1. Out of the four input D3 has the highest
priority and D0 has the lowest priority. That means if D3 = 1 then Y1 Y1 = 11 irrespective of
the other inputs. Similarly if D3 = 0 and D2 = 1 then Y1 Y0 = 10 irrespective of the other
inputs.

Block diagram

Truth Table
Logic Circuit

Combinational Circuits Design

A combinational circuit is one for which the output value is determined solely by the values
of the inputs. Such a circuit can be represented by a truth table and computes a Boolean
function. Desired characteristics of such a circuit are a minimum number of gates, simple
rather than complex gates, and a minimum number of levels of gates. The first two
characteristics can be stated as minimizing the number of gate inputs, which has the effect of
minimizing cost. Minimizing the number of levels minimizes the number of gate delays and
makes the circuit faster. For simple functions, it is possible to design a circuit by inspection of
the function. For more complex functions, the appropriate circuit design may not be
immediately obvious. Fortunately, there exists a completely mechanical way of designing a
correct circuit for any Boolean function, that is, any function which can be represented by a
truth table. A circuit designed in this way will be a two-level circuit, plus any inverters
needed to form complement terms. Unless special steps are taken to simplify the expression
which drives the circuit design, such a circuit will not necessarily have the minimum number
of gate inputs.

Sum of Products
We need a function to use as an example. We will use the majority function. The majority
function has the property that it is true when a majority of its inputs are true, and false when a
majority of its inputs are false.

Table 1. Majority
A B
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0
1 1
1 1
C F
0 0
1 0
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 1
0 1
1 1

A three-input majority function will be true when any two (or all three) of its inputs are true.
The truth table for the three-input majority function is shown above as Table 1. This
represents a function F of three variables, A, B, and C. This truth table can be converted to a
Boolean expression in standard form by identifying the rows which result in a value of one
for F, writing the product AND of the variables for each such row, then writing the Boolean
sum OR of the product terms. Such an expression is called a sum-of-products.* For
example, the first result of one is the fourth row. A is zero and B and C are one, so the product
term is ABC. The product terms for the other rows are formed in a similar way. The product
terms are linked together with the Boolean OR. The sum-of-products expression for this truth
table is: F = ABC+ABC+ABC+ABC. In this expression, the plus sign indicates Boolean OR,
not addition.
This says that F is true when A is false and B and C are true or when B is false and A and C
are true or when C is false and A and B are true or when all of A, B, and C are true. It also
implies that F is false for all other combinations. It is possible to construct a circuit diagram
directly from such an expression.

Circuit Design Using Sum of Products

A correct two-level circuit can be generated for any sum-of-products expression using the
following steps:

Figure 1.

Provide an inverter for each variable.

Provide an AND gate for each product term; the number of inputs required is
determined by the number of variables in the product term

Connect each AND gate according to the product term.

Provide an OR gate for the output; the number of inputs required is determined by the
number of AND gates.

The figure above shows the result of the first step. At the lower left are inputs for each of the
three variables, A, B, and C. For each variable, an inverter computes its complement. When A
is true, or one, A is zero, and vice-versa. The vertical wires provide for easy access to each
variable and its complement. Experiment with the inputs and observe what the LEDs show.
Figure 2.

Because there are four product terms in the Boolean expression we want to compute, we need
four AND gates. All four of them are shown in the figure, and the first one is wired.

We need to digress a bit and explain a detail of the diagram. There are vertical wires carrying
signals for the three inputs and their complements, and horizontal wires connecting the AND
gates. Wires that are connected are shown with a heavy dot at the connection. Wires which
cross without a dot are not connected. For example, the topmost wire from the AND gate
crosses four vertical wires without connection and is finally connected to A.

The first product term from our Boolean expression was ABC , so we wire the three inputs of
the first AND gate to A , B, and C.

The AND gate will have an output of true for one and only one combination of the inputs.
What is it? Why?
Figure 3.

Figure 3 has all four AND gates wired. LEDs show the output of each one. There are eight
different combinations of the three input variables. (Why?) Four of those combinations will
cause no output from any of the AND gates; the other four will generate a true output at one
and only one AND gate.

Experiment with the circuit to verify that this is true. Compare the input combinations that
generate an output of true with the truth table above.

Before you go on, be sure you understand what is happening with the AND gates. There is one
AND gate for each line in the truth table that has a one in the output column. Each AND
generates a one when the inputs of the circuit match the inputs described on the
corresponding line in the truth table.

Figure 4.

Here is the completed circuit. The outputs of the AND gates are connected to the inputs of an
OR gate. Recall that the output of an OR gate will be true if one or more of the inputs are true
and false otherwise. Since one (and only one) of the AND gates will produce an output of true
when the inputs match the corresponding line of the truth table, one of the inputs to the OR
gate will be true, and the output of the circuit will be true.
Now we can address a question that may be troubling you. We paid explicit attention to the
cases for which the function is true, and didn't address the cases for which it is not. You may
be wondering whether this is an omission. It isn't. As you can see from Figure 3, each AND
produces a one if the corresponding inputs are one. We don't need to explicitly represent the
rows of the truth table that have outputs of zero because all of the AND gates produce outputs
of zero in those cases. If the OR gate that generates the output has all zeros for input, it will
generate a zero output.

Experiment with the final circuit to verify that it computes the majority function. You can
download Digital Works and "wire up" your own combinational circuits. I have provided
some sample circuits to get you started.

Limitations of Sum-of-Products

The sum-of-products method of combinational circuit design is completely mechanical, and it

will always produce a correct two-level circuit. It does not always produce the optimal, or
best circuit. Extracting a Boolean expression from the rows of a truth table produces an
expression in minterm form. That means that every term of the expression contains every
variable or its complement. Often, simpler expressions can represent the same function. In
fact, the expression for the majority function that we just implemented can be simplified.

Simpler expressions mean fewer gates and therefore simpler circuits. Sometimes a simplified
expression allows the circuit to be arranged such that it is faster. Minterm-form expressions
can be simplified using manipulation with Boolean algebra, Karnaugh maps, or other
methods. So long as the resulting expression is in sum-of-products form, this method can be
used to construct a circuit that computes it.

Something to Think About

We have said that hardware and software are logically equivalent, provided that there must
actually be some hardware, however simple, to run the software. You have just worked
through a software simulation of a very simple piece of hardware. If you built the actual
circuit of Figure 4 in the logic lab, you would use eight gates, three switches, and one LED.
The logic board assembly would take care of power and ground for you.

The actual software that computes the majority function is only a few lines of JavaScript. You
can use "view page source" to see what goes on behind the scenes. The majority computation
function for Figure 4 is "compute_mj4_led_f()." There are a couple of hundred lines that
toggle the inputs and keep track of the LED states for all the figures. Then there's the HTML
that makes the pictures. All-in-all there are fewer than a thousand lines of "code" here.

Now think about the tens of thousands of lines in your Web browser and the hundreds of
thousands of lines in your operating system. What about the Web server software and the
operating system it runs under? The software in the Internet routers between you and the
server...

How much of this software forms the logical equivalence of the hardware majority function?
Is it just the JavaScript, and if not, where do you draw the line?