2
the Loop Rule. The Junction Rule results Circuit Components
from the conservation of charge; it states
that at any junction or node the algebraic Resistors are also connected in
sum of all the currents equals zero. In parallel so that when the circuit forks
other words, the amount of current that into different branches – each containing
enters the node must also leave the node a resistor – the potential difference
(Figure 2). The Loop Rule, derived from between where the branches diverge and
the conservation from where the branches converge must
of electrostatic add up with all the other voltage drops.
fields, states This, once again, is a restatement of the
that the Kirchoff’s Law, but in this case, the
algebraic sum Loop Rule (Figure 5). For each resistor
of the voltages V V V V
in any loop is = I = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + ... = 1 + 2 + 3 + ...
RTotal R1 R 2 R 3
zero (Figure 3). 1 1 1 1
These laws help = + + + ...
RTotal R1 R 2 R 3
understand the
Figure 2: The Figure 5: Resistors in Parallel
transfer of
Junction Rule
energy through added in parallel, the total resistance
an electrical circuit, as well as analyzing actually decreases and is always less
them. than the individual resistance of each
When a resistor involved.
circuit contains Another common principle
more than one observed in the treatment of circuits is
resistor, the that of voltage and current division.
resistors can be Voltage and current division specify the
treated as one manner in which the voltage and current
resistor and can is shared among the various components
be simplified in of a circuit, and can be easily derived
two ways from Ohm’s Law and Kirchoff’s Laws.
Figure 3: The
depending on The voltage across one resistor in series
Loop Rule
how they are is proportional to the total voltage with a
arranged – in series or in parallel. When ratio of the resistance of said resistor
connected in series, resistors are over the total resistance of all the
connected end-to-end with one another. resistors connected in series (Figure 6).
The current entering and leaving each
resistor is the same according to the VT = IRT
Junction Rule, so the total resistance of RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
the circuit is the voltage difference
VT VT V
divided by the current (Figure 4). I= = = n
RT R1 + R2 + R3 + ... Rn
V V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + ... V 1 V 2 V 3
R Total = = = + + + ...
I I I1 I2 I3 Rn
Vn = VT
R Total = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + ... R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
Figure 4: Resistors in Series Figure 6: Voltage Division:
Resistors in Series
3
Also, the current through one resistor in non-inverting amplifiers. Each op-amp
parallel is proportional to the total has its own
current through the entire parallel system transfer
downsized by the ratio of the inverse of function,
the resistor over the inverse of the total which
resistance through the entire system describes the
(Figure 7). relationship
between the
1 input and final
let : G = Figure 8: Op-Amp
R output voltage
IT of the op-amp.
V = I T RT = The transfer functions are dependent on
GT
configurations and values of the resistors
In connected to the op-amps. For the
V =
Gn noise-canceling circuit, op-amps were
Gn readily used to perform simple signal
In = It processing operations.
Gt Another electrical component
Gn crucial to the noise-canceling circuit is
In = It
G1 + G 2 + G3 + ... the capacitor, which stores energy
between two conductive plates. When a
Figure 7: Current Division: potential difference exists across a
Resistors in Parallel capacitor, the current deposits electric
charge on one plate and causes a build-
These principles were applied up of charge on both plates of the
with operational amplifiers (op-amps) to capacitor. This stored electrical energy is
achieve the desired result. An op-amp is then released through a resistor when
an electronic voltage amplifier most necessary. An RC circuit, which consists
commonly used to perform single- of a resistor and a capacitor wired in
process operations, mainly mathematical series, is often used as a filter,
operations on analog circuits. Although differentiating between high and low
they are fairly complex devices, op-amps frequency signals. A filtering circuit
are often modeled as simpler eliminates a range of frequencies from a
components, referred to as ideal op- mixture of frequencies, like minimizing
amps. An ideal op-amp operates under the bass of a song so the melody is more
two conditions: the currents in both prominent. If the output voltage is taken
inputs are equal to zero and the voltages across the resistor, the low frequencies
across both inputs are equal to one are attenuated, and the device is termed
another. In the traditional diagram of an as a high-pass filter. If the output voltage
op-amp, V+ is the non-inverting input, V- is taken across the capacitor, the high
is the inverting input, VOut is the output, frequencies are attenuated, making the
Vs+ is the positive power supply, and Vs- device a low-pass filter.
is the negative power supply (Figure 8).
Some basic uses of op-amps in
analog circuits include summing and
difference amplifiers, and inverting and
4
Active Noise Canceling function properly. A microphone, which
is placed externally on the headphones,
The headphones use active noise is needed to detect and obtain the raw
cancellation to eliminate any low- noise signal from the outside
frequency noise from the environment, environment (Figure 10). The circuit
leaving the music to play from the generates an anti-noise signal that
headphones without the noise waves. To destructively interferes with the noise
do this, the device produces a wave signal. A speaker – in this case, the
identical in frequency to the noise wave, headphones – then required feeds the
but phase-flipped by a phase-shift of 180 generated wave to the music and the
degrees [1]. Afterwards, the generated noise wave in order for the generated
wave is superimposed onto the noise wave and the noise wave to destructively
wave, and the addition of these two interfere with one another. An external
waves – destructive interference – source of energy supplies the system
causes them to mutually cancel (Figure with the ability to operate, which is also
9). Though the headphones play the the reason for the term “active noise
music, the noise waves, and the cancellation” – active meaning the need
generated waves, the destructive for an external source. Theoretically,
interference allows only the music to be active noise canceling is capable of
heard by the listener. reducing ambient noise up to 70 percent,
and is most effective when used for air
travel or other low-frequency sound
waves [5].
5
the signal as it passes through the device. microphone is very weak and must be
The noise-canceling headphones contain amplified if it is to be usable. The gain in
7
The second op-amp was used to except flipped over the horizontal axis.
invert the phase of the noise. The The third and final op-amp’s
0.1 0.2
0.05 0.1
Voltage
Voltage
0 0
-0.05 -0.1
-0.1 -0.2
Time Time
0
shows the noise signal before summation
while Figure 17b shows the sine wave of
-0.05
0.5
-0.1
Time 0.25
0
success of this piece of the circuit is
illustrated in the next pair of graphs -0.25
(Figure 16a and 16b). Figure 16a
illustrates the amplified noise before
-0.5
being inverted, and Figure 16b shows Time
0.2
0.25
Voltage
0.1
0
Voltage
0
-0.25
-0.1
-0.5
Time
-0.2
Time Figure 17b: Auxiliary Input
Figure 16a: Before Inversion 8
0.5
9
microphones are used for the noise and added in order to test different parts.
the desired signal [8]. However, the This meant that whenever a different
noise canceling circuit could also be part of the circuit needed to be tested,
used in a telephone to detect noise from wires needed to be added and removed.
signal degradation and to cancel such This caused the circuitry to become
noise before it travels through the sloppy, and errors, such as solder
phone's speaker. Because the noise is bridging, to occur. However, these issues
introduced into the signal en route to its were surmountable, and it was very
destination, the unwanted noise and the exciting to be able to visualize the actual
desired signal would be combined into
one signal. This is in contrast to the
headphones, which have the two
components in separate signals. To
remedy this problem, an adaptive
algorithm that can separate the noise
from the desired signal would be
implemented.
Conclusion
Figure 18: Completed Circuit
During the course of this electrical signal being sent through our
research project, the members of the circuit (Figure 18).
research group have learned about many As mentioned previously, the
facets of noise canceling, as well as circuit only operates at low frequencies,
electrical engineering in general. In so some noise is not cancelled.
addition to basic necessary skills such as Furthermore, the circuit requires a great
soldering, the members also received a deal of fine-tuning in order for the
window into the world of analog circuit phase-inverted noise and the original
design and implementation. Much noise to share the same amplitude.
experience with electrical analysis However, the circuit works well enough
equipment, such as oscilloscopes and to demonstrate how passive and active
function generators, was gained as well. noise canceling operates. The members
One aspect about electrical of this research group personally
engineering learned is how tedious enjoyed the project, and feel that it gave
circuit analysis is. Because the circuits them a grasp on the concepts behind
are too small to attach the leads to the electrical engineering and circuit design.
equipment, additional wires needed to be
10
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Abhishek Agrawal and Mason Liang for their help in teaching us
about electrical engineering and analog circuit design as well as helping us to construct
our noise canceling circuit. We appreciated the opportunity of being able to work at the
facilities of Princeton University. The circuit schematic and directions for modification
are accredited to Jules Ryckebusch, who submitted the project “Build These Noise-
Canceling Headphones” to HeadWize.com [9]. We would also like to thank Dean Don
Brown, Dean Ilene Rosen, Blase Ur, Stephanie Chen, Ms. Jane Oates and the Governor’s
School Board of Overseers, and the rest of the Governor’s School of Engineering and
Technology staff for giving us the opportunity to complete this research project.
Citations
1) Agrawal, Abhishek. "Project Overview." Engineering Silence - Active Noise
Canceling. Summer 2007. 12 July 2007 <http://www.princeton.edu/
~abhishek/noise/overview.html>.
3) Carnoy, David, Steve Guttenberg, and Eliot Van Buskirk. "The Sound of Silence."
CNET Reviews. 19 July 2005. 12 July 2007 <http://reviews.cnet.com/
4520-3000_7-1017728-1.html>.
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9) Ryckebusch, Jules. "Build These Noise-Canceling Headphones." HeadWize. 2001. 12
July 2007 <http://www.headwize.com/projects/noise_prj.htm>.
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