Fundamentals of Structural Design in Timber

Wood

The tough , fibrous cellular substance that makes up most of the stems and
branches, stems and roots of a tree.

Timber

Wood suitable for uses a building material

Cross Sectional Parts of a Tree Trunk

Bark

The external covering of a woody stem, branch or root, composed of a living

inner layer called phloem and an outer bark of corky, dead tissue.

Cambium

A thin layer of reproductive tissue between the phloem and xylem, which
produces new phloem on the outside and new xylem on the inside of stem ,
branches and roots.

Phloem

A layer of tissue that carries food from the leaves to the growing parts of a tree.
Also called Inner bark.

Xylem

The woody tissue of tree that provide support and conduct water and mineral
nutrient upward from the roots.

Sapwood

The younger, softer, living portion of wood between the cambium and
heartwood, comparable in strength to heartwood but usually lighter in color,
more permeable and less durable. Also called Alburnum.

Heartwood

The older, harder, inactive core of a tree, usually dark, denser, and more durable
than the surrounding sapwood. Also called Duramen.

Medullary Rays

The ribbons of tissue extending radially from the pith ; may vary from
microscopic to 4 inches (100mm) or more; used to store and transport food
horizontally within the tree. Also called Pith rays.

Annual Ring
A concentric layers of wood produced during a single years growth of a
temperate tree. Also called Growth Ring.

Pith

The soft central core about which first growth take place in a newly formed them.

Other wood-related terms

Lignin

An organic substance that, with cellulose, forms the woody cell walls of plants
and the cementing material between them.

Sap

The vital fluid of water, nitrogen and mineral nutrients that circulates through a
plant.

Cellulose

An inert carbohydrate that is the chief constituent of the cell walls of plants and
of dried woods, jute, hemp and cotton, used in the manufacture of wide variety
of synthetic building materials.

Fiber

One of the slender, thick walled cells which together serve to strengthen plant
tissue.

Pore

One of the relatively large vertical cells for conducting sap, esp. In hardwood
trees.

Vessel

A tubular structure of woody tissue for conducting water and mineral nutrients,
formed by the fusion and loss of end walls in series of connected cells.

Ray

One of the vertical bands of transverse cells that radiates between pit and bark
for the storage and horizontal conduction of nutrients.

Tracheid

One of the elongated, supporting and conductive cells in the woody tissue,
having tapering closed ends and lignified walls oriented parallel to the axis f a
stem or branch.

Pitch

The resinous sap that exudes from various conifers.

Resin

A viscous, clear to translucent, organic substance exuded by certain pines, used

in making varnishes, adhesives and plastics.

Isotropic

Said of a material which has the same properties in all directions.

Some Common Properties of Wood

Material strength

Durability

Lightweight

Ease of fastening or assembling

Natural beauty

Classification of Wood

Hardwood

The wood from the broad-leaved flowering tree, such as apitong , narra , tanguile
, yacal, etc.

Decidous

Shedding leaves annually or at the end of a growing season. The term is

descriptive of most hardwood and a few softwoods.

Softwood

The wood from a conifer. The term is not descriptive of the actual softness of the
wood.

Conifer

Any of various evergreen, cone-bearing trees, such as pine tree.

Evergreen

Having foliage that remains green and functional throughout the year or through
more than one growing season.

Mode of Growth

Exogenous

These are outward growing trees, preferred for lumbering.

Endogenous

These are inside growing trees, have soft core and is less preferred for
lumbering.

Structure of Wood

Sapwood

The younger, softer, living portion of wood between the cambium and the
heartwood, comparable in strength to heartwood but usually lighter in color,
more permeable, and less durable. Also called Alburnum.

Heartwood

The older, harder, inactive core of a tree, usually dark, denser, and more durable
than the surrounding sapwood. Also called Duramen.

Wood Grain

The direction, size, arrangement and appearance of fibers in a piece of wood.

Cross Grain

These is characterized by grains running along one side of wood.

Cross Grain

Wood grain having the cells and fibers running transversely or diagonally to the
length of a piece as a result of a growth characteristic.

Diagonal Grain

Wood grain having the annual rings at an angle to the length of a piece, resulting
from sawing at an angle to the axis of a log.

Edge grain

Wood grain resulting from quarter sawing, having the annual rings forming an
angle of 45

Or more with the broad faces of a piece. Also called Vertical Grain.

Flat Grain

Wood grain resulting from plain sawing, having the annual rings forming an angle
of less than 45

With the broad faces of a piece.

End Grain

Wood grain resulting from a cut across the grain.

Mixed Grain

Any combination of edge-grained and flat grained lumber.

Close Grain

Wood grain characterized by wide, conspicuous annual rings with considerable

contrast in pore size.

Wood Defects

Decay

The decomposition of wood by fungi and other microorganisms, resulting in

softening, loss of strength and weight, and often a change in texture and color.

Dry Rot

A decay of seasoned timber caused by fungi that consume the cellulose leaving
a soft, brittle skeleton readily reduced to powder.

Check

A lengthwise separation of wood across the annual rings, caused by uneven or

rapid shrinkage during the seasoning process.

Shake

A separation along the grain of a wood piece, usually between the annual rings,
caused by

Stresses on a tree while standing or during felling.

Pitch pocket

A well-defined opening between the annual rings of a softwood, containing or

having once contained solid or liquid pitch.

Split

A check that extends completely through a board or veneer. Also called Through
check.

Knot

The base of a woody branch enclosed by a subsequent growth of wood in the

stem from which it rises.

Sound Knot

A knot that is solid across its face, at least as hard as the surrounding wood and
undecayed.
Live Knot

A knot having annual rings intergrown with those of the surrounding wood.

Tight Knot

A knot held firmly in place by growth or position.

Dead Knot

A knot having annual rings not intergrown with those of the surrounding wood.
Encasement may be partial or complete, but a dead knot is considered a defect
since it can easily loosen or be knocked callout. Also called Encased knot, Loose
knot.

Warp

Any deviation from a plane or true surface of board or panel, usually caused by
uneven drying during the seasoning process or by the change in moisture
content.

Cup

A curvature across the width or face of a wood piece, measured at the point of
greatest deviation from a straight line drawn from end to end of a piece.

Bow

A curvature along the length of a wood piece, measured at the point of greatest
deviation from a straight line drawn from end to end of a piece.

Twist

A warp resulting from the turning of the edges of wood piece in opposite
directions.

Wane

The presence of bark or absence of wood at a corner or along an edge of a piece.

Skip

An area on the surface of a board or panel missed by a planning machine.

Machine Burn

A surface charring caused by overheating of the cutting blades or abrasive belts

during shaping or finishing of a material.

Lumber

The term applied to wood after it is sawed or sliced into boards, planks, sticks,
etc. for commercial purposes.
Rough Lumber

Lumber that is sawn, edged and trimmed, but not surfaced.

Dressed Lumber

Lumber that is surfaced with a planning machine to attain a smooth surface and
uniform size.

Surfaced Green

Of or pertaining to a dressed lumber having a moisture content exceeding 19%

at the time of manufacture.

Surfaced Dry

Of or pertaining to a dressed lumber having a moisture content exceeding 19%

or less at the time of manufacture.

Seasoned

Of or pertaining to lumber that has been dried to reduce its moisture content and
improve its serviceability.

Nominal Dimension

The dimension of lumber before drying and surfacing, used for convenience in
defining size and computing quantity. Nominal sizes are always written without
inch marks. Also called nominal size.

Dressed Size

The dimension of lumber after seasoning and surfacing and surfacing, from 3/8
to in. (9.5mm to 19.1 mm) less than the nominal dimension. A dressed size is
always written with inch marks. Also called Dressed Dimension.

S1S Surfaced on one side

S2S Surfaced on two sides

S4S Surfaced on four sides

S1E Surfaced on one edge

S2E Surfaced on two edges

S1S1E Surfaced on one side and one edge

Grade

The classification of lumber in regard to strength and utility in accordance with

the grading rules of an approved lumber grading agency.
Yard Lumber

Softwood lumber intended for general building purposes, including boards,

dimension lumbers and timbers.

Classification of Yard Lumber

Board

Yard lumber less than 2 in. (51mm) thick and 2 in. or more wide.

Dimension Lumber

Dimension lumber from 2 in. to 4 in. (51mm to 102 mm) thick and 2 in. or more
wide.

Light Framing

Dimension lumber 2 in. to 4 in. (51mm to 102 mm) thick and 2 in. to 4in. wide,
intended for use where high strength values are not required.

Decking

Dimension lumber 2 in. to 4 in. (51 to 102mm) thick and 4 in. or more wide
graded primarily to bending strength when loaded on the wide face.

Joists and Planks

Structural lumber of rectangular cross section, from 2 in. to 4 in. (51 mm to 102
mm ) thick and more than 4 in. (102mm wide), graded primarily with respect to
bending strength when loaded either on the narrow face as a joist or on the wide
faced as a plank.

Timber

Yard lumber 5 in. (127mm) or more in the least dimension.

Beams and Stringers

Structural lumber of rectangular cross section at least 5 in. (127 mm) thick and a
width more than 2 in. (51mm) greater than the thickness, graded primarily with
respect to bending strength when loaded on narrow face.

Post and Timbers

Structural Limber

Dimension lumber and timbers graded either by visual inspection or

mechanically on the basis of strength and intended use. Also called framing
lumber.

Slab
A kind of rough lumber which is cut tangent to the annual rings of wood running
the full length of the log.

Plank

A wide piece of lumber from 2 in. (51 mm) to 5 in. (127mm) thick.

Flitch

A thick piece of lumber

Seasoning

The process of removing moisture from wood; also known as conditioning or

curing.

Methods of Seasoning Lumber

Natural Method

Air Drying (AD)

Sun Drying (SD)

Artificial Method

Kiln Drying (KD)

Forced Air or Pressure Drying (PD)

Vapor Drying (VD)

Radio Frequency Dielectric Drying

Creosote

An oily liquid of aromatic hydrate obtained by the distillation of solution used as

wood preservative.

Treated wood

Wood treated with an approved preservative under the treating and quality
control requirements preparation of all timber products prior preservative
treatment by [ pressure process].

Method of Log Sawing

Plain or bastard Sawing

Quarter or Rift Sawing

Radial Method
Tangential Method

Quarter Tangential Method

Combined Radial and Tangential Method

Other Methods of Cutting and Slicing Relative to Building Board Manufacture

Rotary Cutting

The rotating of a log against the cutting edge of a knife in a lathe, producing a
continuous veneer with a bold, variegated ripple figure.

Flat Icing

The longitudinal slicing of half log parallel to a line through its center, producing
a continuous veneer with a bold, variegated ripple figure.

Flat Slicing

The longitudinal slicing of a half log parallel to a line through its center,
producing a veneer having a variegated wavy figure. Also called Plain Sawing.

Quarter Slicing

The longitudinal slicing of a quarter log perpendicular to the annual rings,

producing a series of straight or varied stripes in the veneer.

Half Round Slicing

The slicing of a flitch mounted off-center in the lathe, slightly across the annual
rings, producing characteristics of both rotary cutting and flat slicing.

Rift Cutting

The slicing of a log perpendicular to the conspicuous , radiating rays so as to

minimize their appearance.

Measurement of Lumber

Board Measure

Lumber measurement in boardfeet

Boardfoot

A unit of quantity for lumber equal to the volume of a piece whose nominal
dimension is 12 in. (305 mm) square and 1 in. (25.4 mm) thick.

Boardfoot Calculation
 thickness ( . ) x width ( . ) x length(ft .)
Boardfoot (Bdft.) = 12

Regular Lumber

1 Boardfoot (Bdft.) = 1 x 1 x 1

1 x 1 x 1'
= 12

1 x 1 x 1
= 144

Log
2
Boardfoot (Bdft.) = [d4 ] l

16

Where:

d least diameter (in.)

l length (feet)

Categories of Philippine Timber

First Group ( High Strength Group)

Agoho

Liusin

Malabayabas

Manggachapui

Molave

Narig

Sasalit

Yakal

Second Group ( Moderately High Strength)

Antipolo
Binggas

Bok bok

Dao

Gatasan

Guijo

Kamagon

Kamatog

Katmon

Kato

Lomarao

Mahogany ( Lauan Philippine mahogany)

Makaasim

Malakauayan

Narra

Puhutan

Third Group ( Medium strength Group)

Apitong

Bagtikan

Dangkalan

Gisau

Lanutan bagyo

Lauan

Malaanonang

Malasaging

Malugay

Miau

Nato

Palosapis
Pine

Salakin

Vidal lanutan

Fourth group ( moderately low strength Group )

Almaciga

Bayok

Lingo-lingo

Manggasinoro

Raintree

Yemane

Uses of different Philppine Wood Species

Furniture

Ebano, camagong, balongita, tindalo, narra, alintatao, camuning

Ord. Furniture and cabinets

Lanete, Narra Blanca, Lanutan, Antipolo, Tanguile, Apitong

Naval Construction ( Keels, Stern, Posts)

Yacal, Betis, Dungon, Ipil

Timber and Masts

Balo Maria

Outside Construction, Beams

Banaba

Beams and Masts

Guijo

Keels and Sleepers

Batitinam

Waterways and Decks

Manachapuy

Superstructure
Amugis, Mariveles

Boat Construction

Tanguile, Lauan, Balao, Mayapis

House Construction

Post: Yacal, Ipil, Molave, Guijo, Dungon

Girders: Yacal, Ipil, Guijo, Molave

Joists: Yacal, Guijo, Tanguile, Ipil, Supa

Girt: Yacal, Guijo, Tanguile

Rafters: Guijo, Tanguile, Apitong, Yacal, Banaba, Ipil Dungon

Purlins: , Guijo,Tanguile, Apitong, Banaba

Window Sills, Heads and Mullions: Yacal, Molave, Ipil, Dungon, Tanguile

Door jambs: Yacal, Molave, Ipil, Dungon, Tanguile ( for Interior Only)

Wood Grading

Visual grading

The visual examination and grading of structural lumber by trained inspectors

according to quality - reducing characteristics that affect strength, appearance,
durability or utility

Machine rating

The grading of structural lumber by a machine that flexes a test specimen,

measure its resistance tom bending, calculates its modulus of elasticity, and
electronically computes the appropriate stress grade, taking into account such
factors as the effects of knots slope of grain, growth rate, density moisture
content. Also called machine stress rating.

Stress grade

Any of the grades of structural lumber for which a set of base values and
corresponding modulus of elasticity is established for species or group of species
by grading agency.

Size-adjusted value

A base value for a species or group of species of structural lumber, adjusted for
cross-sectional size.

Design value
Any of the allowable unit stresses for a species and grade of structural lumber
obtained by modifying the base value by factors related to size and conditions of
use.

Base Value

Any of the allowable unit stresses for bending, compression perpendicular and
parallel to grain, tension parallel to horizontal shear, and corresponding modulus
of elasticity, established by a grading agency for various species and grades of
structural lumber. Based values must be adjusted first for size and then for
conditions of use.

Size factor

A coefficient for modifying the base value of a species and grade lumber to the
cross sectional size of lumber.

Repetitive member

Any of a series of three or more framing members, a joists or rafter spaced not
more than 0.6m on center and joined by sheating or other load-distributing
members.

Repetitive member factor

A coefficient for increasing the adjusted values of repetitive member since the
sharing of the load by enhances the strength of the entire assembly.

Duration of load factor

A coefficient for increasing the adjusted values of wood member to short term
load, since wood property of carrying substantial maximum loads for short
durations of loading.

Horizontal shear factor

A coefficient for increasing the adjusted horizontal shear value of member having
shakes, checks, when their length is known and increase in length is not
anticipated.

Flat use factor

A coefficient for increasing the adjusted bending value for planning a face width
of 4 in. (102mm).

Wet use factor

A coefficient for decreasing the adjusted values for wood member their moisture
content will likely be 19% in use.

Factor Affecting Strength of Wood

 Location where tree is grown;
Age of tree from time of harvest;
Portion of wood cut or used; and
Moisture content of wood

Structural Members

Beam
A structural member that supports transverse load which usually rests on
support at its end; a structural member subjected to bending or flexure
due to transverse loads.
Girder

A beam that carries a beam usually supporting a concentrated load.

Column or post
An axial compression member

Methods of Applying Loads on Timber

Compressive Load

Compressive load parallel to grain

Compressive load perpendicular to grain

Shear Load

Shear load parallel to grain

Shear load perpendicular to grain

Behavior of a Beam under Influence of a Load

Bending of Flexure

The behaviour where the beam takes the form of a curve.

Positive bending

The phenomenon where a beam form a sag where the upper portion is
subjected to compression and the flower portion to tension.

Negative Bending

The phenomenon where the beam takes the form of a hump where the
upper portion is subjected to tension and the lower portion to
compression.

Shear
 The sum of all forces left or right of a section perpendicular to the neutral
axis.

Positive shear

Left portion of member goes up while right portion goes down

Negative shear

Right portion goes up while left portion goes down.