1.

0 ABSTRACT

In reliability, fatigue is one of the most factors that should be considered. This is because
reliability of a system cannot be reliable anymore if the system is having fatigue. Fatigue cause
the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. In this experiment, the objective
is to perform the fatigue testing of paper clip and to determine the mean number of cycles to failure
of a given paper clip. Mechanical failure can be categorized into excess deformation, ductile
fracture, brittle fracture, impact or dynamic loading, creep, relaxation, thermal shock, wear,
buckling, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and fatigue. Fatigue is a localized damage process
of a component produced by cyclic loading. It is the result of the cumulative process consisting of
crack initiation, propagation, and final fracture of a component. Metal fatigue is a progressive
localized damage due to fluctuating stresses and strains on the material. Metal fatigue cracks
initiate and propagate in regions where the strain is most severe. This experiment is done by testing
50 pieces of paper clip which have same size and shape. Each paper clip is bent out at 90 degrees
until the clip is broke, then the results was recorded. The results recorded were analyse to get the
reliability of the paper clip. The results were analiysed by simple probability calculations. Then,
the reliability of a paper clip can be determined through a fatigue test. Therefore, from the result
we know that the reliability of the paper clips is 0.78 or 78%.

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2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Fatigue is a very common mode of failure for materials in our daily life and it is a major
concern over the engineering field as it may cost a company loss in many aspects. Commonly,
fatigue is known by localized damage process of a component produced by cyclic loading. It is the
result of the cumulative process consisting of crack initiation, propagation, and final fracture of a
component. In our experiment, we constrain our experiment on metal fatigue. Whereby, the metal
fatigue is a progressive localized damage due to fluctuating stresses and strains on the material.
Usage of material over and over again until it fails is known to undergone fatigue. However, the
material is undergone fatigue does not mean that it will break. In fact, due to deformation,
elongation is also considering undergone fatigue. There are three basic requisites for occurrence
of fatigue fracture where (a) a maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value (b) a large enough
variation or fluctuation in the applied stress and (c) a sufficiently large number of cycles of applied
stress. In addition, the process fails under repeated loading can be divided into three stages.
Firstly, during a large number of cycles, the damage develops on the microscopic level and grows
until a macroscopic crack is formed. Second, the macroscopic crack grows for each cycle until
it reaches a critical length. Lastly, the cracked component breaks because it can no longer sustain
the peak load. Besides that, fatigue properties of different materials vary with material quality,
material source, type of stress, and duration of stress. Since paper clips are not high tech materials,
they are usually made from cheap steel wire therefore, it has only little strength and the fatigue is
low.

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3.0 OBJECTIVE

In our experiment, our objective is to test the fatigue of the paper clips. Besides, is to determine
the mean number of cycles to failure of a paper clip.

3.1 SCOPE

In our experiment, we used the clip of diameter of mean 0.1172 cm. The angle that we tested is
constrained from 0 to 90. We used to perform the test by bending 50 paper clips repeatedly at a
plane with 90. As the test is keep going, we recorded the number of once the paper clip snapped.
In this test, our limitation is used 50 paper clips of Unicorn brand (PBZ-28MM) throughout the
test. The same member performed the test repeatedly throughout the test at the same plane.

Figure 1: Figure showing the bending process of the paper clip

Figure 2: Figure showing brand of paper clips used

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4.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Mechanical failure into can be categorized into12; excess deformation, ductile fracture,
brittle fracture, impact or dynamic loading, creep, relaxation, thermal shock, wear, buckling,
corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and fatigue [1]. Fatigue is a localized damage process of a
component produced by cyclic loading. It is the result of the cumulative process consisting of crack
initiation, propagation, and final fracture of a component [2]. Metal fatigue is a progressive
localized damage due to fluctuating stresses and strains on the material. Metal fatigue cracks
initiate and propagate in regions where the strain is most severe [3].

Metal fatigue causes by 3 basic factors;

1. a maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value

2. a large amount of variation or fluctuation in the applied stress
3. a sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress [4].
Metal fatigue also can cause by additional cause like stress concentration, corrosion, temperature,
overload, metallurgical structure, residual stress and combined stress [4].

A metals fatigue strength will be less than its yield strength, as determined in a tensile test. In
fatigue tests, failure is always a brittle fracture. Because stresses applied are usually less than yield
strength, the material, even though it is ductile, has not stretched or yielded significantly when
failure occurs [5]. Fatigue strength may be defined as the stress, in pounds per square inch, at
which failure occurs in a definite number of cycles.

The endurance limit is the limiting value of stress below which a material can presumably endure
an infinite number of stress cycles. This is seen as the horizontal position of the S-N curve, figure
3. Some materials and environments preclude the attainment of a fatigue limit [6].

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 Figure 3 S-N curve for standard steel samples subjected to reverse bending loads.

Fatigue fracture depends on the number of repetitions in a given range of stress rather than upon
total time under load. Speed has almost no observable effect [6].

The Process of fatigue consists of three stages:

1. Initial fatigue damage leading to crack initiation

2. Crack propagation until the remaining cross section becomes overloaded
3. Finally, sudden fractures of remaining cross section [7].
A fatigue crack always originates at the point where the ratio of local stress to endurance limit is
lowest [8]. This will usually be at a fillet, sharp corner, or other surface discontinuity. Once started,
a fatigue crack follows a path of least resistance through the metal. It often crosses grain boundaries
[6].

There are 2 basics for a classification of the different methods of fatigue testing; the sequence of
stress amplitude and the nature of the test-piece. Fatigue testing classified into 2 based on their
methods; constant-amplitude test and variable-amplitude test [9].

Depending upon the choice of stress levels, constant-amplitude tests may be classified into three
types, they are routine test, short-life test and long-life test [9]. In routine test, the applied stresses
are chosen in such a way that all specimens are expected to fail after a moderate number of cycles
say 104 to 107, a few run-outs, although not intended may be allowed. In short-life test, the stress

5
levels are suited above the yield stress and some of the specimens are expected to fail statically at
the application of the load. In long-life test method, the stress levels are suited below or just above
the fatigue limit and a fraction of the specimen does not fail after a pre-assigned number of cycles
about 106 to 107 cycles. In order to discover laws in relation to the accumulation of fatigue damage
in a specimen subjected to stress reversals of different amplitudes, the sequence of stress
amplitudes may be simplified. Independent of the pattern used, such tests is known as variable-
amplitude tests [9].

Figure 4 Schematic Illustrating Cyclic Loading Parameters.

Variable-amplitude tests can be further divided into cumulative damage test and service simulating
test. Cumulative damage test is the test where the objective is to investigate cumulative damage
theory, in which case the sequences are frequently simplified while service simulating test uses a
more elaborate pattern (close to real service loading) for simulating purpose [9].

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 Figure 5 Variable amplitude fatigue stress loading

Paper clips are generally made from galvanized steel wire. The wire diameter depends on what
size and quality clips are being made from it. Paper clips can be made from light, cheap steel, or
from better quality steel, depending on the manufacturer. The material used, however, has to fall
within certain physical parameters to make satisfactory paper clips [10].

Galvanized steel is steel that has been coated with zinc in order to prevent rusting or corrosion.
Sometimes the galvanizing process is referred to as hot dip galvanizing. The zinc forms a barrier
against corrosion in that the steel underneath does not come into contact with water or moisture in
the air [11].

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5.0 METHODOLOGY

In the experiment, we are using manual method. One of our group member used hand to
bend 50 paper clips from 0 until 90. We recorded the number of bend until once the paper clip is
broken. This process is continued for 50 paper clips. Same force is applied throughout the
experiment. Once the result is recorded, we construct the result that we obtained from the
experiment in Microsoft Excel 2010. Hence, from the data obtained, we constructed a frequency
table consist of class boundaries and midpoint. Range of the data is recorded from 1st - 35th times.
From the result, we constructed a histogram graph and a normal distribution graph. Besides that,
we used the reliability calculation formula to obtain the reliability of the product.

Figure 6: Original form of the paper clip before experiment

Figure 7: Broken form of paper clip after experiment

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5.1 PROCEDURE

1. Prepare the materials and equipment for the experiment.

2. Set up the plane use for the experiment.
3. Construct simple frequency table for record purpose.
4. Begin the experiment by bending the paper clip.
5. Same force is applied during the experiment from 0 till 90.
6. Once the paper clip is broken, mark on the tally on the simple frequency table.
7. This process is repeating for 50 paper clips.
8. From the simple frequency table, form cumulative frequency, class boundaries, midpoint
and f(x).
9. Plot histogram, normal distribution graph and ogive.

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6.0 RESULT and DATA

Cum. Relative
Range Frequency Frequency Class Boundaries Midpoint f(x)
Frequency
1-5 2 2 0.04 0.5-5.5 3 6
6-10 2 4 0.04 5.5-10.5 8 16
11-15 3 7 0.06 10.5-15.5 13 39
16-20 9 16 0.18 15.5-20.5 18 162
21-25 23 39 0.46 20.5-25.5 23 529
26-30 8 47 0.16 25.5-30.5 28 224
31-35 3 50 0.06 30.5-35.5 33 99

Table 1: Frequency table of the result

Graph of Frequency Vs. Range

25

20

15

10 Frequency

0
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35

Graph 1: Histogram of frequency of the result.

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 Graph of Frequency Vs. Range
25
23
20

15

10 Frequency
9 8
5
2 2 3 3
0
0 2 4 6 8

Graph 2: Graph showing normal distribution of the result.

Graph of Cum. Frequency Vs Range

60

50

40

30
Cum. Frequency
20

10

0
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35

Graph 3: Graph of the cumulative frequency vs range

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7.0 DISCUSSION

The data obtained from the in-class experiments were entered into a Microsoft Excel
Worksheet and the data obtained from the experiment was plotted for range against frequency.
These graphs can be seen in Graph 1 and Graph 2. This data were recorded by 50 pieces test of
paper clip at 90 degrees of bending.

As can be seen from these graphs, we know that the highest frequency of the clip to be
failed is at range 21st to 25th paper clips bending. The results, show that most of the clip were
broken at this range is 23 pieces of paper clips. Therefore, we know that the maximum bending of
this paper clips at 90 degrees is from 21 to 25 time bends.

Since the cycle time of paper clip to be broken is 21st to 25th times, then we consider that
the reliability of a paper clip can be used is at 23rd times only after that the paper clip will be broken.
Because, the 23rd times is the midpoint of this cycle and in between of the cycle for 21st and 25th
time. Therefore, to calculate the reliability of the paper clips we were used simple probability
equation to determine the reliability of the clips. The equation is shown below :

From the formula given we know that the reliability of the paper clips is :

(5 2) + (5 2) + (5 3) + (5 9) + (5 23)
=
(5 2) + (5 2) + (5 3) + (5 9) + (5 23) + (5 8) + (5 3)

195
=
250

= 0.78 78%

Therefore, from the calculation of the reliability we know that this paper clips is reliable at
78% or 0.78 which mean it can be used until 23rd time of bending at 90 degrees. If the bending is
done more than 23rd time the paper clips will be broken and fail to be used.

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 Graph of Cum. Frequency Vs Range
60

50

40

30
Cum. Frequency
20

10

0
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35

Other data that we can show to determine the reliability of paper clips is by using O-give
graph. Since, the paper clips is reliable at 78% or 0.78. Therefore, from the O-give graph we know
that the reliability of the clip is at range 21st to 25th clipping. This because, we can see data from
the relative frequency that were recorded. The total up of relative frequency from range 1st till 25th
is 0.78. Therefore, we can conclude that the cumulative frequency for the paper clips to be broken
is at 39 clips.

From the results also we can see that from range 1st to 5th cycle there were two paper clips
were broken. This because some of the paper clip are defects and this unexpected result that could
possibly be due to operator errors, manufacturing inconsistencies or both during the processing of
paper clips. This clips were broken early because the diameter of the clips is too small. Another
unexpected result that can be seen is from cycle time range 31st to 35th. This range shows that there
are 3 paper clips were broken at this range. This because the diameter of the paper clips is bigger
than the standard due to defect from manufacturing process of paper clips.

From the experiment we know that there were a few factor that affect our results. Firstly,
the paper clips is coated by rubber. Therefore, the strength of the clips were improved by the coated
rubber and it make the clips difficult to be broken. This coated rubber is enhancing the strength of
the paper clips. Next, the clip are initially defects. This because some of the paper clips have
difference scale of its diameter. For example, we get only one cycle of bending then the clip were
broken. The defects clips will give a certain results in our experiment.

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 Lastly, from SWOT analysis we can conclude that the strength, weakness, opportunity and
threats for a paper clips. First, is the strength of the paper clip. The strength of clips is improved
by the coated rubber this will make the clips difficult to be broken. Next, the weakness of clips is
the angle of clips that can be bend. This because if the clips bend at bigger angle the clips will
broke fast than usual. Then, opportunity to improve the paper clip is the material itself. This
because to make the clips will be difficult to be broke when bending for a few time. For example,
manufacture should try to improve it's hardness and tensile strength by a heat treatment but keep
in mind that this will also make it more brittle and less ductile. Last but not least is the threat. The
threat for this paper clips is how the manufacture to produce the clips with a good quality with low
price.

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8.0 CONCLUSION

In this experiment, we performed the fatigue test on paper clips from 0 till 90 with same
force and same plane. We learned that the fatigue test is caused by weakening of a material with
repeatedly applied loads. The cyclic loading that caused the fatigue failure resulted on cumulative
process consisting of crack initiation, propagation, and final fracture of the paper clip. In our
experiment, we observed that the failure the most is at 21-25 times. We managed to calculate that
the percentage of the paper clip is 78%. Some of the clip that we tested may be failure before range
of 21-25 times may due to different diameter of the steel wire used to produce the paper clip or
may be due to defect during the production. In order to get better reliability, we recommend that
the company have to use thicker diameter of steel wire to produce the paper clip. Besides
standardization of the product must be made as to produce the highest possible of reliability
product. Hence, we conclude that we achieved our objective.

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9.0 REFERENCES

[1] R. I. Stephens, A. Fatemi, R. R. Stephens, and H. H. Fuchs, Metal Fatigue In Engineering, 2nd
ed. New York: Wiley, 2001.

[2] Y.-L. Lee, J. Pan, R. Hathaway, and M. Barkey, Fatigue Testing and Analysis: Theory and
Practice. Amsterdam: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005.

[3] M. A. Maleque and M. S. Salit, Materials Selection and Design. Singapore: Springer, 2013.

[4] T. Udomphol, Fatigue of metals, Suranaree University of Technology, 2007.

[5] Structure and Testing. Huntington, W. Va.: Hunting Alloy Products Division, International
Nickel Co., 1968.

[6] Grover, H. J., Fatigue of Metals and Structure. Thames and Hudson, London, 1956.

[7] Miska, Kurt H. Metal Fatigue: Causes and Prevention. Materials Engineering, vol. 87, June
1978, pp. 31-33.

[8] Lipson, Charles. Basic Course in Failure AnalysisLesson 2: Planning for Strength.
Machine Design, vol. 41, October 30, 1969, pp.108-112.

[9] A. B. A. S. S. A. D. E. Y. I. N. K. A. AZEEZ, Fatigue Failure and Testing Method, thesis,

Mechanical Engineering and Production Technology Mechatronics, Riihimki, 2013.

[10] "How paper clip is made - material, manufacture, making, history, used, product, industry,
machine, History", Madehow.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.madehow.com/Volume-7/Paper-Clip.html. [Accessed: 22- Mar- 2017].

[11] V. Ryan, "Galvanising Steel and Iron", Technologystudent.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/galv1.html. [Accessed: 22- Mar- 2017].

[12] "Material Fatigue Definition", Comsol.com, 2017. [Online]. Available:

https://www.comsol.com/multiphysics/material-fatigue. [Accessed: 22- Mar- 2017].

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