1 Overview 1
1.1 Kings of the ancient world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Babylonian Kings, 747539 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Persian Kings, 538332 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Macedonian Kings, 331305 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Ptolemies of Egypt, 30430 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.5 Roman Emperors, 29 BC160 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.6 Notes and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Assyrian kings 3
2.1 Puzur-Ashur I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Shalim-ahum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Ilu-shuma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.3 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Erishum I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.2 Limmu during Erishum Is reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.4 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Ikunum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
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ii CONTENTS
2.6 Sargon I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.6.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.7 Puzur-Ashur II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.7.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.8 Naram-Suen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.8.1 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.8.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.9 Erishum II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.9.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.10 Shamshi-Adad I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.10.1 Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.10.2 Conquests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.10.3 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.10.4 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.10.5 Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.10.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.10.8 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.11 Ishme-Dagan I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.11.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.11.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.11.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.11.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.12 Mut-Ashkur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.12.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.13 Rimush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.13.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.13.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.14 Asinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.14.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.15 Adasi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.15.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.16 Bel-bani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.16.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.16.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.17 Libaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.17.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.18 Iptar-Sin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.18.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.18.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.18.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
CONTENTS iii
2.18.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.19 Bazaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.19.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.19.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.19.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.20 Lullaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.20.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.20.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.20.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.21 Shu-Ninua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.21.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.21.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.21.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.22 Shamshi-Adad II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.22.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.22.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.22.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.23 Ishme-Dagan II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.23.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.23.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.24 Shamshi-Adad III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.25 Ashur-nirari I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.25.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.25.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.25.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.26 Puzur-Ashur III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.26.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.27 Enlil-nasir I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.27.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.28 Nur-ili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.29 Ashur-shaduni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.29.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.29.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.29.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.30 Ashur-rabi I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.30.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.31 Ashur-nadin-ahhe I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.31.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.32 Enlil-Nasir II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.32.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.33 Ashur-nirari II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
iv CONTENTS
2.33.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.33.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.33.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.34 Ashur-bel-nisheshu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.34.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.34.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.34.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.35 Ashur-rim-nisheshu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.35.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.35.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.35.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.36 Ashur-nadin-ahhe II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.36.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.36.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.36.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.37 Eriba-Adad I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.37.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.37.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.37.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.38 Ashur-uballit I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.38.1 Amarna letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.38.2 Babylonian wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.38.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.38.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.38.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.39 Enlil-nirari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.39.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.39.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.40 Arik-den-ili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.40.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.40.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.40.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.41 Adad-nirari I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.41.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.41.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.41.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.41.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.41.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.42 Shalmaneser I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.42.1 Limmu ocials by year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.42.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
CONTENTS v
2.42.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.43 Tukulti-Ninurta I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.43.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.43.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.44 Ashur-nadin-apli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.44.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.44.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.44.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.45 Ashur-nirari III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.45.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.45.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.45.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.46 Enlil-kudurri-usur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.46.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.46.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.46.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.47 Ninurta-apal-Ekur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.47.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.47.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.48 Ashur-dan I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.48.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.48.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.48.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.49 Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.49.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.49.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.49.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.50 Mutakkil-Nusku . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.50.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.50.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.50.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.51 Ashur-resh-ishi I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.51.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.51.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.51.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.52 Tiglath-Pileser I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.52.1 Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.52.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.52.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.52.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.53 Asharid-apal-Ekur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
vi CONTENTS
2.53.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.53.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.53.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.54 Ashur-bel-kala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.54.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.54.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.54.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.55 Eriba-Adad II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.55.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.55.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.55.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.56 Shamshi-Adad IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.56.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.56.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.56.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.57 Ashurnasirpal I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.57.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.57.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.57.3 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.57.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.58 Shalmaneser II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.58.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.58.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.58.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.59 Ashur-nirari IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.59.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.59.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.59.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.60 Ashur-rabi II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.60.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.60.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.60.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.61 Ashur-resh-ishi II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.61.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.61.2 Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.61.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.62 Tiglath-Pileser II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.62.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.62.2 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.62.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.63 Ashur-dan II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
CONTENTS vii
2.63.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.63.2 Accomplishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.63.3 Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.63.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.64 Adad-nirari II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.64.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.64.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.65 Tukulti-Ninurta II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.65.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.66 Ashurnasirpal II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.66.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.66.2 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.66.3 Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.66.4 Palace of Kalhu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.66.5 Current location of Nimrud reliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.66.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.66.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.66.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.67 Shalmaneser III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.67.1 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.67.2 In Biblical studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.67.3 Construction and the Black Obelisk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.67.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.67.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.67.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.67.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.68 Shamshi-Adad V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.68.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.68.2 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.68.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.68.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.69 Adad-nirari III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.69.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.69.2 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.69.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.69.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.70 Shalmaneser IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.70.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.71 Ashur-dan III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.71.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.71.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
viii CONTENTS
2.72 Ashur-nirari V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.73 Tiglath-Pileser III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.73.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.73.2 Reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.73.3 Biblical account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.73.4 Reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.73.5 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.73.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.73.7 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.73.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.74 Shalmaneser V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.74.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.75 Sargon II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.75.1 Early reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.75.2 Military campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.75.3 Later reign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.75.4 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.75.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.75.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.75.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.75.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.76 Sennacherib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.76.1 Background: the Neo-Assyrian empire, 911-612 BCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.76.2 The Babylonian problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.76.3 Accession and military campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.76.4 Administration and building projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.76.5 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.76.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.76.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.76.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.76.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.77 Esarhaddon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.77.1 Rise to power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.77.2 Military campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.77.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.77.4 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.77.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.77.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.77.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.77.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.78 Ashurbanipal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
CONTENTS ix
3 Babylonian kings 84
3.1 Nabopolassar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.1 Nineveh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.2 Harran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2 Nebuchadnezzar II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.2 Construction activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.3 Portrayal in the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.4 Portrayal in medieval Muslim sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2.5 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
x CONTENTS
Overview
1
2 CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Tiberius: 1536
Gaius: 3740
Claudius: 4154
Nero: 5568
Chapter 2
Assyrian kings
Puzur-Ashur I was an Assyrian who . c. 2000 BC. His [1] Arthur Ungnad interpreted these names as Hurrian (BA
VI, 5, S. 13) but Ungnads thesis can no longer be sus-
clearly Assyrian name (meaning, servant of Ashur) dis-
tained nowadays and was rejected as unconvincing by
tinguishes him from his three immediate predecessors on Arno Poebel (The Assyrian King List from Khorsabad,
the Assyrian King List, who possibly bore non-Semitic Journal of Near Eastern Studies 1/3, 1942, 253) as early
names,[1] and from the earlier, Amorite-named, kings as 1942.
who are ancestors (also translatable as, kings whose fa-
thers are known), often interpreted as a list of Shamshi- [2] Meissner, Bruno (1990). Reallexikon der Assyriologie.
Adad I's ancestors.[2] He is known only from his place in 6. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 101102. ISBN
the Assyrian King List and from references in the inscrip- 3110100517.
tions of later kings (his son and successor Shalim-ahum
[3] Albert Kirk Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions,
and the much later Ashur-rim-nisheshu and Shalmaneser
Volume 1. Otto Harrassowitz.
III.)[3]:6,8,12,15 These later kings mentioned him among
the kings who had renewed the city walls of Assur begun [4] Hildegard Levy, Assyria c. 2600-1816 B.C., Cambridge
by Kikkia.[4] Ancient History. Volume 1, Part 2: Early History of the
Middle East, 729-770, p. 746-747.
Puzur-Ashur I may have started a native Assyrian dy-
nasty that endured for eight generations until Erishum II [5] Albert Kirk Grayson (2002). Assyrian Rulers. Volume 1:
was overthrown by the Amorite Shamshi-Adad I. Hilde- 1114 859 BC. p. 14.
gard Levy, writing in the Cambridge Ancient History, re-
jects this interpretation and sees Puzur-Aur I as part [6] Barbara Cifola (1995). Analysis of variants in the Assyr-
of a longer dynasty started by one of his predecessors, ian royal titulary from the origins to Tiglath-Pileser III. Is-
[4] tituto universitario orientale. p. 8.
Sulili. Inscriptions link Puzur-Aur I to his immediate
[3]:78[5]
successors, who, according to the Assyrian King
List, are related to the following kings down to Erium
II.[3]:14 The Assyrian King List omits Zariqum, who is 2.2 Shalim-ahum
known from inscriptions to have been governor (ens) of
Assur for the Third Dynasty of Ur under Amar-Sin; this
Shalim-ahum or alim-ahum was a ruler of the city-
Zariqum (whose name is Semitic) is sometimes placed by
state of Assur . c. 1900 BC (short chronology.)[1]
scholars immediately before Puzur-Ashur I, and follow-
The Assyrian King List records his name as allim-ae,
ing Akiya.
inscribed al-lim-PAB-ME, meaning, keep the broth-
Puzur-Ashur Is successors bore the title Iiak Aur, ers safe, and he appears among the six kings whose
vice regent of Assur, as well as ens.[6] eponyms are not found,[2] meaning that the length of
his reign was unknown. He was described as the son
of Puzur-Ashur I (dumu Puzu Assur) in his only known
2.1.1 See also inscription.[3] He is the earliest independent ruler to be
attested in a contemporary inscription.[1] Carved in cu-
Timeline of the Assyrian Empire
rious archaic character mirror-writing in Old Assyrian
Early Period of Assyria on an alabaster block found during the German excava-
tions at Assur under Walter Andrae, this sole exemplar of
List of Assyrian kings his contemporary inscriptions records that the god Ashur
Assyrian continuity requested of him the construction of a temple and that
he had beer vats and storage area built in the temple
Assyria area.[4]:67
3
4 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
He ruled during a period when nascent Assyrian merchant historians to believe Ilu-shuma may have engaged in con-
companies were branching out into Anatolia to trade tex- ict with his southerly neighbor. A brick inscription
tiles and tin from Assur for silver.[1] He was succeeded of Ilu-shuma describes his relations with the south and
by his son, Ilu-shuma, as recorded in his brick and lime- reads:
stone inscriptions[4]:78 and he appears in the genealogy
of his grandson, Erishum I.[4]:12,15 His name appears in
The freedom[nb 3] of the Akkadians and
an inscription of Adad-nirari I and one of Shalmaneser
their children I established. I puried their cop-
I but only in the context of references to his son, Ilu-
per. I established their freedom from the bor-
shuma.[4]:68,91 Shalim-ahum and his successors bore the
der of the marshes and Ur and Nippur, Awal,
title iiak Aur, vice regent of Assur, as well as ens.[5]
and Kismar, Der of the god Ishtaran, as far as
Assur.[1]:78
2.2.1 References
The historian M. Trolle Larsen has suggested that this
[1] J. A. Brinkman (2001). Assyria. In Bruce Manning represented an attempt to lure traders from the south of
Metzger, Michael David Coogan. The Oxford companion Assur with tax privileges and exemptions, to monopolize
to the Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 63. the exchange of copper from the gulf for tin from the
east.[3] The cities cited therefore are the three major car-
[2] K. R. Veenhof (2003). The Old Assyrian List of Year
Eponyms from Karum Kanish and is Chronological Impli-
avan routes the commodities would have traveled rather
cations. Turkish Historical Society. p. 21. than campaign routes for the king.[4]
Ilu-shumas construction activities included building the
[3] Albert Kirk Grayson (2002). Assyrian Rulers. Volume1:
old temple of Ishtar, a city wall, subdivision of the city
1114 859 BC. p. 14.
into house plots and diversion of the ow of two springs to
[1]:8
[4] Albert Kirk Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, the city gates Aushum and Wertum. Tukult-Ninurta
Volume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 68. I recorded that he preceded him by 720 years, on his own
inscriptions commemorating his construction of an adja-
[5] Barbara Cifola (1995). Analysis of variants in the Assyr- cent Ishtar temple.[2] From this it might be deduced that,
ian royal titulary from the origins to Tiglath-Pileser III. Is- despite later being among the kings whose year names
tituto universitario orientale. p. 8. are not known, the reign length of Ilu-shuma was still
known in the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I to be 21 years.[5]
Larsen has suggested that he may have been a contem-
2.3 Ilu-shuma porary of Iddin-Dagan and Ishme-Dagan of Isin, which
would clash with the synchronization with Sumu-abum,[2]
Ilu-shuma or Ilu-ma, inscribed DINGIR-um-ma,[i 1] but make more sense given the current chronology fa-
son of Shalim-ahum[1]:78 was the thirty-second king of vored.
Assyria, c. 1900 BCE (short chronology.) The length of
his reign is uncertain, as the Assyrian King List records
him as one of the six kings whose names were written 2.3.2 See also
on bricks, but whose eponyms are not known,[2] refer-
ring to the lists of ocials after which years were named. Timeline of the Assyrian Empire
His son, Erishum I, is identied as the king who suc-
ceeded him and reigned for 30 years (or 40, depend- Early Period of Assyria
[nb 1]
ing on the copy of the Assyrian King List), followed
by Ilu-shumas other son, Ikunum. He titled himself List of Assyrian kings
vice-regent of Assur, beloved of the god Ashur and the
Assyrian continuity
goddess Ishtar. The Synchronistic King List [i 2] records,
eighty-two kings of Assyria from Erishum I, son of Ilu- Assyrian people
shuma, to Ashurbanipal, son of Esarhaddon", in the con-
cluding colophon. Assyria
2.3.4 Notes Karums were established along trade routes into Anato-
lia and included: Kanesh, Ankuwa, Hattusa, and eigh-
[1] Lines 27 to 28: [I E-r]i-u dumu I ilu-um-ma [ li-ma- teen other locations that have yet to be identied, some
ni]-u-ni 40 mume lugalta du . of which had been designated as warbatums (satellites
of and subordinate to the karums) The markets traded
[2] Battles, gigam.didli.
in: tin (inscribed AN.NA, Akkadian: annukum), textiles,
[3] Freedom = addurru. lapis lazuli, iron, antimony, copper, bronze, wool, and
grain, in exchange for gold and silver. Around 23,000
tablets have been found at Kanesh spanning a period of
2.3.5 References 129 years from the thirtieth year of Erishum Is reign
through to that of Puzur-Ashur II or possibly Naram-
[1] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol- Sin with the earliest from level II including copies of his
ume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. inscriptions. These were discovered in 1948 with three
other similar though fragmentary lists and two copies of
[2] Jean-Jacques Glassner (2005). Mesopotamian Chronicles. an inscription of Erishum I detailing the regulations con-
SBL. pp. 137, 7, 271. cerning the administration of justice in Assur, including
the possibility of plaintis to obtain a rbium (attorney)
[3] M. Trolle Larsen (1976). The Old Assyrian City-State and
to represent them:
its Colonies. Akademisk Forlag. p. 87.
[4] Emlie Kuhrt (1998). The Old Assyrian merchants. In The one who talks too much in the Step
Helen Parkins, Christopher Smith. Trade, traders, and the Gate, the demon of ruins will seize his mouth
ancient city. Routledge. p. 20. and his hindquarters; he will smash his head
like a shattered pot; he will fall like a broken
[5] Cambridge Ancient History: Assyria 2060-1816 BC, 1966, reed and water will ow from his mouth. The
p. 22. one who talks too much in the Step Gate, his
house will become a house of ruin. He who
rises to give false testimony, may the [Seven]
2.4 Erishum I Judges who decide legal cases in [the Step
Gate, give a false] decision [against him]; [may
Assur], Adad, and Bel, [my god, pluck his
Erishum I or Eriu(m) I (inscribed m e-ri-u, or m APIN-
seed]; a place [] may they not give to him.
in later texts but always with an initial i in his own seal,
[The one who] obeys me, [when he goes]
inscriptions, and those of his immediate successors,[1]:40
to the Step Gate, [may] the palace deputy
he has desired,[2] ) c. 1905 BC c. 1866 BC (short
[assist him]; [may he send] the witnesses and
chronology) or c. 1974 BC c. 1935 BC (middle
plainti (to the court); [may] the judges [take
chronology),[nb 1] son of Ilu-shuma, was the thirty-third
the bench] and give a proper decision [in
ruler of Assyria to appear on the Assyrian King List.
A]ur.[5]:13
He reigned for forty years.[i 1] One of two copies of the
Inscription of rium I[i 4]
Assyrian King List[i 2] which include him gives his reign
length as only 30 years,[3] but this contrasts with a com-
plete list of his limmu, some 40, which are extant from
tablets[i 3] recovered at Karum Kanesh.[1]:35 He had ti- Following the example set by Erishum Is father (Ilu-
tled himself both as, "Ashur is king, Erishum I is vice- shuma), he had proclaimed tax exemptions, or as Michael
regent[nb 2] and the, Iiak Aurki (steward of As- Hudson has interpreted, Erishum I proclaimed a remis-
sur), at a time when Assur was controlled by an oligarchy sion of debts payable in silver, gold, copper, tin, barley,
of the patriarchs of the prominent families and subject wool, down to cha. This appears in an inscription on
to the judgment of the city, or dn alim. According one side of a large broken block of alabaster,[i 5] appar-
to Veenhof, Erishum Is reign marks the period when ently described as a uppu. The shallow depression on its
the institution of the annually appointed limmu (eponym) top has led some to identify it as a door socket.[6]
was introduced. The Assyrian King List observes of his His numerous contemporary inscriptions commemorate
immediate predecessors, in all six kings known from his building of the temple for Assur, called Wild Bull
bricks, whose limmu have not been marked/found.[4] with its courtyard and two beer vats and the accompa-
nying curses to those who would use them for their in-
tended purposes. Erishum Is other civic constructions
2.4.1 Biography included the temple of Ishtar and that of Adad. He had
exercised eminent domain to clear an area from the Sheep
As Assurs merchant family rms vigorously pursued Gate to the Peoples Gate to make way for an enlargement
commercial expansion, Erium I had established distant of the city wall, so that he could boast that I made a wall
trading outposts in Anatolia referred to as karums. higher than the wall my father had constructed.[5]:11 His
6 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
eorts had been recalled by the later kings ami-Adad List of Assyrian kings
I,[5]:20 in his rebuilding dedication, and ulmanu-aared
Assyrian continuity
I, who noted that 159 years had passed between Erishum
Is work and that of Shamsh-Adad I, and a furthet 580 Assyrian people
years until his own when a re had gutted it.[5]:8485
2.4.4 Inscriptions
2.4.2 Limmu during Erishum Is reign
[1] Khorsabad kinglist.
The following is a list of the annually-elected limmu from [2] SDAS Kinglist: [m E-ri- ] u DUMU m DINGIR-um-ma,
the rst full year of Erishum Is reign until the year of his [ li-ma-ni? -u-ni 10] + 30 MU.ME LUGAL-ta D-
death c. 1935 BC (middle chronology):[1]:610 u.
1974 BC u-Itar, son of Abila [3] KEL A (kt 92/k 193), at CDLI.
1973 BC ukutum, son of Iuhum
1972 BC Iddin-ilum, son of Kurub-Itar [4] Tablet copies: An 201139 and An 20114.
1971 BC u-Anim, son of Isalia [5] BM 115689, Ass. 16850.
1970 BC Anah-ili, son of Kiki
1969 BC Suitaya, son of Ir'ibum
1968 BC Daya, son of Iuhum 2.4.5 Notes
1967 BC Ili-ellat
[1] Some historians quote ca. 19391900 BC (after Amlie
1966 BC ama-t.ab
Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East, C. 3000-330 BC, Volume
1965 BC Agusa
1, Routledge, 1996, p. 82).
1964 BC Idnaya, son of udaya
1963 BC Quqadum, son of Buzu [2] d a-r LUGAL i-ri-u-um PA.
1962 BC Puzur-Itar, son of Bedaki
1961 BC Laqip, son of Bab-idi
1960 BC u-Laban, son of Kurub-Itar 2.4.6 References
1959 BC u-Belum, son of Iuhum [1] K. R. Veenhof (2003). The Old Assyrian List of Year
1958 BC Nab-Suen, son of u-Itar Eponyms from Karum Kanish and its Chronological Im-
1957 BC Hadaya, son of Elali plications. Turkish Historical Society. pp. 40, 310.
1956 BC Ennum-Aur, son of Begaya
1955 BC Ikunum, son of udaya [2] E. Frahm (1998). K. Radner, ed. The Prosopography of
the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Volume 1, Part II: A. The Neo-
1954 BC Is.mid-ili, son of Idida
Assyrian Text Corpus Project. p. 404.
1953 BC Buzutaya, son of Iuhum
1952 BC u-Itar, son of Amaya [3] I. J. Gelb (1954). Two Assyrian King Lists. Journal of
1951 BC Iddin-Aur, son of the priest Near East Studies. VIII (4): 213.
1950 BC Puzur-Aur, the ghee maker [4] Klaas R. Veenhof, Jesper Eidem (2008). Mesopotamia:
1949 BC Quqadum, son of Buzu the Old Assyrian period. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p.
1948 BC Ibni-Adad, son of Susaya 29.
1947 BC Irium, son of Adad-rabi
1946 BC Minanum, son of Begaya [5] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol-
ume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 815, 20, 8485.
1945 BC Iddin-Suen, son of alim-ahum
1944 BC Puzur-Aur, son of Idnaya [6] J. E. Reade (2001). A monument of Erium I from
1943 BC uli, son of Uphakum Aur. Revue d'assyriologie et d'archologie orientale. 94
1942 BC Laqip, son of Zukua (2): 177178. doi:10.3917/assy.094.0177.
1941 BC Puzur-Itar, son of Erisua
1940 BC Aguwa, son of Adad-rabi
1939 BC u-Suen, son of S.illia 2.5 Ikunum
1938 BC Ennum-Aur, son of Begaya
1937 BC Enna-Suen, son of Pussanum Ikunum was a king of Assyria between 1867 BC 1860
1936 BC Ennanum, son of Uphakum BC and the son of Ilushuma. He built a temple for the
1935 BC Buzi, son of Adad-rabi god Ninkigal.[1] He strengthened the fortications of the
city of Assur and maintained commercial colonies in Asia
Minor.[2] The following is a list of the sixteen annually-
2.4.3 See also
elected limmu ocials from the year of accession of
Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Ikunum until the year of his death.[3] BC dates are based
on a date of 1833 BC for the recorded solar eclipse in the
Old Assyrian Empire limmu of Puzur-Itar:[4]
2.6. SARGON I 7
1920 BC Buzi son of Adad-rabi which Sargon I identied with the prestigious Dynasty of
Akkad.
1919 BC uli son of almah
Sargon I is known for his work refortifying Assur.[3] Very
1918 BC Iddin-Suen son of almah little is otherwise known about Sargon I.[2] The following
is a list of the 41 annually-elected limmu ocials from the
1917 BC Ikunum son of udaya
year of accession of Sargon I until the year of his death.[4]
1916 BC Dan-Wer son of Ahu-ahi Dates are based on a date of 1833 BC for the solar eclipse
recorded in the limmu of Puzur-Ishtar:[5]
1915 BC u-Anum from Nerabtim
1905 BC Irium son of Iddin-Aur
1914 BC Il-massu son of Aur-ab 1904 BC Aur-malik son of Agatum
1903 BC Aur-malik son of Enania
1913 BC u-Hubur son of uli 1902 BC Ibisua son of Suen-nada
1901 BC Bazia son of Bal-Tutu
1912 BC Idua son of ulili
1900 BC Puzur-Itar son of Sabasia
1911 BC Laqip son of Puzur-Laba 1899 BC Pia-Ili son of Adin
1898 BC Asqudum son of Lapiqum
1910 BC u-Anum the hapirum 1897 BC Ili-pila son of Damqum
1896 BC Qulali
1909 BC Uku son of Bila
1895 BC Susaya
1908 BC Aur-malik son of Panaka 1894 BC Amaya the Weaponer
1893 BC Ipurum son of Ili-ellat
1907 BC Dan-Aur son of Puzur-Wer 1892 BC Kudanum son of Laqipum
1891 BC Ili-bani son of Ikunum
1906 BC u-Kubum son of Ahu-ahi
1890 BC u-Kubum son of Susaya
1905 BC Irium son of Iddin-Aur 1889 BC Quqidi son of Amur-Aur
1888 BC Abia son of Nur-Suen
1887 BC u-Itar son of ukutum
2.5.1 Notes 1886 BC Bazia son of epa-lim
1885 BC u-Itar son of Ikunum, the starlike (kakka-
[1] Rogers, Robert (2003). A History of Babylonia and As- banum)
syria. Lost Arts Media. ISBN 978-1-59016-317-7.
1884 BC Abia son of u-Dagan
[2] Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient 1883 BC Salia son of abakuranum
Mesopotamia. New York: Oxford UP. p. 88. 1882 BC Ibni-Adad son of Baqqunum
1881 BC Amari son of Malkum-iar
[3] Cahit Gnbatt, An Eponym List (KEL G) from Kltepe 1880 BC Sukkalia son of Minanum
Altoriental. Forsch. 35 (2008) 1, 103-132.
1879 BC Iddin-Aur son of Kubidi
[4] C. Michel, Nouvelles donnes pour la chronologie du IIe 1878 BC udaya son of Ennanum
millnaire, NABU 2002, Nr. 20, 17f. 1877 BC Al-ab son of Pila-Aur
1876 BC Aur-dammiq son of Abarsisum
1875 BC Puzur-Nira son of Puzur-Suen
2.5.2 References 1874 BC Amur-Aur son of Karria
1873 BC Buzuzu son of Ibbi-Suen
Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in An- 1872 BC u-ubur son of Elali
cient Mesopotamia. New York: Oxford UP. 1871 BC Ilu-rabi son of Bazia
1870 BC Alaum son of Ina-ili
1869 BC ab-Aur son of Suarum
2.6 Sargon I 1868 BC Elali son of Ikunum
1867 BC Iddin-abum son of Narbitum
Sargon I (also transcribed as arru-kn I and Sharru- 1866 BC Adad-bani son of Iddin-Aur
ken I) was the king (Iiak Aur, Steward of Assur") 1865 BC Aur-iddin son of uli
of the Old Assyrian Empire from c. 1920 BC c. 1881
BC. On the Assyrian King List, Sargon appeaars as the
2.6.1 References
son and successor of Ikunum, and the father and prede-
cessor of Puzur-Ashur II. [1] Chavalas, Mark William (29 Jun 2006). The ancient Near
The name Sargon means the king is legitimate in the East: historical sources in translation. Wiley-Blackwell. p.
23. ISBN 978-0-631-23580-4.
Akkadian language.[1] Sargon I may have been named af-
ter Sargon of Akkad,[2] perhaps reecting the extent to [2] Bromiley, Georey (31 Dec 1996). The international
8 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
standard Bible encyclopedia (Revised ed.). William B later Assyrian King Lists, where he is inscribed m na-
Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4. ram-d EN.ZU,[i 1][i 2][i 3] or a fragmentary list where he ap-
pears as -d 30.[i 4] He was named for the illustrious Naram-
[3] Leick, Gwendolyn (2001). Whos Who in the Ancient Near
East. Routledge. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-415-13231-2.
Sin of Akkad and took the divine determinative in his
name (just like Naram-Sins grandfather: Sargon I, who
[4] Klaas R. Veenhof, The old Assyrian list of year eponyms may have been named after Sargon of Akkad.) Naram-
from Karum Kanish and its chronological implications Sin should not be confused with the Naram-Sin who
(Ankara, Turkish Historical Society, 2003) had ruled Eshnunna for around twelve years (the succes-
[5] C. Michel, Nouvelles donnes pour la chronologie du IIe sor and son, as identied on an inscription, of the long-
millnaire, NABU 2002, Nr. 20, 17f. reigning Ebiq-Adad II.)[1] It is probable that Naram-Sin
of Assur was, however, contemporaneous with the ear-
lier part of Ebiq-Adad IIs reign (whose last attestation
was in the Mari Eponym Chronicle B line 25 some 56
2.7 Puzur-Ashur II years after Naram-Sins inauguration.)[2]:46 Naram-Sin of
Assyria was the son and successor of the short-reigning
Puzur-Ashur II (also transcribed as Puzur-Aur II) Puzur-Ashur II, liation preserved in his seal impres-
was the king (Iiak Aur, Steward of Assur") of the sion on the envelopes of the waklum-letters to his expat
Old Assyrian Empire for eight years between 1865 BCE Anatolian-based traders at the karum Kanesh and in the
and 1857 BCE. Puzur-Ashur II had been both the son and later Assyrian King Lists.
successor of Sargon I. Due to Sargon Is long reign, Puzur-
Ashur II came to the throne at a late age since one of his The length of Naram-Sins reign is uncertain, however;
sons, named Ili-bani, was a witness in a contract (and so based on various excavated "limmu" (eponym) lists, the
already a grown man) eleven years before Puzur-Ashur II reigns of Naram-Sin and his son and successor Erishum
became ruler. Puzur-Ashur II was succeeded by his son II had a combined length of 64 years.[3]:29 The Assyr-
Naram-Sin. The following is a list of the nine annually- ian King List records that Shamshi-Adad I, went away
elected "limmu" (eponym) ocials from the year of ac- to Babylonia in the time of Naram-Sin. Shamshi-Adad I
cession of Puzur-Ashur II, the "waklum" (overseer), in did not return until he had taken Ekallatum, after which
the limmu of Ashur-iddin (son of Shuli) to Puzur-Ashur he paused for three years and then overthrew Erishum
IIs death in the limmu of Inaya (son of Amuraya.)[1] BC II.[4] The Mari Eponym Chronicle, which resumes the
dates are based on a date of 1833 BC for the recorded listing until the seizure of Ekallatum by Shamshi-Adad
solar eclipse in the limmu of Puzur-Itar:[2] I, provides no clue as to when the succession of Erishum
II had taken place. As the reign of Erishum II was pre-
1865 BC Aur-iddin son of uli maturely ended by the conquests of Shamshi-Adad I, it is
1864 BC Aur-nada son of Puzur-Ana likely that Naram-Sins reign was the greater part of the
1863 BC Kubia son of Karria period, additionally; the broken gure on the Nassouhi
1862 BC Ili-dan son of Elali King List ends on four, so perhaps Naram-Sin reigned
1861 BC ilulu son of Uku 44 or 54 years (c. 1872 BC onward, middle chronol-
1860 BC Aur-nada son of Ili-binanni ogy).[2]:45 Despite this, there are no extant monumental
1859 BC Ikuppi-Itar son of Ikua inscriptions recording his activities.[5]
1858 BC Buzutaya son of uli
1857 BC Innaya son of Amuraya The following is a list of the last 27 annually-elected
limmu ocials listed on the extant Kltepe Eponym
Lists (KEL) representing Naram-Sins rst years (end-
2.7.1 References ing nearly a decade before Naram-Sins 35th year during
which the karum Kanesh was destroyed c. 1837 BC, the
[1] Klaas R. Veenhof, The old Assyrian list of year eponyms II layer.)[3]:29 The city-state of Assur which Naram-Sin
from Karum Kanish and its chronological implications had inherited would have been fairly wealthy as the hub
(Ankara, Turkish Historical Society, 2003). of the trading network at the height of the Old Assyrian
[2] C. Michel, Nouvelles donnes pour la chronologie du IIe Empire's activity and despite the destruction of the trad-
millnaire, NABU 2002, Nr. 20, 17f. ing post at Kanesh partway through his reign, commerce
apparently continued elsewhere. A gap of up to four years
is apparent between the end of the KEL and the begin-
ning of the Mari Eponym Chronicle (MEC B.)[2]:5 There
2.8 Naram-Suen are no extant monumental inscriptions recording his ac-
tivities. The dating on this list uses the middle chronology
Naram-Sin, or Narm-Sn or Suen, inscribed in for the ancient near east:
cuneiform on contemporary seal impressions as d na-ra-
am-d EN.ZU, had been the en5 .si ("ens") or waklum 1872 BC Shu-Suen, son of Bab-ilum
(d a-r) or "Iiak Aur" (Steward of Assur) of the city- 1871 BC Ashur-malik, son of Alahum
state Assur, listed as the 37th king of Assyria on the 1870 BC Ashur-imitti, son of Ili-bani
2.9. ERISHUM II 9
1869 BC Enna-Suen, son of Shu-Adhur the Assyrian King List as the 38th king of Assyria from
1868 BC Akkutum, son of Alahum 1815 BC to 1809 BC. Shalim-ahum (the 31st king of As-
1867 BC Mas.i-ili, son of Irishum syria c. 1900 BC as listed in the Assyrian King List.)[1]
1866 BC Iddi-ahum, son of Kudanum and his successors bore the titles Iiak Aur (Steward
1865 BC Samaya, son of Shu-Balum of Assur) and ens.[2] The length of Naram-Sins reign is
1864 BC Ili-Anum, son of Sukkalia uncertain, however; based on various excavated "limmu"
1863 BC Ennam-Anum, son of Adhur-malik (eponym) lists, Naram-Sins and Erishum IIs reigns had
1862 BC Ennum-Ashur, son of Duni-Ea a combined length of 64 years.[3]:29
1861 BC Enna-Suen, son of Shu-Ishtar
The Amorites had overrun the kingdoms of Lower
1860 BC Hannanarum Mesopotamia and the Levant between c. 2100 BCE and
1859 BC Dadia
c. 1809 BCE, but had hitherto been repelled by the As-
1858 BC Kapatia syrian kings. However, after having reigned for only six
1857 BC Ishma-Ashur, son of Ea-dan
years, Erishum II was to be the last king of the dynasty
1856 BC Ashur-mutappil, son of Azizum of Puzur-Ashur I (founded c. 2025 BC) as he was de-
1855 BC Shu-Nirah, son of Azuzaya
posed and the throne of Assyria was usurped by Shamshi-
1854 BC Iddin-abum Adad I during the expansion of the Amorite tribes from
1853 BC Ili-dan, son of Azuza the Khabur River delta in the north-eastern Levant. Al-
1852 BC Ashur-imitti, son of Iddin-Itar though regarded as an Amorite by later Assyrian tradi-
1851 BC Buzia, son of Abia tion, Shamshi-Adad Is descent is suggested to be from
1850 BC Dadia, son of Shu-Ilabrat the same line as the native Assyrian ruler Ushpia within
1849 BC Puzur-Ishtar, son of Nur-iliu the Assyrian King List. Shamshi-Adad I had inherited the
1848 BC Isaya, son of Dagan-malkum throne in Terqa from his father Ila-kabkabu. The Assyr-
1847 BC Abu-Shalim, son of Ili-Anum ian King List records that Shamshi-Adad I, went away
1846 BC Ashur-re'i, son of Ili-emuqi to Babylonia in the time of Naram-Sin while Naram-Sin
of Eshnunna had been attacking Ekallatum. Shamshi-
2.8.1 Inscriptions Adad I had not returned until he had taken Ekallatum,
after which he had paused for three years and then had
[1] SDAS List, IM 60484, i 34. overthrown Erishum II.[4] The Mari Eponym Chronicle,
which resumes the listing until the seizure of Ekallatum
[2] Nassouhi List, Istanbul A. 116 (Assur 8836), i 33. by Shamshi-Adad I, provides no clue as to when the suc-
[3] Khorsabad List, IM 60017 (excavation nos.: DS 828, DS cession of Erishum II had taken place. As the reign of
32-54), i 34. Erishum II was prematurely ended by the conquests of
Shamshi-Adad I, it is likely that Naram-Sins reign was
[4] Assyrian Kinglist fragment VAT 9812 = KAV 14: 3 the greater part of the period, additionally; the broken
gure on the Nassouhi King List ends on four, so perhaps
Naram-Sin reigned 44 or 54 years (c. 1872 BC onward,
2.8.2 References
middle chronology.)[5]:45
[1] Stephanie Dalley, A. T. Reyes (1998). Mesopotamian
Contact and Inuence in the Greek World. In Stephanie
Dalley. The Legacy of Mesopotamia. Oxford University 2.9.1 References
Press. p. 87.
[2] Klaas R. Veenhof (2003). The Old Assyrian List of Year [1] J. A. Brinkman (2001). Assyria. In Bruce Manning
Eponyns from Karum Kanish and its Chronological Impli- Metzger, Michael David Coogan. The Oxford companion
cations. Turkish History Society. to the Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 63.
[3] Klaas R Veenhof (2008). Mesopotamia: The Old Assyrian
Period. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. [2] Barbara Cifola (1995). Analysis of variants in the Assyr-
ian royal titulary from the origins to Tiglath-Pileser III. Is-
[4] I. J. Gelb (1954). Two Assyrian King Lists. Journal of tituto universitario orientale. p. 8.
Near Eastern Studies. 13 (4): 212213.
[3] Klaas R Veenhof (2008). Mesopotamia: The Old Assyrian
[5] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol-
Period. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
ume I. Otto Harrassowitz. p. 18.
and then renamed it ubat-Enlil (meaning the resi- While here your brother is victorious,
dence of the god Enlil in the Akkadian language)[7] down there you lie about among the women.
c. 1808 BC.[8] During his reign, the Kingdom of
Upper Mesopotamia competed for power in Lower Shamshi-Adad I clearly kept a rm control on the ac-
Mesopotamia against: King Naram-Sin of Eshnunna tions of his sons, as shown in his many letters to them.
(who died c. 1816 BC), Naram-Sins successors, and At one point he arranged a political marriage between
Yahdun-Lim of Mari.[9] A main target for expansion was Yasmah-Adad to Beltum, the princess of his ally in Qatna.
the city of Mari, which controlled the caravan route be- Yasmah-Adad already had a leading wife and had put Bel-
tween Anatolia and Mesopotamia. King Yahdun-Lim of tum in a secondary position of power. Shamshi-Adad I
Mari (. c. 1800 BC c. 1700 BC) was assassinated by did not approve and forced his son to keep Beltum in the
his own servants (possibly on Shamshi-Adad Is orders.) palace in a leading position.[3]
The heir to the throne of Mari, Zimri-Lim, was forced
to ee to Yamhad. Shamshi-Adad I seized the opportu- Shamshi-Adad I sent a letter on a tablet to Ishi-Addu (Bel-
nity and occupied Mari c. 1795 BC. He placed his sons tums father, the King of Qatna) in which he discussed
(Ishme-Dagan I and Yasmah-Adad) in key geographi- their alliance, the attacks of their enemies, and the suc-
cal locations and gave them responsibility to look over cessful marriage between their children. In it Shamshi-
those areas. Shamshi-Adad I put his eldest son (Ishme- Adad I wrote:
Dagan I) on the throne of Ekallatum, while Shamshi-
Adad I remained in ubat-Enlil]]. Shamshi-Adad I put I heard that you gladly dispatched my
his second son, Yasmah-Adad, on the throne in Mari].[3] daughter-in-law on a safe way back to me, that
With the annexation of Mari, Shamshi-Adad I had carved you treated my servants when they stayed with
out a large empire[1] encompassing much of Syria, Ana- you well, and that they were not hindered at all.
tolia, and the whole of Upper Mesopotamia (this em- My heart is very happy.[10]
pire often referred to as either the "Kingdom of Upper
Mesopotamia" or the Upper Mesopotamian Empire.)
Shamshi-Adad I proclaimed himself as King of All (the 2.10.4 Reign
title had been used by Sargon of the Akkadian Empire c.
2334 BC c. 2279 BC) Shamshi-Adad I was a great organizer and he kept rm
controls on all matters of state, from high policy down
King Dadusha of Eshnunna (. c. 1800 BC c. 1779 to the appointing of ocials and the dispatching of pro-
BC), made an alliance with Shamshi-Adad I to conquer visions. Spies and propaganda were often used to win
the area between the two Zab rivers c. 1781 BC. This over rival cities. He allowed conquered territories to
military campaign of joint forces was commemorated on maintain some of their earlier practices. In Nineveh he
a victory stele which states that Dadusha gave the lands used state resources to rebuild the Ishtar temple. The lo-
to Shamshi-Adad I. Shamshi-Adad I later turned against cal rulers of the city Qattara maintained authority (but
Dadusha by attacking cities including Shaduppum and became vassals) when they were incorporated into the
Nerebtum. On inscriptions Shamshi-Adad I boasts of Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia. User of these Assyr-
erecting triumphal stelae on the coast of the Mediter- ian Eponym dating system was enforced throughout the
ranean, but these probably represent short expeditions Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia in cities such as: Mari,
rather than any attempts at conquest. His campaigns were Tuttul, Terqa, and the capital city ubat-Enlil.[3]
meticulously planned, and his army knew all the classic
methods of siegecraft, such as encircling ramparts and
battering rams. 2.10.5 Fall
Shamshi-Adad I continued to strengthen his kingdom
2.10.3 Family throughout his life, but as he got older, the state be-
came more vulnerable and the neighboring great pow-
See also: Ishme-Dagan I and Yasmah-Adad ers Yamkhad and Eshnunna began attacking. The em-
pire lacked cohesion and was in a vulnerable geograph-
While Ishme-Dagan I was probably a competent ruler, ical position. Naturally, Shamshi-Adad Is rise to glory
his brother Yasmah-Adad appears to have been a man earned him the envy of neighboring kings and tribes, and
of weak character; something the disappointed father throughout his reign, he and his sons faced several threats
(Shamshi-Adad I) was not above mentioning: to their control. After the death of Shamshi-Adad I, Es-
hnunna captured cities around Assur.[3] When the news
of Shamshi-Adad Is death spread, his old rivals set out to
Are you a child, not a man, have you no topple his sons from the throne. Yasmah-Adad was soon
beard on your chin?" expelled from Mari] by Zimri-Lim (. c. 1775 BC
c. 1761 BC), and the rest of the empire was eventually
Shamshi-Adad I wrote in another letter: lost during the reigns of Ime-Dagn I and Mut-Ashkur
12 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
2.10.8 Sources
OBO (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis) 160/4
A map of the Ancient Near East showing the geopolitical situ- Nelson, Glueck (1959). Rivers in the Desert. HUC.
ation around Assyria near contemporary great powers such as:
Yamhad (dark blue) and Qatna (dark brown), after the conquests McNeil, William H.; Jean W. Sedlar (1962). The
of Hammurabi of the First Dynasty of Babylon (green) c. 1750 Ancient Near East. OUP.
BC.
George, Andrew (2000). The Epic of Gillgamesh.
Penguin. No14-044721-0.
(. c. 1730 BC c. 1720 BC) to another Amorite ruler,
Hammurabi of Babylon (. c. 1810 BC c. 1750 BC) Pritchard, James B. (1968). The Ancient Near East.
OUP. ISBN 0-691-03532-6.
2.10.6 See also Al Khalifa, Shaika Haya Ali; Michael Rice (1986).
Bahrain through the Ages. KPI. ISBN 0-7103-0112-
Assyrian continuity X.
List of Assyrian kings Nayeem, Muhammed Abdul (1990). Prehistory and
Protohistory of the Arabian Peninsula. Hyderabad.
Timeline of the Assyrian Empire
Roaf, Michael (1990). Cultural Atlas of
Chronology of the ancient Near East Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East. Equinox.
ISBN 0-8160-2218-6.
2.10.7 References Awde, Nicholas; Putros Samano (1986). The Arabic
Alphabet. Billing & Sons Ltd. ISBN 0-86356-035-
[1] Some of the Mari letters addressed to Shamsi-Adad by 0.
his son can be found in the Mari Letters section of Shaika
Haya Ali Al Khalifa and Michael Rice (1986). Bahrain Herm, Gerard (1975). The Phoenicians. William
through the Ages. KPI. ISBN 0-7103-0112-X. Morrow & Co. Inc. ISBN 0-688-02908-6.
[2] Glassner, Jean-Jacques (2004). Mesopotamian Chroni- Pedersn, Olof (1998). Archives and Libraries in the
cles. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 137. ISBN Ancient Near East: 1500-300 B.C. Bethesda: CDL
1589830903. Press.
[3] Van De Mieroop, Marc (2004). A History of the Ancient
Shiloh, Y. (1980). The Population of Iron Age
Near East ca. 3000-323 BC (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publish-
Palestine in the Light of a Sample Analysis of Ur-
ing. p. 107. ISBN 9781405149112.
ban Plans, Areas and Population Density. Bulletin
[4] Roux, Georges (Aug 27, 1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (239):
Books Limited. ISBN 978-0140125238. 2535.
[5] Meissner, Bruno (1990). Reallexikon der Assyriologie. 6. Van De Mieroop, Marc (2004). A History of the An-
Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 103. ISBN 3110100517. cient Near East ca 3000-323 BC (2nd ed.). Malden:
[6] Hildegard Levy, Assyria c. 2600-1816 BC, Cambridge Blackwell Publishing. pp. 89, 99, 104, 10611.
Ancient History. Volume 1, Part 2: Early History of the ISBN 9781405149112.
Middle East, 729-770, p. 745-746.)
Chavalas, Mark W. (2006). The Ancient Near East:
[7] Harvey Weiss, Tell Leilan and Shubat Enlil, Mari, An- Historical Sources in Translation. Malden: Black-
nales de Recherches Interdisciplinaires, vol. 4, pp. 269- well Publishing. pp. 93, 956, 103, 116, 102
92, 1985 3,1156, 11820, 370. ISBN 0631235817.
2.11. ISHME-DAGAN I 13
oldest son (Ishme-Dagan I) on the throne of Ekallatum. War against Eshnunna Ishme-Dagan Is main chal-
Shamshi-Adad I placed his youngest son (Yasmah-Adad) lenge was in keeping his enemies in check. To Ishme-
on the throne of Mari. Ishme-Dagan I ruled the south- Dagan Is south was the King Dadusha of Eshnunna (.
eastern region in Upper Mesopotamia. Ishme-Dagan Is c. 1800 BCE c. 1779 BCE.) To Ishme-Dagan Is
realm of inuence included the city-state of Assur. east were the warlike, nomadic, pastoral peoples inhabi-
tating the foothills of the Zagros mountains. Eshnunna
was to be Ishme-Dagan Is chief enemy, and although
Correspondence A number of letters relating the fa- records are sparse, there are some accounts of some polit-
milial relationships between Shamshi-Adad I and his two ical conicts involving Eshnunna. An instance of defeat
sons have been excavated, and these letters provide a occurs in a year-name coined by the King Dadusha of Es-
glimpse into the tensions of this family of rulers. Ishme- hnunna which commemorates a victory over an army led
Dagan I appears to have been: by Ishme-Dagan I.[5]
King Dadusha of Eshnunna made an alliance with
A forceful soldier not afraid to risk his Shamshi-Adad I to conquer the area between the two Zab
own skin. rivers (c. 1781 BCE.) This military campaign of joint
forces was commemorated on a victory stele which states
that Dadusha gave the lands to Shamshi-Adad I. Shamshi-
A quality which allowed Shamshi-Adad I to rely on him Adad I later turned against Dadusha by attacking cities
unhesitatingly.[5] Shamshi-Adad Is correspondence to his including Shaduppum and Nerebtum. On inscriptions
younger son is not as generous, and Ishme-Dagan I ap- Shamshi-Adad I boasts of erecting triumphal stelae on
pears to have picked up his fathers censure of his younger the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, but these probably
brother and contributed to it. As one letter attests, Ishme- represent short expeditions rather than any attempts at
Dagan I asks his brother: conquest. His campaigns were meticulously planned, and
his army knew all the classic methods of siegecraft, such
as: encircling ramparts and battering rams.
Why are you setting up a wail about this
thing? That is not great conduct.[5]
Conquest of Mari During Ishme-Dagan Is reign, the
In one other letter; Ishme-Dagan I bluntly commands Old Assyrian Empire competed for power in Lower
Yasmah-Adad to: Mesopotamia against Yahdun-Lim of Mari,[8] King
Naram-Suen of Eshnunna and his successors. A main tar-
get for expansion was the city of Mari, which controlled
Show some sense.[5] the caravan route between Anatolia and Mesopotamia.
King Yahdun-Lim of Mari (. c. 1800 BCE c. 1700
BCE) was assassinated by his own servants (possibly on
In another, Ishme-Dagan I tells his brother to stop writing
Shamshi-Adad Is orders.) The heir to the throne of Mari
their father directly, and use him as an intermediary. The
(Zimri-Lim) was forced to ee to Yamhad. Shamshi-
reasons behind this move could be political, as a way for
Adad I seized the opportunity and occupied Mari c. 1795
Ishme-Dagan I to gain more political standing with their
BCE.
father, or perhaps Ishme-Dagan I was sincere in his desire
to help his brother appear more competent in their fathers He placed his sons (Ishme-Dagan I and Yasmah-Adad) in
eyes. key geographical locations and gave them responsibility
to look over those areas. Shamshi-Adad I put his eldest
son (Ishme-Dagan I) on the throne of Ekallatum, while
Conquests of Shamshi-Adad I Shamshi-Adad I remained in Shubat-Enlil. Shamshi-
Adad I put his second son, (Yasmah-Adad) on the throne
[2]
Conquests of Shekhna, Ekallatum, and Assur in Mari. With the annexation of Mari, Shamshi-Adad
[9]
Shamshi-Adad I inherited the throne in Terqa c. 1833 I had carved out a large empire encompassing much of
BCE. He was forced to ee to Babylon c. 1823 BCE. He Syria, Anatolia, and the whole of Upper Mesopotamia.
remained in exile until c. 1815 BCE. He rst conquered Shamshi-Adad I proclaimed himself as King of All (the
Ekallatum, and then Assur after overthrowing King Er- title had been used by Sargon of the Akkadian Empire c.
ishum II (. c. 1815 BCE c. 1808 BCE.)[6] Shamshi- 2334 BCE c. 2279 BCE.)
Adad I took over the long-abandoned town of Shekhna
(today known as Tell Leilan), converted it into the capi-
tal city of the Old Assyrian Empire, and then renamed it Campaign against Qabra and Nurugum Shamshi-
Shubat-Enlil (Akkadian) meaning: Adad I, along with Ishme-Dagan I, embarked on a new
campaign against both Qabra and Nurugum. During the
course of the campaign on Nurugum, Ishme-Dagan I and
The residence of the god Enlil.[7] his armies besieged the city of Nineveh. Once Ishme-
2.11. ISHME-DAGAN I 15
Dagan I conquered Nineveh, he allowed some prisoners I acceded to my fathers throne, but hav-
to enter his army, and gave special treatment to skilled ing been very busy, I havent sent you my news.
prisoners (according to letters excavated from the pe- Now you are my brother, and aside from you I
riod.) These expeditions betray the dierent attitudes of have no brother. I will make peace with any
the urban peoples toward the tribal peoples. The people city or king that you take as a vassal. Dont
of the kingdoms were treated dierently than the tribal ever worry. Your throne is yours to keep.[11]
people.
This letter led historians to believe that Yasmah-Adad
Campaign against the Yailanum Another campaign held the throne of Mari for a while after his father
for which records exist is a campaign that Ishme-Dagan died. However, this letter was proven to actually be from
I appears to have engaged in was against the nomadic Ishme-Addu of Ashnakku, (written to Ibal-Addu of Ash-
tribe called the Yailanum. Shamshi-Adad I had ordered lakka, thus disproving many chronologies that had been
Yasmah-Adad to execute all the members of this tribe. based on the letter.[11]
However, it was the troops of Ishme-Dagan I who later In addition to letters whose authorship can be veried
exterminated the entire tribe. There are two accounts of to Ishme-Dagan I, Shamshi-Adad I and Yasmah-Adad,
this annihilation, one from Shamshi-Adad I, and one from there have been letters attributed to this family that were
Ishme-Dagan I. Shamshi-Adad I seems to have slightly re- not written by them. One such letter caused issues in the
neged on his earlier bloodthirstiness[10] toward the tribes, chronology of the ancient near east, as it allowed histori-
as his account appears to limit the killing to the lead- ans to place dates on Hammurabi of Babylon.
ers and the combatants of the army, but in a letter from
Ishme-Dagan I to Yasmah-Adad, it seems the whole pop-
ulation was eradicated, as he states: Subservience to Babylon
[2] Van De Mieroop, Marc (2004). A History of the Ancient 2.13 Rimush
Near East ca. 3000-323 BC (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publish-
ing. p. 107. ISBN 9781405149112.
Rimush (or Rimu) was the second king of the
Akkadian Empire. He was the son of Sargon of Akkad
[3] Roux, Georges (Aug 27, 1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin
and Queen Tashlultum. He was succeeded by his brother
Books Limited. ISBN 978-0140125238.
Manishtushu, and was an uncle of Naram-Sin of Akkad.
[4] Hildegard Levy, Assyria c. 2600-1816 B.C., Cambridge According to his inscriptions, he faced widespread re-
Ancient History. Volume 1, Part 2: Early History of the volts, and had to reconquer the cities of Ur, Umma,
Middle East, 729-770, p. 745-746.) Adab, Lagash, Der, and Kazallu from rebellious ensis.
There are also records of victorious campaigns against
[5] The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume II, Part I (Third Elam and Barakhshe. A number of his votive oer-
ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN ings have been found in excavated temples in several
0521082307. Mesopotamian cities.[1]
According to the Sumerian King List, his reign lasted 9
[6] Leilan.yale.edu, Harvey Weiss et al., The genesis and col-
lapse of Third Millennium north Mesopotamian Civiliza-
years (though variant copies read 7 or 15 years.) There
tion, Science, vol. 291, pp. 995-1088, 1993 is one surviving year-name for an unknown year in his
reign: Year in which Adab was destroyed. Tradition
[7] Harvey Weiss, Tell Leilan and Shubat Enlil, Mari, An-
gives that he was assassinated, as the Brtu, art of the
nales de Recherches Interdisciplinaires, vol. 4, pp. 269- diviner, a rst millennium compendium of extispicy,
92, 1985 records Omen of king Rimu, whom his courtiers killed
with their seals.[2] He was succeeded by his elder
[8] Chavalas, Mark W. (2006). The Ancient Near East: His- brother Manishtushu, leading to speculation by Mario
[3]
torical Sources in Translation. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Liverani that the two were twins, as in: man ituu?
p. 95. ISBN 0-631-23581-7. rmu! Who is with him? His beloved!, as apparently
the second born was thought to be the rst conceived.[4]
[9] Some of the Mari letters addressed to Shamsi-Adad by
his son can be found in the Mari Letters section of Shaika
Haya Ali Al Khalifa and Michael Rice (1986). Bahrain
through the Ages. KPI. ISBN 0-7103-0112-X.
Akkadian language
2.11.4 Sources
cuneiform on Murex shell, with name of Rimush,
23rd century BC
2.12 Mut-Ashkur
Mut-Ashkur was the king of Assyria from 1730 BC to
1720 BC. He was the son and successor of Ishme-Dagan.
2.13.1 See also
His father arranged for him to marry the daughter of the
Hurrian king Zaziya.[1] History of Sumer
2.13.2 References
2.12.1 References
[1] Whos Who in the Ancient Near East - Page 137; by Gwen-
[1] Whos who in the ancient Near East By Gwendolyn Leick dolyn Leick
2.17. LIBAYA 17
2.16 Bel-bani
2.17.1 References
Bel-bani or Bl-bni, inscribed md EN-ba-ni, the Lord is [1] K. R. Veenhof (2008). Mesopotamia: The Old Assyrian
the creator, was the king of Assyria ca. 1700 BC (short Period. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 24.
chronology) and was the rst ruler of what was later to
be called the dynasty of the Adasides.[1] His reign marks [2] Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq
the inauguration of a new historical phase following the
turmoil of the competing claims of the seven usurpers Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq K. R. Veenhof (2008).
who preceded him. He was the 48th king to appear on Mesopotamia: The Old Assyrian Period. Vandenhoeck
the Assyrian King List and reigned for ten years.[2] & Ruprecht. p. 24.
18 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
otherwise provides the only extant sequence of Shamshi- beginning with []- and Weidner read it as []I- on an-
Adad Is later successors, Mut-Ashkur and Rimush.[3] other fragmentary copy of the kinglist.[i 3] J. A. Brinkman
The Synchronistic Kinglist[i 4] gives his Babylonian coun- observed that with the exception of this disputed inter-
terpart as Ayadaragalama of the Sealand Dynasty.[4] pretation, all transliterations gave , reinforced by the
There are no extant inscriptions from Lullaias or his pre- Synchronistic Kinglist,[i 4] m -ni-nu-a, which had led to
decessors reigns in marked contrast with their Sealand the preponderance for interpreting his name as Shu-Ninua
contemporaries.[1] in recent years,[2] he of Ishtar,[3] if Nina is correctly
He was succeeded by Shu-Ninua, the son of his predeces- identied as a Babylonian name for this deity, although
this remains unproven. A recleaning of the fragmen-
sor, Bazaya, for whom he may have acted as regent until [i 3]
reaching his majority as there is no tradition that Lullaia tary kinglist, however, has revealed a name collated
by Heeel to be [m ki-d]in-d NINUA.[4]
was a usurper.
There are no contemporary inscriptions of his reign.[5]
He is recorded as having been a contemporary of Akurd-
2.20.2 Inscriptions uana of the Sealand Dynasty in southern Babylonia in the
Synchronistic Kinglist,[i 4] rather than any supposed ruler
[1] Khorsabad List, IM 60017 (excavation nos.: DS 828, DS from the Kassite dynasty. The Assyrian Kinglist records
32-54), ii 22. that he reigned for fourteen years before being succeeded
[2] SDAS List, IM 60484, ii 19. by his sons, Sharma-Adad II and then Erishum III.
[1] Stephanie Dalley (2009). Babylonian Tablets from the [2] SDAS Kinglist, tablet IM 60484, ii 20, 21, 22 and 27.
First Sealand Dynasty in the Schoyen Collection. CDL
Press. p. 3. [3] Kinglist fragment VAT 9812 (KAV 14), 6.
[2] Julian Reade (Jan 2001). Assyrian King-Lists, the Royal [4] Synchronistic Kinglist, Ass. 14616c, i 8.
Tombs of Ur, and Indus Origins. Journal of Near Eastern
Studies. 60 (1): 7. doi:10.1086/468883. JSTOR 545577.
Shu-Ninua or - or Kidin-Ninua, inscribed m - [4] Nils P. Heeel (2003). Zur Lesung der Knigsnamens
URU.AB x A,[i 1][i 2] the 54th king to appear on the -URU.NINA. NABU (3): 6061.
Assyrian Kinglist, was the ruler of Assyria, ca. 1615-
1602 BC (short chronology) or 1567-1554 BC (ultra- [5] A. K. Grayson (1975). Assyrian and Babylonian chroni-
short), and was the son of his predecessor-but-one, , cles. J. J. Augustin. pp. 3132.
succeeding the presumed usurper, Lullaya, a son of
nobody.[1]
2.22 Shamshi-Adad II
2.21.1 Biography
Shamshi-Adad II or ami-Adad II, inscribed
The reading of the rst element in his name is uncer- m(d) am-i-d IM, was an Old Assyrian king who ruled in
tain, as Ignace Gelb and Benno Landsberger originally the mid-second millennium, ca. 1585-1580 BC (short
proposed BAR, giving Kidin-Ninua, "[Under] the protec- chronology). His reign falls within the dark age period
tion of Nineveh, while Arno Poebel read the name as of Assyrian history where written records are scarce.
20 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
There are no extant contemporary sources witnessing his He belonged to the so-called Adasi dynasty, founded by
reign. He was the son and successor of Erishum III the last of seven usurpers who succeeded in the turmoil
and ruled for six years (6 MU.ME) according to the following the demise of Shamshi-Adad Is Amorite dy-
Khorsabad[i 1] and the SDAS [i 2] copies of the Assyrian nasty. He is only known from king lists.[1] The relation-
Kinglist, where he appears as the 57th name (the Nas- ship with his successor is uncertain as the copies describe
souhi Kinglist [i 3] is poorly preserved in this part). He was Shamshi-Adad IIIs father as Ishme-Dagan, the brother of
succeeded by his son Ishme-Dagan II.[1] Sharma-Adad II, who was in turn the son of Shu-Ninua.
The Synchronistic Kinglist [i 4] somewhat implausibly gives This Ishme-Dagan, however, has his liation clearly given
eight dierent early Kassite rulers as his contemporaries as son of Shamshi-Adad II. This led Yamada to suggest
although only the rst ve and part of the sixth are leg- that Shamshi-Adad IIIs father was a dierent homony-
ible. These are Agum IGI au, Katil[...]u, Abirata, mous individual from a collateral line of descent from
Katilyau, Tazziguruma, and Harba[...]. Brinkman ar- Shu-Ninua.[2]
gues that this is a stylistic device and points to the previ-
ous reign of Irium III who is shown as contemporary to
Ea-gmil, the last king of the Sealand Dynasty and Gan-
2.23.2 References
da, the rst of the Kassite Dynasty, despite the Chronicle
[1] D. O. Edzard (1999). Im-Dagn II. Reallexikon der
of Early Kings[i 5] recording that Ea-gmil ed ahead of Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archologie, Volume
the army of Ulam-Buria, possibly the 12th Kassite king, 5. Walter de Gruyter. p. 196.
at least a hundred years later.[2]
[2] Heather D. Baker (2008). "ami-Adad III. Reallexikon
der Assyriologie: Prinz, Prinzessin - Samug, Bd. 11. Wal-
2.22.2 Inscriptions ter De Gruyter. p. 636.
2.25.1 Biography
2.23 Ishme-Dagan II
He was the son of Ime-Dagn II, and succeeded his
Ishme-Dagan II or Ime-Dagn II, inscribed m i-me brother ami-Adad III to the throne, ruling for twenty
d
da-gan and meaning (the god) Dagan has heard, was six years, an identication that all three Assyrian Kinglists
a rather obscure ruler of Assyria, sometime during the (Khorsabad,[i 1] SDAS [i 2] and Nassouhi[i 3] ) agree on.[2]
rst half of the 16th century BC in the midst of a dark The Synchronistic Kinglist [i 4] gives his Babylonian con-
age (Edzards dunkles Zeitalter), succeeding his father, temporary as Katil[...], possibly identied as Katiliau
Shamshi-Adad II, and in turn succeeded by Shamshi- III, the son and (eventual) successor of Burna-Buriy
Adad III from whose reign extant contemporary inscrip- I, the Kassite kings of Babylon during the period when
tions resume. According to the Assyrian Kinglist, he the dynasty was beginning to exert control over southern
reigned sixteen years. Mesopotamia.
2.27. ENLIL-NASIR I 21
[3] Nassouhi Kinglist, Istanbul A. 116 (Assur 8836), ii 32. Nur-ili was the king of Assyria from 1466 BC to 1454
BC. He was the son of the king before him, Enlil-nasir I.
[4] Synchronistic Kinglist, Ass 14616c, KAV 216, i 21.
[2] I. J.Gelb (1954). Two Assyrian King Lists. ate successor, Aur-rim-niu, as his son, but Aur-
Journal of Near Eastern Studies. XIII (4): 217. rim-nius own contemporary inscription[i 6] names
doi:10.1086/371224. his father as Aur-nrr II, suggesting that he may have
[3] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol-
been a brother of Ar-bl-nu. The confusion is
ume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. p. 37. further compounded with the Khorsabad Kinglist [i 3] and
the SDAS Kinglist [i 4] identifying Eriba-Adad I, who as-
cended the throne eighteen years later, as his son[3]:209
while the Nassouhi copy[i 2] identies him as the son of
2.34 Ashur-bel-nisheshu Aur-rim-niu.[5]
2.34.2 Inscriptions
[1] Cone VAT 7442, rst published KAH 2 no. 22 (1922).
2.35.3 References
2.36.3 External links
[1] K. Radner (1998). The Prosopography of the Neo-
Assyrian Empire, Volume 1, Part I: A. The Neo-Assyrian Ashur-nadin-ahhe II (king of Assyria) -- Britannica
Text Corpus Project. p. 209. Online Encyclopedia
2.38. ASHUR-UBALLIT I 25
2.37.3 References
2.37.1 Biography
[1] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol-
ume I. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 4042.
The circumstances surrounding his accession are
unknown, although most nephew-uncle successions [2] J. A. Brinkman (1973). Comments on the Nasouhi
recorded in Assyrian history were bloody aairs. He Kinglist and the Assyrian Kinglist Tradition. Orientalia.
styled himself regent of Enlil, the rst Assyrian 42: 312.
monarch to do so since ami-Adad I. His uninscribed
royal seal shows a heraldic group which includes two [3] Hans J. Nissen; Peter Heine (2009). From Mesopotamia
winged grin-demons anking a small tree and sup- to Iraq: A Concise History. University Of Chicago Press.
porting a winged sun-disc above their wings and a pp. 8586.
double-headed grin-demon holding two grin-demons [4] Joan Aruz; Kim Benzel; Jean M. Evans (2008). Beyond
by their ankles, a radical departure from the earlier Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millen-
style, which was to set a precedent for the later Assyrian nium B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 211.
glyptic.[3] It was found impressed into middle Assyrian
contract tablets.[i 6][i 7][4] [5] H. Lewy. Assyria c. 26001816 B. C. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press. p. 16.
He probably began his reign overshadowed by the power-
ful Mitanni. However, the Mitanni Empire became en- [6] Friedhelm Pedde (2012). The Assyrian Heartland. In
tangled in a dynastic battle between Tushratta and his D. T. Potts. A Companion to the Archaeology of the An-
brother Artatama II, and after this, his son Shuttarna III, cient Near East. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 854.
who called himself king of the Hurri, while seeking sup-
port from the Assyrians. A pro-Assur faction appeared [7] P. Talon (1998). Eriba-Adad. In K. Radner. The Proso-
at the royal Mitanni court, which enabled Assyria to - pography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Volume 1, Part II:
nally break Mitanni inuence upon Assyria, and in turn A. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. p. 400.
make Assyria an inuence on Mitanni. His son and suc-
cessor Ashur-uballi I would take full advantage of this
and destroy the Mitanni Empire. 2.38 Ashur-uballit I
Several of the Limmu ocials, the noblemen from which
the Assyrian Eponym dating system was derived, are Ashur-uballit I (Aur-uballi I), who reigned between
known for this period as they date commercial records, 1365 and 1330 BC, was the rst king of the Middle As-
but relatively few can be assigned directly to Eriba-Adads syrian Empire (13651050 BC). After his father Eriba-
reign rather than that of his successor. One ocial might Adad I (1392-1366 BC) had broken Mitanni inuence
be Aur-muttakil, (the governor of Qabra, a fortress on over Assyria, Ashur-uballit Is defeat of the Mitanni king
the lesser Zab), who inherited his position from his fa- Shuttarna II marks Assyrias ascendancy over the Hurri-
ther Aur-dayyn and bequeathed it to his son.[5] Eriba- Mitanni Empire, and the beginning of its emergence as
Adad Is stela was the earliest of the stelae identied in the a powerful empire. Later on, due to disorder in Babylo-
Stelenriehe, row of stelae, the two rows of stone mon- nia following the death of the Kassite king Burnaburiash
uments uncovered in Aur.[6] The later Assyrian king, II, Ashur-uballit established Kurigalzu II on the Babylo-
Ninurta-apal-Ekur, son of Il-pad, was to claim descent nian throne, in the rst of what would become a series of
from him in his inscriptions.[7] Assyrian interventions in Babylonian aairs.
26 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
From the Amarna letters, a series of diplomatic letters [3] Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq
from various Middle Eastern monarchs to Amenhotep III
and Akhenaten of Egypt, we nd two letters from Ashur-
uballit I, the second being a follow-up letter to the rst. 2.38.5 External links
In the letters, Ashur-uballit refers to his second prede-
cessor Ashur-nadin-ahhe II as his father or ancestor, 2 Letters by Assur-uballit I to Pharaoh, EA 15, EA
rather than his actual father, Eriba-Adad I, which has led 16.
some critics of conventional Egyptian chronology, such as
David Rohl, to claim that the Ashur-uballit of the Amarna
letters was not the same as Ashur-uballit I. This, however, 2.39 Enlil-nirari
ignores the fact that monarchs in the Amarna letters fre-
quently refer to predecessors as their father, even if they Enlil-nirari (Enlil is my helper)[1] was King of Assyria
were not their biological sons. In this case, Ashur-uballit from 1330 BC to 1319 BC, (or from 1317 BC to 1308
presumably referred to Ashur-nadin-ahhe because the lat- BC short chronology) during the Middle Assyrian Empire
ter, unlike Eriba-Adad I, had previously corresponded (1365 - 1050 BC). He was the son of Aur-uballi I.[2]
with the Egyptian court. He was apparently the earliest king to have been identied
as having held eponym, or limmu, oce.[3]
2.38.2 Babylonian wars
2.39.1 Biography
With Assyrian power rmly established, Ashur-uballit
started to make contacts with other great nations. His He recorded on clay cones his repairs to a dilapidated
messages to the Egyptians angered his Babylonian neigh- stretch of the wall from the Craftsmans Gate to the Sheep
bour Burnaburiash II, who himself wrote to the Pharaoh: Gate around his capital, the city of Assur, now the tell-site
with regard to my Assyrian vassals, it was not I who sent of Qalat Shergat which lies beside the Tigris. He prof-
them to you. Why did they go to your country without fered a prayer that future restorations would preserve his
proper authority? If you are loyal to me they will not ne- inscriptions.[4]
gotiate any business. Send them to me empty-handed![1]
His sister, Muballiat-ra, was married to the Kassite
Yet the new Assyrian power could not be denied, and king Burna-Buria II, and his nephews, Kara-arda and
Burnaburiash even married the daughter of the Assyrian Kurigalzu would succeed to the Babylonian throne, sep-
king. He was succeeded by his son from the Assyrian arated by a short-lived revolt which was put down by
wife, prince Kara-hardash, but a revolt soon broke out Aur-uballi and the Assyrian army.[5] Around this time,
that showed the unpopularity of the Assyrians. Asshur- there is evidence of the exchange of gifts of textiles and
uballit would not allow his grandson to be cast aside, votive ornaments between the Kassite and Assyrian ruling
and duly invaded Babylon. Because Kara-Hardash was classes.[6]
killed in the rebellion, the Assyrians placed on the Baby-
lonian throne a certain Kurigalzu, who may have been Despite their earlier close ties, he fought against Kuri-
Burnaburiashs son or grandson. But this new puppet galzu, who grew to become one of the mightiest and most
king did not remain loyal to his master, and soon invaded belligerent kings of the Kassite dynasty, in the battle of
Assyria. Ashur-uballit stopped the Babylonian army at Sugagu to establish the boundary between both states.
Sugagu, not far south from the capital Assur.[2] The two extant chronicles which record the battle pro-
vide contradictory accounts of the outcome.[7] The As-
However, Ashur-uballit I then counterattacked, and in- syrian version describes the division of land from Shasili
vaded Babylonia, appropriating hitherto Babylonian ter- of Subartu, which was a region thought to be northeast of
ritory in central Mesopotamia, and forcing a treaty in As- Assyria and possibly their vassal during this time. A sec-
syrias favour upon Karigalzu.[3] ond battle may have taken place at Kilizi as recorded on
a poorly preserved chronicle fragment,[8] possibly dated
to the limmu-year of Silli-Adad.[9] This was a provincial
2.38.3 See also town in Qasr Shamamok not far from modern Mosul.[10]
Amarna letter EA 15 He had left very specic instructions in the event of a
death in the royal family. If the passing took place when
he was a few hours travel away, a sealed message should
2.38.4 References be sent, but if he was more distant, the wives of the palace
were to mourn as prearranged and no message was neces-
[1] M. van de Mieroop A history of the ancient near east, sary. A warning was given to those who might be tempted
2006, pp. 127128 to spread the news without the assent of the head-steward,
2.40. ARIK-DEN-ILI 27
risking a no longer legible part of their anatomy (tongue?) goats and a hundred head of their cattle [...] he brought
to be amputated.[4] to Aur.[3]
Arik-den-ilis rst victories were against his eastern
neighbours (the Pre-Iranic inhabitants of what was to be-
2.39.2 References
come Persia), Turukku and Nigimhi, and all the chiefs of
[1] Samuel Henry Hooke (1953). Babylonian and Assyrian the (Zagros) mountains and highlands in the broad tracts
religion. Hutchinsons University Library. p. 25. of the Gutians to subdue the nomadic tribes on Assyrias
northern and eastern frontiers. The Gutians had been vas-
[2] Assyrian King List, number 74, Enlil-nirari, son of Aur- sals of the Kassites who ruled in Babylon and may have
uballi, ruled for 10 years. acted as their agents.[4] Nigimhis ruler was Esini. The
[3] I. E. S. Edwards; et al., eds. (1970). Chronology. The
Assyrians had invaded and carried o their harvest and in
Cambridge Ancient History Volume 1, Part 1: Prolegom- retaliation Esini led a force into Assyria which resulted in
ena and Prehistory. Cambridge University Press. p. 194. a massacre of his forces. Arik-den-ili besieged the town
of Arnuna, in which Esini was holed up. Destruction of
[4] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol- the gate and walls forced Esinis capitulation and so he
ume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 5154. swore allegiance to his Assyrian overlord.[5]
[5] J. A. Brinkman (1976). The Chronicle Tradition Con- The chronicle then lists Habaruha, Kutila, Tarbiu,
cerning the Deposing of the Grandson of Aur-uballi I. Kudina, Remaku and Nagabbilhi. Of these only Tarbiu
Materials for the Study of Kassite History, Vol. I. Oriental is known, a town a short distance from Nineveh. The res-
Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 418423. idents of Halahhu seem to have borne the brunt of his
[6] Tablets CBS 3235, CBS 3776 and BE XVII 91. wrath as he claimed to have killed 254,000 of them,[3] a
fairly preposterous boast even for the period. He then
[7] The Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle (ABC 21), tablet A, turned westward into The Levant (modern Syria and
obverse, lines 18 to 23 and the Babylonian Chronicle P Lebanon), where he subjugated the Suteans, the Alam
(ABC 22), tablet BM 92701, column 3, lines 20 to 22. and the Yauru, the nomadic West Semitic tribesmen who
would become the Arameans, in the region of Katmui
[8] VAT 13056, the name Kizili appears on lines 2, 6 and 7
of the 10 line obverse of this tablet. in the middle Euphrates.[5]
But his activities were not limited to warfare. The temple
[9] Jean-Jacques Glassner (2004). Mesopotamian Chronicles.
of ama at Aur, as a mud-brick construction, had de-
Society of Biblical Literature. p. 185. note the name is
distinct but the context is not.
cayed into a mound of dirt surrounded by ad hoc shrines.
In order that the harvest of my land might prosper, he
[10] Simo Parpola (2009). Letters from Assyrian Scholars to had them cleared and rebuilt the temple, laying its foun-
the Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal: Commentary dation during the eponym year of Berutu, a son of the
and Appendix No. 2. Eisenbrauns. p. 86. earlier king Eriba-Adad I. His own son credited him with
the construction of the great Ziggurat of Aur in one of
his own building dedications.[5]
2.40 Arik-den-ili Like his father, Enlil-nirari, before him he had to battle
inconclusively against Babylonia, in this case against king
Arik-den-ili, inscribed m GD-DI-DINGIR, long- Nazi-Marutta. His son was to recall my father could not
lasting is the judgment of god,[1] (1319 BC1308 BC or rectify the calamities inicted by the army of the king of
1307 BC1296 BC) (short chronology) was an Assyrian the Kassite land in a contemporary Assyrian epic.[4] That
king of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1366- 1050 BC) dispute was nally resolved with his son, Adad-nirari Is
who succeeded Enlil-nirari, his father, and was to rule victory over the Babylonians.
for twelve years and inaugurate the tradition of annual
military campaigns against Assyrias neighbors.
2.40.2 Inscriptions
2.40.1 Biography
md
[1] Nassouhi list, iii 2223: Adad-nrr mr Arik2 -de-
The sources are slim for his reign, less than ten inscrip- en-[ili].
tions, a fragmentary chronicle and references to his af-
fairs in those of his son[i 1] or perhaps brother,[i 2][i 3] md
Adad-nirari Is accounts. He seems to have been the rst [2] Khorsabad list, iii 1624: Adad-nrr au- a
m
of the Assyrian kings to have institutionalized the con- Arik2 -dn2 -ili.
duct of annual military campaigns,[2] some of which ap-
pear to be little more than livestock-rustling expeditions, [3] SDAS list, iii 1718: md
Adad-nrr au- a m Arik2 -
as the chronicle mentions a hundred head of sheep and dn2 -ili.
28 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
quest was a fait accompli and a sheepish Hattuili was restorations in the city of Assur were celebrated in
to request that Adad-nrr intervene to curb the incur- monumental inscriptions and include the Step Gate of
sions of the people of Turira, a Hanigalbat frontier town, the temple of the god Ashur, various of the citys walls,
against those of Carchemish, still a loyal Hittite vassal, If its quay along the river Tigris, the temple of Ishtar and
Turira is yours, smash it!...If Turira is not yours, write the storehouses of the gate of An and Adad.[2]
to me so that I may smash it. The possessions of your His reign lasted for 33 years, but only around 12 Limmu
troops who are dwelling in the city shall not be claimed. ocials, from the Assyrian Eponym dating system have
Hattuilis main complaint, however, was the breach in been identied, primarily from monumental inscrip-
protocol caused when Adad-nrr snubbed his inaugu-
tions, and these include Shulmanu-qarradu, Andarasina,
ration: It is the custom that when kings assume king- Ashur-eresh, variant Ashur-erish (son of Abattu), Ana-
ship, the kings, his equals in rank, send him appropriate
Ashur-qalla (ocer of the palace), Iti-ili-ashamshu, Sha-
[gifts of greeting]. Clothing betting kingship, and ne Adad-ninu, Qarrad-Ashur,[2] Assur-dammiq,[i 12] Sin-
[oil] for his anointing. But you did not do this today. He
n[a.],[i 13] Ninurta-emuqaya,[i 14] Bbu-aa-iddina and
was at great pains to placate his Assyrian counterpart fol- Adad-umu-lesir, the eponym in whose year he died.
lowing the sad experiences encountered by his envoys
Bbu-aa-iddina was a high-ranking ocial, some
in their dealings with his predecessor and call on Adad- sources say chancellor, son of Ibassi-ili, who served un-
nrr to conrm with his own envoy, Bel-qarrad, that he der Adad-nrr and his two successors. He celebrated
had been treated well by Hattuili. Although still in the his eponym year towards the end of Adad-nrrs reign
Bronze Age, iron was not unknown and Hattuili goes on as attested in texts relating the activities of Assur-kasid
to discuss Adad-nrrs request for the metal: son of Sin-apla-eris at Billa. His archive, called archive
14410, consisting of 60 tablets was found in a tomb un-
In regard to the good iron about which der a house in Assur.[7]
you wrote to me good iron is not available in
my armory in the city of Kizzuwatna. I have A bronze sword of Adad-nrr I can be seen in the
written that it is a bad time for making iron. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
They will make good iron, but they have not
yet nished it. When they nish it, I will send The Adad-nrr epic
it to you. For the moment, I have sent you a
dagger blade of iron. This historical epic is extant in four fragments[i 15] and
Hattuili, Tablet KBo I:14, lines 20 to concerns the conict between Adad-nrr and his Baby-
24.[i 10] lonian contemporary Nazi-Maruttash, with whom he
clashes and ultimately vanquishes in battle. The surviving
pieces do not allow for a detailed narrative to be recon-
Conict with Hanigalbat resumed when Shattuaras son, structed. They do, however, suggest a sequence of events,
Wasashatta, rebelled and engaged with the Hittites for where Adad-nrr harks back to the setbacks faced by
support. Adad-nrr was later to gloat that the Hit- his father, the seed of the men has disappeared forever,
tites took his gifts but gave nothing in return when he his petitioning of the god ama, O ama you are the
counterattacked, sacking and plundering the cities of true judge, in preparation for his denouement with the
Amasaku, Kahat, Shuru, Nabula, Hurra, Irridu, Shuduhu unjust Kassite king, and so on.
and Washshukanu,[i 8] places largely as yet unidentied,
destroying the city of Taida and sowing kudimmus over
it.[nb 1] The denouement took place at Irridu (Ordi?) 2.41.2 Inscriptions
where he was captured and, along with his extended fam-
ily and court, deported in fetters to Aur where he van- [1] Axe blade, AO 29146.
ished from history. Adad-nrr annexed the kingdom of
[2] Nassouhi kinglist, iii 23.
Hanigalbat, enslaved its people,[nb 2] and appointed a gov-
ernor drawn from the Assyrian aristocracy. While the [3] Khorsabad kinglist iii 17.
name of this individual is unknown, one of his succes-
[4] SDAS kinglist, iii 8.
sors, during the later reign of ulmanu-aaredu, was Qibi
Assur who founded a short dynasty of Assyrian viceroys [5] Tukulti-Ninurta Epic, extant in several fragments, for
ruling over this region. example BM 98496, BM 98730, BM 98731 and BM
121033 in the British Museum.
The seat of Assyrian governance was possibly
Wasashattas former capital, Taida, because his monu- [6] Synchronistic Chronicle (ABC 21) tablet C, column 1, lines
mental steles recounted that it had become dilapidated 24 to 31.
and (he) removed its debris. (He) restored it,[i 11]
[7] Tablet VAT 15420.
rebuilding the palace replete with a suitably boastful
commemorative inscription prepared but never installed [8] BM 115687 dark grey stone in the British Museum, in-
as it was found in the ruins of Assur. His building scribed on all six sides.
30 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
2.41.3 Notes
[1] The kudimmu plant, which exuded a kind of salt or lye,
was planted on ruins to symbolically pronounce them bar-
ren and uninhabitable.
2.41.4 References
Shalmaneser I pours out the dust of Arina before his God, illus-
[1] Dietz Otto Edzard (1999). Reallexikon Der Assyriologie tration in Hutchinsons Story of the Nations
Und Vorderasiatischen Archologie: A - Bepaste. Walter
De Gruyter Inc. p. 29.
supremacy over Mesopotamia. He set himself up as king an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Mu-
of Babylon, thus becoming the rst native Mesopotamian seum of Art Libraries (fully available online as
to rule there, its previous kings having all been non native PDF), which contains material on Tukulti-Ninurta
Amorites or Kassites. He took on the ancient title King I
of Sumer and Akkad" rst used by Sargon of Akkad.
Tukulti-Ninurta had petitioned the god Shamash before
beginning his counter oensive. Kashtiliash IV was cap- 2.44 Ashur-nadin-apli
tured, single-handed by Tukulti-Ninurta according to his
account, who trod with my feet upon his lordly neck as
though it were a footstool and deported him ignomin-
iously in chains to Assyria. The victorious Assyrian de-
molished the walls of Babylon, massacred many of the
inhabitants, pillaged and plundered his way across the
city to the Esagila temple, where he made o with the
statue of Marduk. After capturing Babylonia, he invaded
the Arabian Peninsula, conquering the Pre-Arab states of
Dilmun and Meluhha.[1]
Middle Assyrian texts recovered at ancient Dr-
Katlimmu include a letter from Tukulti-Ninurta to his
sukkal rabi'u, or grand vizier, Ashur-iddin advising Schroeders line art for Ar-ndin-aplis brick inscription.[i 1]
him of the approach of his general Shulman-mushabshu
Ar-ndin-apli, inscribed m a-ur-SUM-DUMU.U,[1]
escorting the captive Kashtiliash, his wife, and his retinue
was king of Assyria (1207 BC 1204 BC or 1196 BC
which incorporated a large number of women, on his
1194 BC short chronology). The alternate dating is
way to exile after his defeat. In the process he defeated
due to uncertainty over the length of reign of a later
the Elamites, who had themselves coveted Babylon.
monarch, Ninurta-apal-Ekur, where conicting king lists
He also wrote an epic poem documenting his wars
dier by ten years. His name meant "Aur is the giver
against Babylon and Elam. After a Babylonian revolt, he
of an heir[2] in the Akkadian language. He was a son of
raided and plundered the temples in Babylon, regarded
Tukulti-Ninurta I.[i 2]
as an act of sacrilege to all Mesopotamians, including
Assyrians. As relations with the priesthood in Ashur
began deteriorating, Tukulti-Ninurta built a new capital 2.44.1 Biography
city; Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. However, his sons rebelled
against him and besieged him in his new city. During the The events surrounding the overthrow of Tukulti-Ninurta
siege, he was murdered. One of them, Ashur-nadin-apli, remain somewhat shrouded in mystery. His military con-
would succeed him on the throne. quests seem to have taken place during the rst half of his
After his death, the Assyrian Empire fell into a brief pe- reign with modern scholarship suggesting that his climac-
riod of stagnation. The Tukulti-Ninurta Epic describes tic victory against Katiliau IV and the city of Babylon
the war between Tukulti-Ninurta I and Kashtiliash IV.[2] occurred during two campaigns during his thirteenth and
fteenth years,[3] if the placing of the eponyms, the As-
syrian dating system, of Etel-pi-Aur and Aur-bel-ilani
2.43.1 Sources are correct.[4] The latter part of his reign was character-
ized by reversal as the over-extended Assyrian military
[1] J. M. Munn-Rankin (1975). Assyrian Military Power, struggled to hold on to the earlier prizes and this may well
13001200 B.C.. In I. E. S. Edwards. Cambridge An- have been the reason for his toppling.
cient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle
East and the Aegean Region, c. 13801000 BC. Cam- Copies of the Assyrian King List record that Ar-ndin
bridge University Press. pp. 287288, 298. or nir-apli,[i 3] his son, seized the throne (for himself
and) ruled for three or four[i 4] years. Brinkman relates
[2] The Cambridge Ancient History, I. E. S. Edwards, C. J.
that it is uncertain whether one or two princes lie behind
Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, (ed) I. E. S. Edwards, C. J.
the conicting scribal traditions,[5] but Grayson is more
Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, Edition 3, revised, Cambridge [6]
University Press, 1975, ISBN 0-521-08691-4, ISBN 978- emphatic, there seem to have been at least two sons.
0-521-08691-2, pg. 284-295 Yamada, however, argues that it was scribal confusion
with the later succession of Tukulti-Ninurta II by Ar-
nir-apli II.[7] The names dier by just one cuneiform
2.43.2 External links character, PAB for nir and SUM for ndin. The Baby-
lonian Chronicle P recalls Aur-nir-apli, his son (mar-
Assyrian origins: discoveries at Ashur on the Tigris: u) and the ocers of Assyria rebelled, removed him
antiquities in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, from his throne, shut him up in a room and killed him.[i 5]
2.45. ASHUR-NIRARI III 33
It was Ar-ndin-apli who succeeded to the throne, as [4] H. Freydank (2005). Zu den Eponymenfolgen des
testied by the scanty inscriptions left behind, which in- 13.Jahrhunderts v. Chr. in Dr-Katlimmu. Altoriental-
clude bricks[i 1] from Assur (line art pictured), "(Property ische Forschungen. 32 (1): 4556.
of) the palace of Ar-ndin-apli " and a lengthy text
[5] J. A. Brinkman (1973). Comments on the Nassouhi
on a stone tablet commemorating rerouting the Tigris to Kingslist and the Assyrian Kingslist Tradition. Orien-
the north of the city by divine means to recover agricul- talia. 42: 312313.
tural elds and the erection of a shrine.[6] This breaks with
Assyrian tradition, extending the list of royal epithets to [6] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol-
include faithful shepherd, to whom by the command of ume I. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 134136.
the gods Aur, Enlil and ama the just sceptre was given
[7] Shigeo Yamada (1998). The Assyrian King List and the
and whose important name was called for the return (or Murderer of Tukulti-Ninurta I. NABU (1): 2627.
care) of the land, the king under the protective hand of
the god An and select of the god Enlil"[6] by which we [8] Daisuke Shibata (2006). Middle Assyrian Administra-
may infer he was seeking divine support for his tenuous tive and Legal Texts from the 2005 Excavation at Tell Ta-
throne. ban: A Preliminary Report. 49th Regular Meeting of the
Sumerian Studies. Kyoto University: 169180.
Just one eponym has been positively identied for his
rule, that of Erb-Sn, which dates the stone tablet. A
tablet also dated to this year was found at Tell Taban,
site of the vassal state of Tbatu near modern Al-Hasakah 2.45 Ashur-nirari III
during salvage excavation under the direction of Hiroto-
shi Numoto in advance of the building of a dam in north- Aur-nerari III, inscribed m a-ur-ERIM.GABA,
eastern Syria. The king of Tbatu was an Assyrian ocial Aur is my help,[1] was king of Assyria (12031198
named Adad-bl-gabbe whose rule spanned that of four BC or 11931187 BC). He was the grandson of Tukulti-
Assyrian monarchs seemingly unaected by the turmoil Ninurta I and may have succeeded his uncle or more
at the heart of the empire.[8] probably his father Ashur-nadin-apli to the throne, who
had participated in a conspiracy against Tukulti-Ninurta
He was succeeded by Aur-nerari III, who was either his
I which led to his murder.
son or his nephew, again depending on the existence of
Ar-nair-apli.
2.45.1 Biography
2.44.2 Inscriptions According to the Nassouhi Assyrian King List,[i 1] he was
the son of Aur-nadin-apli, his predecessor in this copy
[1] Brick inscription Ass. 22346, KAH 2 62. and that from Khorsabad,[i 2] although the Khorsabad and
SDAS[i 3] variants both give his father as Aur-nair-
[2] All three copies of the Assyrian King List agree on his
paternal relation. apli, his predecessor only on the SDAS copy.[2] All three
copies agree on his length of reign, an otherwise poorly
[3] The Nassouhi King List (NaKL) and the Khorsabad King attested 6 years, following the brief 3 or 4-year reign of
List (KhKL) say Ar-ndin-apli but the Seventh Day Ad- his immediate predecessor, suggesting he may have been
ventist Seminary King List (SDAS) says Ar-nir-apli. quite young when he assumed the throne and perhaps
explaining the prominence of his grand vizier, Il-pad.
[4] The NaKL says three years, while the KhKL and the Traces of his name also appear on a fourth, small frag-
SDAS say four years. ment of the kinglist.[i 4] His eponym year, likely to have
[5] Chronicle P, column 4, lines 10 to 11.
been his rst full year in oce, dates a corn loan tablet[i 5]
from the archive of Urad-era and his family[3] and a
tablet[i 6] excavated in Tell Taban, Syria, and dated to the
eponym year of Adad-bn-kala, may be of his reign or
2.44.3 References
that of his successor.[4]
[1] M. Capraro (1998). Ar-ndin-apli. In K. Radner. A fragment of an extraordinarily insulting letter[i 7] is
The Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Volume preserved in the Kouyunjik Collections in the British
1, Part I: A. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. p. Museum and is addressed by Adad-uma-uur, king of
202. Babylon, to two rulers, Aur-nerari III and Il-pad, who
are addressed as the kings of Assyria. The letter was
[2] Where nadnu is to give and aplu is an heir.
copied and preserved in the Assyrian archives, possibly
[3] For example, Stephan Jakob (Univ. Heidelberg), Sag because of the enhanced status given to Il-pad, the fa-
mir quando, sag mir wann (Workshop: Middle Assyr- ther of Ninurta-apal-Ekur, king of Assyria, ca. 1182 to
ian Texts and Studies) Time and History in the Ancient 1180 BC, whose descendants reigned on at least until the
Near East; Barcelona; 26 - 30 July 2010. 8th century, and whose genealogical claim to the throne
34 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
was tenuous and otherwise only based upon descent by a 2.46 Enlil-kudurri-usur
collateral line from Eriba-Adad I, ca. 1392 BC to 1366
BC.
Enlil-kudurr-uur, md Enlil(be)-ku-dr-uur, (Enlil
He was quite possibly violently swept aside by the as- protect the eldest son), was the 81st king of Assyria.[i 1]
cendancy of IIlil-kudurr-uur, another son of Tukulti- Depending on the length of reign one gives to his
Ninurta I and probably his uncle. The life and career of successor, Ninurta-apal-Ekur, this would have been
his grand vizier, mentor and fellow king of Assyria, Il- either from 1187 to 1183 BC or from 1197 to 1193 BC.
pad, seems to have ended at this point or shortly after- The former dates are more common in recent studies.
ward. The evidence from an archive which might shed
light on the events of this period remains unavailable,
leading the historian Itamar Singer to observe regret-
tably, two important archives of the thirteenth century 2.46.1 Biography
B.C.E., each with some 400 tablets, still remain unpub-
lished, ...(including) the Middle Assyrian texts from Tell Enlil-kudurri-usur was the son of Tukulti-Ninurta I. He
Sabi Abyad (found in 1997-1998).[5] succeeded his nephew, Ashur-nirari IIIs brief reign and
ruled for ve years. Apart from king lists and chronicles,
there are no other extant inscriptions of this king.[1]
2.45.2 Inscriptions The Synchronistic King List [i 2] identies his Babylonian
contemporary with Adad-uma-uur, his eventual neme-
[1] Nassouhi list, iii 32: m A-ur-nrr mr A-ur-ndin- sis. In the Synchronistic History,[i 3] the battle between
ap[li2 ] 6 MUme ; rst published by E. Nassouhi AfO 4
him and Adad-uma-uur is given as a pretext for his As-
(1927) p. 111 and pl. 1f; provenance: Assur.
syrian rival, Ninurta-apal-Ekur, a son of Il-pad and de-
[2] Khorsabad list, iii 23: A-ur-nrr mr A-ur- scendant of Eriba-Adad I, to come up from Kardunia,
m m
nir2 -apli 6 MUme ; rst published by I. J. Gelb JNES 13 i.e. Babylonia, and make a play for the Assyrian throne.
(1954) 209230 and pl. XIVf; provenance: Khorsabad. Grayson[2] and others[3] have speculated that this was
with the tacit assistance of Adad-uma-uur, but there
[3] SDAS list, iii 13: m A-ur-nrr mr2 m A-ur-nir2 - is currently no published evidence to support this the-
apli 6 MUme published by Gelb with the Khorsabad copy ory. Ninurta-apal-Ekurs purpose for being in Babylonia
and pl. XVIf; provenance unknown.
is also unknown, whether a political refugee or an admin-
[4] Small fragment, rst published by O. Schroeder KAV 15; istrator of the Assyrian held portion. The Walker Chroni-
provenance: Assur. cle[i 4] describes how following his abject defeat at Adad-
uma-uurs hands, Enlil-kudurr-uur was seized by his
[5] KAJ 101 (Urad-serua #55). own ocers and handed over to his opponent.[4] Only af-
ter these events did Adad-uma-uur go on to extend his
[6] TabT05A-191.
territory to include the city of Babylon itself.
[7] Tablet K. 3045 / ABL 924: LUGAL.ME KUR Meanwhile, the Synchronistic History[i 3] continues,
a+urKI . Ninurta-apal-Ekur had mustered his numerous troops
and marched to conquer Libbi-ali (the city of Aur). But
[...] arrived unexpectedly, so he turned and went home.
2.45.3 References As Grayson points out, this passage is open to various
interpretations,[2] only one of which is that the missing
[1] A. Fuchs, K. Radner (1998). K. Radner, ed. The Proso-
name could have been that of Enlil-kudurr-uur, released
pography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Volume 1, Part I:
by his captor to sow confusion amongst his northern foes.
A. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. p. 208.
[3] J. N. Postgate (1988). The archive of Urad-era and his [1] Assyrian King List, iii 14.
family: a Middle Assyrian household in government ser-
vice. R. Denicola. No. 55.
[2] Synchronistic King List, tablet excavation number Ass.
[4] Daisuke Shibata (2006). Middle Assyrian Administra- 14616c (KAV 216), ii 6.
tive and Legal Texts from the 2005 Excavation at Tell Ta-
ban: A Preliminary Report. 49th Regular Meeting of the [3] Synchronistic History, ii 38.
Sumerian Studies. Kyoto University: 172.
[5] Itamar Singer (2011). The Calm Before the Storm. SBL. [4] Walker Chronicle, ABC 25, BM 27796, obverse lines 3 to
p. xi. 7.
2.47. NINURTA-APAL-EKUR 35
2.47.1 Biography
His ascendancy
There is some dispute as to how long he reigned, based on
discrepancies among various copies of the Assyrian King The preceding Assyrian king, Enlil-kudurri-usur, a son
List. The Nassouhi King List,[4] sometimes considered to of the earlier powerful king Tukulti-Ninurta I, was van-
be older than the other versions of the King List we have, quished in battle against the Kassite monarch, Adad-
gives him 13 years of reign, but the other king lists give uma-uur, a defeat so ignoble that the Assyrian ocers
him only three. More recent scholarship has tended to seized [Enlil-kudu]r-usur their lord and gave (him) to
support the shorter reign, in which case he reigned from Adad-uma-uur.[8] Perhaps to secure their passage, the
1182 to 1180 BC (alternately, he reigned from 1192 to Assyrians also handed over renegade Babylonians who
1180 BC). had ed to the Assyrian side.[8]
There are up to eleven possible limmu ocials named While these events were unfolding, Ninurta-apal-Ekur
for his regnal years and a recent publication proposes the went home. He mustered his numerous troops and
following sequence: marched to conquer Libbi-ali (the city of Aur).[9] The
Kings List tells us that he came up from Kardunia,
seized the throne,[6] although it can only be speculated
Salmanu-zera-iqia
what he was doing in Kardunia (Babylonia). The Syn-
Liptanu chronistic Chronicle continues But [...] arrived unex-
pectedly, so he turned and went home[9] which suggests
Salmanu-umu-leir that the succession was not smooth.
Erib-Aur Ninurta-apil-Ekur is said to have guarded all the peo-
ple of Assyria, with wings like an eagle spread out over
Marduk-aa-eri his country.[10] He was the recipient of gifts from Meli-
Piqiya ipak, who sent teams of horses and rugs, as a recently
discovered text records, unearthed during excavations at
Aur-dan I Assur.[11]
36 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
2.48.1 Biography
2.47.2 References
[1] Kyle R. Greenwood (2010). A Historical and Contextual During the twilight years of the Kassite dynasty, the Syn-
Reconstruction of KAH 2.76. Nouvelles Assyriologiques chronistic History[i 6] records that he seized the cities of
Brves et Utilitaires (NABU) (2): 45. Zaban, Irriya, Ugar-sallu and a fourth town name not pre-
served, plundering them and taking their vast booty to
[2] A. K. Grayson (2001). Erich Ebeling; Bruno Meissner;
Assyria. A fragmentary clay tablet[i 7] usually assigned
Dietz Otto Edzard, eds. .Reallexikon der Assyriologie und
to this king lists his military conquests over []yash
Vorderasiatischen Archologie: Nab Nuzi. Walter De
Gruyter Inc. p. 524. and the land of Irriya, the land of the Suhu, the kings of
the land Shadani, [y]aeni, king of the land Shelini.[2]
[3] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol- Fresh from their conquest of the Babylonians, it seems
ume I. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 139141. the Elamite hordes overwhelmed the Assyrian city of Ar-
[4] Nassouhi King List = Assyrian King List A raphe, which was not recovered until late in Aur-dns
reign.[1]
[5] Jaume Llop (June 2008). MARV 6, 2 und die Epony-
menfolgen des 12. Jahrhunderts. Zeitschrift fr Assyri-
Few inscriptions have been recovered for this king al-
ologie und vorderasiatische Archologie. 98 (1): 2025. though he is mentioned in two of those of his descendant
Tukult-apil-Earra.[3] One of these inscriptions mentions
[6] Assyrian King List, Ninurta-apil-Ekur, son of Ila-Hadda, his demolition of the dilapidated temple of An and Adad,
a descendant of Eriba-Adad, went to Kardunia. He originally built by Ime-Dgan II 641 years earlier. It was
came up from Kardunia, seized the throne and ruled for not to be reconstructed until 60 years later by Tukult-
A
13/B+C 3 years.
apil-Earra, who also names him in his genealogy.[4] A
[7] Itamar Singer (2006). KBo 28.61-64, and the struggle dedication for the king appears on a bronze statue vo-
over the throne of Babylon. attua-Boazky. Gernot tive oering[i 8] to the Egaankalamma, temple of Itar in
Wilhelm. pp. 224, 237. Arbail, oered by ami-Bl, a scribe.[2]
[8] C.B.F. Walker (May 1982). Babylonian Chronicle 25: A partial reconstruction of the sequence of limmus, the
A Chronicle of the Kassite and Isin II Dynasties. In G.Assyrian Eponym dating system, has been proposed in-
uenced by a letter[i 9] which provides the initial sequence
van Driel. Assyriological Studies presented to F. R. Kraus
on the occasion of his 70th birthday. Netherlands Institute
of Piqiya, the ocial during whose reign his predecessor
for the Near East. pp. 398406. died, Aur-dn (the king), Atamar-den-Aur, Aur-
[5]
[9] Synchronistic Chronicle (ABC 21), tablet B, column 2, bel-lite, and Adad-muabi. A harem edict or palace
lines 5 to 8. decree was issued giving the penalties for misdemeanors
of maidservants, where the rst oence is punishable
[10] Donald John Wiseman (1965). Assyria and Babylonia, c with a beating thirty times with rods by her mistress.[2]
1200-1000 BC, Volume 2, Part 31. Cambridge University Two sons of Aur-dn were to contest the throne af-
Press. p. 11.
ter his death, Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur ruling for less than
[11] Eckart Frahm. Inscribed objects. Retrieved October 2, a year before being overthrown and forced to ee by his
2011. brother Mutakkil-Nusku.
2.49. NINURTA-TUKULTI-ASHUR 37
[1] Khorsabad King List and the SDAS King List both read, There is some conjecture that he may have ruled jointly
iii 19, 46 MU.ME KI.MIN. with Aur-dan I during Aur-dans declining years or
perhaps shared some regnal duties as there is a signicant
[2] Nassouhi King List reads, 26+x MU.[ME LUGAL-ta archive of administrative texts[i 1] concerning agricultural
DU.u. products, (from cities such as Arrapha), food distribu-
tion, and ritual oerings in the royal palace referencing
[3] Brick Ass. 4777 palatial inscription conrming King List
him and his wife Rimeni on seals, one of which provides
liation.
an early Assyrian chariot scene, but only three of these
[4] Synchronistic King List, tablet excavation number Ass. texts call him king.[1] Among these there is a reference
14616c (KAV 216), ii 10. to the partial demolition of a number of buildings in Kar-
Tukulti-Ninurta, during his reign,[2] and also a harem list.
[5] Synchronistic King List fragment, tablet VAT 11261 (KAV The Chronicle P[i 2] which names him m Tukul-ti-Aur,
10), i 2. relates that during his reign, the statue of Marduk was re-
turned to Babylon having languished in Assyria for sixty
[6] Synchronistic History, ii 912. (?)-six years, something of an underestimate if the read-
ing of this number is correct and a reconciliatory move
[7] Tablet K. 2667. likely to test his subjects loyalty.[3]
[8] 2 kg bronze statue found at Lake Urmia and now in the The Assyrian King List[i 3] relates that Mutakkil-Nusku,
Louvre. his brother, fought with him (and) carried him o to Kar-
dunia. Mutakkil-Nusku held the throne for 'his tablet'
[9] VAT 20937, MARV 6,2. (and then) passed away.[i 4][4] A fairly recently recovered
source[i 5] provides additional insight into these events.
From it we learn Ninurta-tukult-Aur seems to have
2.48.3 References kept the loyalty of provincial regions, while the heart-
land of Assyria sided with Mutakkil-Nusku, fueling a
[5] [i 6]
[1] David Kertai (20082009). The history of the middle civil war. Into this milieu comes fragments of one,
Assyrian empire. TALANTA. XL-XLI: 39. or perhaps two letters, from a Babylonian king, tentatively
identied as Ninurta-ndin-umi, although his predeces-
[2] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol- sor Itti-Marduk-balu or his successor Nab-kudurr-
ume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 141143. uur I could also conceivably be the author, addressed to
and lambasting Mutakkil-Nusku and threatening to re-
[3] A. K. Grayson (1975). Assyrian and Babylonian chroni- instate Ninurta-tukult-Aur. His Babylonian contem-
cles. J. J. Augustin. pp. 209210. porary is not certain and the Synchronistic Kinglist[i 7]
gives a counterpart whose name begins with, or contains,
[4] Bill T. Arnold, Bryan Beyer (2002). Readings from the the theophoric element Marduk-, with other fragmentary
ancient Near East: primary sources for Old Testament
copies[i 8][i 9] providing no further insight. The text of
study. Baker Academic. p. 143.
the letter(s) is poorly preserved, and dicult to inter-
[5] Jaume Llop (June 2008). MARV 6, 2 und die Epony-
pret, but the Babylonian quotes the Assyrian in his de-
menfolgen des 12. Jahrhunderts. Zeitschrift fr Assyri- scription of his brother as ku-lu-'- la zi-ka-ru u-, a
ologie und vorderasiatische Archologie. 98 (1): 2025. kulu'u, not a man, where the term may mean a 'femi-
doi:10.1515/za-2008-0003. nized castrato cultic performer'.[6] The deadlock was ap-
parently broken by the attack by Mutakkil-Nuskus forces
on Ninurta-tukult-Aurs border stronghold of Siil, af-
ter which both brothers disappeared from history, per-
2.49 Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur haps falling in their fratricidal battle and Mutakkil-
Nuskus son Aur-re-ii I assumed the throne.
Ninurta-tukult-Aur, inscribed md Ninurta2 -tukul-ti-
A-ur, was briey king of Assyria during 1133 BC,
the 84th to appear on the Assyrian Kinglist, marked as 2.49.2 Inscriptions
holding the throne for his uppiu, his tablet, a pe-
riod thought to correspond just to the inauguration year. [1] Such as tablet KAJ 188.
He succeeded his father, the long-reigning Aur-dn I,
but the throne was very quickly usurped by his brother, [2] Chronicle P (ABC 22), iv 1213
Mutakkil-Nusku, and he was driven from Assur and
sought refuge in the city of Siil, on the Babylonian bor- [3] Assyrian Kinglist copies: Nassouhi, iii 43f, Khorsabad, iii
der, the scene of the nal dnouement. 32f and SDAS iii 19f.
38 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
[4] Khorsabad kinglist iii 3436: m Mu-tak-kil-d Nusku au- 2.50.1 Biography
itti- i-duk a-na kur Kar-du-ni-, e-bu-uk- up-pi-
m
Mu-tak-kil-d Nusku gi kuss, uk-ta-il ad e-mid. He was a younger son of the long-reigning king, Aur-
dn I (ca. 1179 to 1134 BC) and succeeded his
[5] Ms. A2 .
brother Ninurta-tukult-Aur, whom he ousted in a coup
[6] Tablets BM 104727 (1913-5-12, 2) + Sm. 2116 and K. and subsequently went on to ght in a civil war that
212 + K. 4448. seems to have pitched the Assyrian heartland against
its provinces. He appears on the Khorsabad Kinglist [i 1]
[7] Synchronistic King List ii 12 KAV 216 (tablet Ass which relates that Mutakkil-Nusku, his (Ninurta-tukult-
14616c). Aurs) brother, fought against him. He drove him
to Kardunia (Babylonia). Contemporary evidence sug-
[8] Synchronistic King List fragment KAV 10, 3 (tablet VAT
gests that Ninurta-tukult-Aur sought sanctuary in the
11261).
border town of Siil, where Mutakkil-Nuskus forces en-
[9] Synchronistic King List fragment KAV 12, 1 (tablet VAT gaged him in battle, the outcome of which is lost.[1]
11338). The fragments of one or perhaps two Middle Assyrian let-
ters exist,[i 2] from an unnamed Babylonian king, possibly
Ninurta-ndin-umi, to Mutakkil-Nusku, where he is told
2.49.3 References that You should act according to your heart (ki libbika).
The text lambastes him for failing to keep an appoint-
[1] David Kertai (20089). The History of the Middle As-
ment, or a challenge, in Zaqqa and seems to conrm that
syrian Empire. Talanta: proceedings of the Dutch Ar- [2]
chaeological and Historical Society. 6061: 39. Check Ninurta-tukult-Aur had reached exile in Babylonia.
date values in: |date= (help) His victory was short-lived as uppiu Mutakkil-Nusku
kuss ukta'il KUR-a e-mid, (he) held the throne for up-
[2] Trevor Bryce (2009). The Routledge Handbook of The
piu (his tablet), then died, perhaps his inaugural year
People and Places of Ancient Western Asia. Routledge.
pp. 67, 373.
and part way into his rst year only.[3] One interpretation
suggests this was while his father still nominally ruled.[4]
[3] A. K. Grayson (1975). Assyrian and Babylonian chroni- Apart from a brief economic text concerning 100 sheep
cles. J. J. Augustin. p. 176. of Mutakkil-Nusku, without a royal title, and his appear-
ance in the genealogies of his descendants such as one
[4] A. K. Grayson (1999). Knigslisten und Chroniken. In of his son, Aur-ra-ii I,[2] there are no other extant
Erich Ebeling; Bruno Meissner. Reallexikon der Assyri- inscriptions.[4]
ologie und Vorderasiatischen Archologie: Klagegesang -
Libanon, Volume 6. Walter De Gruyter. pp. 111112.
[6] B. Newgrosh (1999). The Chronology of Ancient As- his realm. He died in 1076 BC and was succeeded by his
syria Re-assessed. JACF. 8: 84. son Asharid-apal-Ekur. The later kings Ashur-bel-kala
and Shamshi-Adad IV were also his sons.
In his rst year, he campaigned in the north against Relations with Babylonia
Uraru, delaying his adoption of the eponym oce un-
til the following year. In his second, he turned his atten- After his inauguration, he was apparently visited by the
tion to the countries Himme, abu, and Mari, the latter reigning Babylonian king, Marduk-pik-zri, who es-
of which was under the authority of Tukulti-Mer, a pre- tablished friendly relations with Ar-bl-kala, and then
tender to the Assyrian throne. Thereafter his attention returned to Sippar.[i 4] This treaty followed the earlier
was largely absorbed with endless counterattacks against poor relations of their predecessors, Tukult-apil-Earra
the hordes of Arameans pressing on his borders, whom and Marduk-ndin-a, who had sparred and was proba-
he even pursued: [...in] rafts (of inated) goatskins bly motivated by their need to unite to ght their common
I crossed the Euphrates.[i 3] He fought them as far as enemy the Arameans. Marduk-pik-zri died around
Carchemish, which he plundered, and in the rbr val- ve years later and this seems to have galvanized Ar-
ley, the Broken Obelisk referencing at least 15 campaigns. bl-kala into intervening militarily to install a successor
Texts recovered from Giricano, ancient Dunnu-a-Uzibi, of his choice:
mostly dated to the eponym year of Ili-iddina (1069/68)
his 5th or 6th year, include one that recalls the ghting
In that year (the eponym of Aur-raim-
the preceding year, the eponymy of Aur-rem-nieu,
nieu), in the month of ebat, the chariots
in Dunnu-a-Liur-ala-Aur in the district of inamu,
and [] went from the Inner City (of Assur)
when territory was lost. Sometime later the entire region
(and) conquered the cities of [x-x]indiulu
fell to the invaders.[3]
and []sand, cities which are in the district
of the city of Dr-Kurigalzu. They captured
Kadaman-Buria, the son of Itti-Marduk-
Building works and zoo
balu, governor of their land.
Broken Obelisk
Among his civic construction activities were the re-
excavation of a city moat and the irrigation of a public
garden:
The Synchronistic History[i 5] relates that the next king,
Adad-apla-iddina, son of Esagil-aduni, son of a no-
I built the palace of cedar, box-wood, body, was appointed by Ar-bl-kala, who married
terebinth, (and) tamarisk in my city Aur. his daughter and took her with a vast dowry to As-
The canal which Ashur-dan I, king of Assyria syria, while the Eclectic Chronicle gives his father as Itti-
excavated the source of that canal had fallen Marduk-balu. The Synchronistic History concludes with
in and for thirty years water had not owed noting that the people of Assyria and Babylonia mingled
therein. I again excavated the source of that (peacefully) with one another.[8]
canal, directed water therein (and) planted
gardens.[4] His tomb was one of the ve found on the lower reaches
Broken Obelisk of the palace at Assur. He was briey succeeded by his
son, Erba-Adad II, whose short reign was followed by
that of his brother ami-Adad IV.
[2] D. J. Wiseman (1975). XXXI: Assyria & Babylonia the Babylonian counterpart is illegible, possibly having
12001000 BC. In I. E. S. Edwards; C. J. Gadd; N. been Simbar-ipak based on the sequence of kings be-
G. L. Hammond; S. Solberger. The Cambridge Ancient fore and after. This chronicle seems quite fanciful in its
History, Volume II, Part 2, History of the Middle East and chronology during the Assyrian dark-age. In any case, the
the Aegean Region, 13801000 BC. Cambridge University king Adad-apla-iddina would have been his contempo-
Press. pp. 467469.
rary, sheltering his uncle, ami-Adad IV in political ex-
[3] Younger, K Lawson (2007), Ugarit at Seventy-Five : pro- ile while he regrouped and planned his putsch. Although
ceedings of the Symposium Ugarit at Seventy-Five held at Aur-bl-kala had married Adad-apla-iddinas daughter,
Trinity International University, Deereld, Illinois, Febru- it seems unlikely that Adad-apla-iddina would have then
ary 18-20, 2005 under the auspices of the Middle West- participated in an eort to depose his own grandson, so
ern Branch of the American Oriental Society and the Mid- it seems likely that Erba-Adad was the issue of another
West Region of the Society of the Biblical Literature, Eisen- queen and the Babylonian kings change of attitude due to
brauns, pp. 149151, ISBN 1575065886 earlier political events in Assyria.[4] His rule came to an
[4] Koh, Yee-Von (2006). Royal autobiography in the book end when ami-Adad went up [from [[KarduniaKar-
of Qoheleth. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fr die alttesta- dun]ia]]. He drove Erba-Adad, [son of Aur-bl-ka]la,
[5]
mentliche Wissenschaft, 369. Walter de Gruyter. p. 94. from the throne.
ISBN 3110192284.
An Aur monumental stele (number 27) from the Stelen-
[5] Shigeo Yamada (2000). The Construction of the Assyr- reihe, row of stelae, has been attributed to him and is in-
ian Empire: A Historical Study of the Inscriptions of Shal- scribed laconically: Erba-adad, king of the universe.[6]
manesar III Relating to His Campaigns in the West. Brill.
p. 253.
2.55.2 Inscriptions
[6] Tomoo Ishida (1982). Studies in the period of David and
Solomon and other essays. Eisenbrauns. p. 219. [1] SDAS Kinglist, iii 31.
[7] Edward Lipiski (2006). On the Skirts of Canaan in [2] Nassouhi Kinglist, iv 12.
the Iron Age: Historical and Topographical Researches. [3] Khorsabad Kinglist, iii 45,
Peeters Publishers. p. 368.
[4] Clay cone fragment from Nineveh BM 123467, 6 lines.
[8] J. A. Brinkman (1968). A Political History of Post-Kassite
Babylonia, 1158722 BC. Ponticium Institutum Bib- [5] Part of a clay tablet Rm-II.261 (RIMA 2 A.0.90.1), 7.
licum. pp. 141142. [6] Eponym List VAT 11254, (KAV 21).
[7] K.2693 Part of a clay tablet, with holes, 13 + 5 lines
(RIMA 2 A.0.90.1).
2.55 Eriba-Adad II
[8] Literary text, BM 98941.
Erba-Adad II, inscribed m SU-d IM, Adad has re-
placed, was the king of Assyria 1056/55-1054 BC, the 2.55.3 References
94th to appear on the Assyrian Kinglist.[i 1][i 2] He was the
son of Aur-bl-kala whom he briey succeeded and was [1] P. Talon (1999). K. Radner, ed. The Prosopography of
deposed by his uncle ami-Adad IV.[1] the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Volume 1, Part II: A. The Neo-
Assyrian Text Corpus Project. p. 400.
[2] D. J. Wiseman (1975). XXXI: Assyria & Babylonia
2.55.1 Biography 12001000 BC. In I. E. S. Edwards; C. J. Gadd; N.
G. L. Hammond; S. Solberger. The Cambridge Ancient
The Khorsabad kinglist [i 3] mistakenly gives him as a son History, Volume II, Part 2, History of the Middle East and
of Ilu-kabkabi, i.e. the father of the 18th century BC king the Aegean Region, 13801000 BC. Cambridge University
ami-Adad I. Despite his short two-year reign, there are Press. p. 469.
fragmentary inscriptions[i 4][i 5] where he claims his rule
[3] A. R. George (2003). House Most High: The Temples of
extended to the Aramaeans and lists conquests far and
Ancient Mesopotamia. Eisenbrauns. pp. 101102.
wide in intense military campaigns, imitating those of
Tukult-apil-Earra I, for which he styled himself king [4] J. A. Brinkman (1968). A Political History of Post-Kassite
of the four quarters.[2] He would have appeared on a de- Babylonia, 1158722 B.C. Ponticium Institutum Bib-
stroyed section of the eponym list designated as Cc.[i 6] licum. p. 144.
He was one of the restorers of the .ur.sa.kur.kur.ra, [5] Jean-Jacques Glassner (2004). Mesopotamian Chronicles.
House, Mountain of the Lands, or the cella of the tem- SBL. pp. 142143.
ple of the god Aur,[3] as commemorated in one of his [6] P. A. Miglus (1984). Another Look at the Stelenreihen
inscriptions.[i 7] A fragmentary literary text is dated to his in Assur. Zeitschrift fr Assyriologie und Vorderasiatis-
reign.[i 8] The Synchronistic Kinglist gives his name, but che Archologie. 74: 136.
44 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
2.58.2 Inscriptions
[1] Eponym List KAV 21, tablet VAT 11254, iv.
2.58.3 References Schroeders line art for the KAV 21 list of Eponyms showing
the six years of Aur-nrr IV and both his predecessor and
[1] Karen Radner (1998). Der Gott Salmnu ("ulmnu)
successor.[i 1]
und seine Beziehung zur Stadt Dr-Katlimmu. Die Welt
des Orients. 29: 3351. JSTOR 25683683.
[2] M. T. Larsen (1974). Unusual Eponymy-datings from during his rst year but the following year is marked a
Mari and Assyria. Revue DAssyriologie: 21. EGIR m a-ur-, (year) after Aur- and thereafter all
the remaining years were recorded with a sequential num-
[3] K. Lawson Younger (2007). The LB/Iron Age Transition ber and a Winkelhaken to designate ditto. It is probable
and the Origins of the Arameans. Ugarit at Seventy-Five. that events were so turbulent during this period that an
Eisenbrauns. pp. 159, 161. eponym was not appointed.[2]
[4] Heather D. Baker (2008). Salmnu-aard II. Re- The Babylonian king, Ninurta-kudurr-uur I (987 985
allexikon der Assyriologie: Prinz, Prinzessin Samug, Bd.
BC) is given as his counterpart on the Synchronistic
11. Walter De Gruyter. p. 581. Kinglist [i 4] but the conventional chronology would sug-
[5] W.G. Lambert (1999). Idiglat. In Edzard. Reallexikon gest it was the earlier monarch, Simbar-ipak (1025-
der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archologie: Ia 1008 BC). The later king, Aur-nir-apli II mentions
Kizzuwatna. Walter De Gruyter. p. 31. Sibir, king of Kardunia" in the context of the capture
of the city of Atlila, in his annals, and historians have
[6] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Vol-
tentatively identied this individual with Simbar-ipak,
ume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. p. 99. 33.
suggesting he engaged in warfare against Assyria around
this time.[3]
2.59 Ashur-nirari IV His successor was his uncle, Aur-rabi II, a younger son
of the earlier king Aur-nir-apli I. The circumstances
of the succession are unknown and the Assyrian Kinglist
Aur-nrr IV, inscribed m a-ur-ERIM.GABA, "(the gives no indication that he was overthrown, the usual
god) Aur is my help,[1] was the king of Assyria, the cause of an uncle to succeed his nephew in the Assyrian
94th to appear on the Assyrian Kinglist,[i 2][i 3] ruling monarchy.
1019/18-1013 BC. His short six-year reign was marked
by confusion and a dearth of contemporary inscriptions.
2.59.2 Inscriptions
2.59.1 Biography [1] Eponym List KAV 21, tablet VAT 11254, iv.
He succeeded his father, Salmnu-aard II, whose [2] Khorsabad Kinglist, tablet IM 60017 (excavation nos.: DS
twelve-year reign seems to have ended in confusion, as 828, DS 32-54), iv 8.
the last limmu ocial on his eponym list[i 1] is missing [3] Nassouhi Kinglist, Istanbul A. 116 (Assur 8836), iv 21.
and recorded as a ar[ki si...], the eponym which is af-
ter (the previous name). Aur-nrr took the eponymy [4] Synchronistic Kinglist, Ass 14616c (KAV 216).
2.60. ASHUR-RABI II 47
Aur-rabi II, inscribed m a-ur-GAL-bi, "(the god) [1] Khorsabad Kinglist, IM 60017 (excavation nos.: DS 828,
Aur is great,[1] was king of Assyria 1012972 BC. De- DS 32-54), iv 9.
spite his lengthy reign (41 years), one of the longest of the
Assyrian monarchs, his tenure seems to have been an un- [2] Nassouhi Kinglist, Istanbul A. 116 (Assur 8836), iv 23.
happy one judging by the scanty and laconic references
to his setbacks from later sources. [3] SDAS Kinglist, IM 60484, iv 9.
[2] Kuhrt, Amlie (1995-01-01). The Ancient Near He reigned from 911[2] to 891 BC.
East, C. 3000-330 BC. Taylor & Francis US. ISBN
9780415167642.
Because of the existence of full eponym lists from his
reign down to the middle of the reign of Ashurbanipal
[3] Parpola,, Simo (1990). ASSYRIAN IDENTITY IN AN- in the 7th century BC, year one of his reign in 911 BC
CIENT TIMES AND TODAY (PDF). Unity and Diver- is perhaps the rst event in ancient Near Eastern history
sity. which can be dated to an exact year, although the Assyrian
King List is generally considered to be quite accurate for
several centuries before Adad-niraris reign, and scholars
2.64 Adad-nirari II generally agree on a single set of dates back to Ashur-
resh-ishi I in the late 12th century BC.
2.64.2 References
[1] Healy, Mark (1991). The Ancient Assyrians. New York:
Osprey. p. 6.
[2] Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient
Mesopotamia. New York: Oxford UP. p. 74.
2.65 Tukulti-Ninurta II
2.64.1 Biography
2.65.1 Family
Adad-nirari IIs son was named Tukulti-Ninurta II
and Tukulti continued to wage war against Assyrian His father was Adad-nirari II, the rst king of the Neo-
enemies.[1] Assyrian period. His son succeeded him and was named
2.66. ASHURNASIRPAL II 51
2.66.2 Reign
The palaces, temples and other buildings raised by him
2.66 Ashurnasirpal II bear witness to a considerable development of wealth
and art. He was renowned for his brutality, using en-
slaved captives to build a new Assyrian capital at Kalhu
(Nimrud) in Mesopotamia where he built many impres-
sive monuments. He was also a shrewd administrator,
who realized that he could gain greater control over his
empire by installing Assyrian governors, rather than de-
pending on local client rulers paying tribute.
2.66.3 Campaigns
See also: Ashurnasirpal IIs campaigns in Lebanon
Like previous Assyrian monarchs Ashurnasirpal cam-
Nimrud reliefs
still remains in control over the site. The known area of of the most well known of the Nimrud reliefs particu-
the palace measures 200m from north to south and 120 larly those showing Assurnasirpal II hunting lions. There
meters from east to west. This is most likely only a por- is also a distinct interest in the relationship between man
tion of the original design, including the possibility of an and animal in many of the scenes. In several depictions
upper level while no concrete evidence of this remains. the king is shown with supernatural creatures of animal
All of the walls of the palace were lined with stone slabs and human combination. All of the apotropaic portrayals,
of which a majority were decorated with relief images.[3] which would have decorated the doorways of the palace,
were of these human and animal hybrids. Within the con-
text of these apotropaic gures were three main types,
a winged gure wearing the horned crown which sym-
bolized divinity, a winged gure wearing a headband of
rosettes and a winged human gure with the head of a
bird.[3]
Against Tibareni
Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III in the British Museum. List of artifacts signicant to the Bible
He had built a palace at Kalhu (Biblical Calah, mod- Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
ern Nimrud), and left several editions of the royal annals
recording his military campaigns, the last of which is en- Short chronology timeline
58 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
2.67.5 References
[1] Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II.
Mcadams.posc.mu.edu. Retrieved 26 October 2012.
2.67.6 Sources
1911 Encyclopdia Britannica
2.68 Shamshi-Adad V
Stela of the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V from the temple of
Nabu at Nimrud, Mesopotamia.
Shamshi-Adad V was the King of Assyria from 824 to
811 BC. He was named after the god Adad, who is also
known as Hadad.[1][2]
In 814 BCE, he won the Battle of Dur-Papsukkal against
the Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi, and a few
2.68.1 Family Aramean tribes settled in Babylonia.
The rst years of Shamshi-Adads reign saw a serious [1] Reilly, Jim (2000) Contestants for Syrian Domination
struggle for the succession of the aged Shalmaneser. in Chapter 3: Assyrian & Hittite Synchronisms The Ge-
The revolt was led by Shamshi-Adads brother Assur- nealogy of Ashakhet;
danin-pal, and had broken out already by 826 BC. The
rebellious brother, according to Shamshi-Adads own in- [2] Empires and Exploitation: The Neo-Assyrian Empire, P
scriptions, succeeded in bringing to his side 27 impor- Bedford, WA Perth, 2001
tant cities, including Nineveh. The rebellion lasted until
820 BC, weakening the Assyrian empire and its ruler; this [3] Encyclopdia Britannica Eleventh Edition
weakness continued to reverberate in the kingdom until
the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III. [4] Georges Roux: Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books, London
Later in his reign, Shamshi-Adad campaigned against 1992, ISBN 0-14-012523-X, p. 302.
Southern Mesopotamia, and stipulated a treaty with the
Babylonian king Marduk-zakir-shumi I. [5] Britannica.com
2.69. ADAD-NIRARI III 59
2.69.1 Family
2.69.2 Biography
Basalt stele of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III from Saba. An-
cient Orient Museum, Istanbul Archeological Museums, Turkey
Shalmaneser IV was king of Assyria (783773 BC). He Ashur-nirari V was King of Assyria from 755 to 745
succeeded his father Adad-nirari III, and was succeeded BC. He was succeeded by Tiglath-Pileser III.
by his brother Ashur-dan III. Very little information about Ashur-nirari V was a son of Adad-nirari III, and suc-
his reign has survived. ceeded his brother, Ashur-dan III. He inherited a di-
According to the eponym canon, he led several campaigns cult situation from his predecessor. The Assyrian ruler-
against Urartu. His rulership was severely limited by the ship was severely limited by the inuence of court dig-
growing inuence of high dignitaries, particularly that of nitaries, particularly that of Shamshi-ilu, who was the
Shamshi-ilu, who was then commander-in-chief of the commander-in-chief (turtanu). According to the eponym
army. canon, for four years the king was compelled to stay in
the land. It was customary for the Assyrian king to cam-
paign every year, and such an indication usually meant
the kingship had been seriously weakened. In his fourth
2.70.1 References and fth regnal years, however, he campaigned to Namri
(Namar). In 746 BC, a revolt broke out again, and in the
Georges Roux: Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books, Lon- following year the throne was seized by Tiglath-Pileser
don 1992, ISBN 0-14-012523-X, p. 302 III, who may have been his brother or his son, or, alterna-
tively, a usurper with no relationship to the previous royal
house at all.
Tiglath-Pileser III: stela from the walls of his palace (British Mu-
2.71.1 See also seum, London).
Assyrias rst professional standing army.[5][6] Formerly the governor of Kalhu (Biblical
Tiglath-Pileser III subjugated much of the Near East re- Calah/Nimrud)[3] and a general, the usurper Pulu
gion; to the south, his fellow Mesopotamians in Babylonia assumed his Assyrian throne-name (Tiglath-Pileser)
and Chaldea, and further south still, the Arabs, Magan, from two more-legitimate predecessors. He described
Meluhha, and Dilmunites of the Arabian Peninsula. In himself as a son of Adad-nirari III in his inscriptions,
the south west, Israel, Judah, Philistia, Samarra, Moab, but the accuracy of this claim remains uncertain.
Edom, the Suteans and Nabatea fell. To the north, He seized the throne in the midst of civil war on 13
Urartu, Armenia and Scythia in the Caucasus Mountains, Ayaru, 745 BCE.[1][7] As a result of Pulu seizing the
throne in a bloody coup d'tat, the old royal family was
Cimmeria by the Black Sea, and Nairi were subjugated,
and in the north west much of eastern and south west- slaughtered,[3] and the new monarch set Assyria on the
path to expand the empire in order to ensure the survival
ern Asia Minor, including the Hittites, Phrygia, Cilicia,
Commagene, Tabal, Corduene and Caria. In the west, of the kingdom.[3]
the Greeks of Cyprus and Aram (modern Syria), and
the Mediterranean City States of Phoenicia/Caanan were
subjugated. To the east he subjugated Persia, Media,
Gutium, Mannea, Cissia and Elam, and later in his reign,
Tiglath-Pileser III was crowned king in Babylonia.
Tiglath-Pileser III discouraged revolts against Assyrian
rule with the use of forced deportations of thousands of
people all over the empire. He is one of the most suc-
cessful military commanders in world history, conquer-
ing most of the world known to the Assyrians before his
death.
2.73.1 Origins Tiglath-pileser III stands over an enemy, bas-relief from the Cen-
tral Palace at Nimrud.
MEDIA
Gozam
Ninevah
ASSYRIA
BETH-EDEN Asshur
Hamath
Eu
ph
rates
Byblos Riv
er Tig
ris
Damascus Riv
Babylon er
ing Rezin, and deporting the survivors to Kir (2 Kings on the sculptured slabs decorating his palace.
16:9). On his death he was succeeded by his son Ululayu, who
Beyond this, the Assyrian alliance was not benecial to took the name Shalmaneser V and further campaigned in
Ahaz (2 Chron 28:20). the Levant, defeated Egypt, and captured Samaria.
The second reform targeted the army. Instead of a largely [8] Nolen Jones, Dr. Floyd. Chronology of the Old Testament.
native Assyrian army which normally campaigned only Master Books. p. 150.
in the summer time, Tiglath-Pileser incorporated large [9] Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998). Daily Life in Ancient
numbers of conquered people into the army, thus adding Mesopotamia. p. 38.
a substantial foreign element. This force mainly com-
prised the light infantry, whereas the native Assyrians [10] Kaufman, The Phoenician Inscription of the Incirli
Trilingual, 7-26
comprised the cavalry, heavy infantry, and charioteers.
As a result of Tiglath-Pilesers military reforms, the As- [11] Tadmor, Inscriptions, p. 43.
syrian Empire was armed with a greatly expanded army
[12] Luckenbill, Ancient Records, vol II, p. 84.
which could campaign throughout the year. The addition
of the cavalry and the chariot contingents to the army was [13] Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq
mostly due to the steppe cultures lurking nearby to the
[14] Healy, p. 21
north, which sometimes invaded their northern colonies,
using mainly cavalry and primitive chariots. [15] Shafer, A.T. (1998). The Carving of an Empire: Neo-
Assyrian Monuments on the Periphery, p.3233
Kaufman, Stephen A. The Phoenician Inscription king of Babylonia, this has not been found in any authen-
of the Incirli Trilingual: A Tentative Reconstruction tic ocial sources.[2]
and Translation, MAARAV 14,2 (2007): 7-26 The name Shalmaneser is used for him in the Bible,[3]
which attributes to him the nal conquest of the king-
Luckenbill, D. D. Ancient Records of Assyria and
dom of Samaria (Israel) and the deportation of Israelites.
Babylonia, vol II, (Chicago, 1927).
According to 2 Kings, chapters 17-18, Shalmaneser ac-
Saggs, H. The Might that was Assyria (London, cused Hoshea, King of Israel, of conspiring against him
1984). by sending messages to Pharaoh Osorkon IV of Egypt,
and captured him. Indeed, the Egyptians attempted to
Tadmor, Hayim, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser gain a foothold in Israel, then held largely by Assyrias
III, King of Assyria: Critical Edition, with Introduc- vassal kings, by stirring them to revolt against Assyria and
[4]
tions, Translations, and Commentary (Jerusalem, Is- lending them some military support. After three years
rael Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1994). of siege he took the city of Samaria. The populations he
deported to various lands of the empire, (together with
Tadmor, Hayim and Shigeo Yamada (2011). The ones deported about ten years earlier by Tiglath-Pileser
Royal Inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser III (744-727 III) are known as the "Ten Lost Tribes" of Israel. The
BC) and Shalmaneser V (726-722 BC), Kings of populations he settled in Samaria instead form the ori-
Assyria. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. ISBN gins of the Samaritans, according to a commentary in the
9781575062204. OCLC 748941760. Bible. Shalmaneser died in the same year, 722 BC, and
it is possible that the population exchanges were done by
his successor Sargon II.
2.74 Shalmaneser V In the book of Tobit, chapter 1, the exiled Tobit is shown
nding favor in Shalmanesers court, only to lose inu-
ence under Sennacherib.
2.74.1 Notes
[1] Sayce, Archibald Henry (1911). Shalmaneser. In
Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopdia Britannica. 24 (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press. p. 798.
2.75 Sargon II
Shalmaneser V from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum This article is about the king. For the game, see Sargon
(Guillaume Rouill, 1553) (chess).
Palace of Khorsabad.
tles or ed into the mountains, having been warned by Marduk-apla-iddina attempted to ee to Elam but the
re-signals. Sargon claims to have destroyed 430 empty king forbade him entry. Taking hostages from Ur, Uruk,
villages. and other towns, he went to his ancestral city of Dr-Jakin
After reaching Lake Van, Sargon left Urartu via Uaiaish. which he further fortied by adding to the walls and dig-
In Hubushkia he received the tribute of the "Nairi" lands. ging a canal from the Euphrates to ood the surrounding
While most of the army returned to Assyria, Sargon went area. In 709 BC Sargons troops gained a victory out-
on to sack the Urartian temple of the god Haldi and his side the city but could not take Dr-Jakin, where Marduk-
wife Bagbartu at Musasir (Ardini). The loot must have apla-iddina had ed. A negotiated settlement was reached
whereby Sargon would spare Marduk-apla-iddinas life
been impressive; its description takes up fty columns in
the letter to Ashur. More than one ton of gold and ve provided the city walls were demolished. It is not clear
whether they were, since two years later, Sargon returned
tons of silver fell into the hands of the Assyrians; 334,000 [8]
objects in total. A relief from Dur-Sharrukin depicted the to take them down himself.
sack of Musasir as well (which fell into the Tigris in 1846 Sargon had his son, crown-prince Sennacherib, married
when the archaeologist Paul-mile Botta was transport- to the Aramean noblewoman Naqi'a, and stayed in the
ing his artifacts to Paris). Musasir was annexed. Sargon south to pacify the Aramaic and Chaldean tribes of the
claims to have lost only one charioteer, two horsemen and lower Euphrates as well as the Suti nomads. Some areas
three couriers on this occasion. King Rusa was said to be in Elam were occupied as well.
despondent when he heard of the loss of Musasir, and fell
ill. According to the imperial annals, he took his own life
with his own iron sword. 2.75.3 Later reign
In 713 BC, Sargon stayed at home; his troops took, among
In 710 BC, the seven Greek kings of Ia' (Cyprus) had
others, Karalla, Tabal and Cilicia. Persian and Mede
accepted Assyrian sovereignty; in 709, Midas, king of
rulers oered tribute. In 711 BC, Gurgum was con-
Phrygia, beset by the nomadic Cimmerians, submitted to
quered. An uprising in the Philistine city of Ashdod,
Assyrian rule and in 708 BC, Kummuhu (Commagene)
supported by Judah, Moab, Edom and Egypt, was sup-
became an Assyrian province. Assyria was at the apogee
pressed, and Philistia became an Assyrian province.
of its power. Urartu had almost succumbed to the Cim-
merians, Elam was weakened, Marduk-apla-iddina II was
Conquest of Israel powerless, and the Egyptian inuence in the Levant had
been thwarted.
Under his rule, the Assyrians completed the defeat of
the Kingdom of Israel, capturing Samaria after a siege
Building projects
of three years and exiling the inhabitants. This became
the basis of the legends of the Lost Ten Tribes. Accord-
ing to the Bible, other people were brought to Samaria,
the Samaritans, under his predecessor Shalmaneser V (2
Kings 18). Sargons name actually appears in the Bible
only once, in the Book of Isaiah,[7] which records the As-
syrian capture of Ashdod in 711 BC.
baked brick pierced by seven gates. Protective genies [5] Excavations At Khorsabad, The Oriental Institute, Uni-
were placed on either side of these entrances to act as versity of Chicago
guardians.[9] The palace was richly decorated with relief-
[6] The Cimmerians were mentioned a number of times in let-
carved stone slabs.
ters by the crown-prince Sennacherib, who ran his fathers
The land in the environs of the town was taken under cul- intelligence service. They cannot be dated exactly, but
tivation, and olive groves were planted to increase As- are believed to have been composed before 713 BC. The
syrias decient oil production. The town was of rectan- letters relate how Sargon crossed the Great Zab and the
gular layout and measured 1760 by 1635 m. The length of Little Zab and moved over the mountains of Kullar in the
the walls was 16,283 Assyrian units, corresponding to the direction of Lake Urmia, crossing the country of Zikirtu,
whose ruler Metatti had ed to Uishdish, the provinces of
numerical value of Sargons name. The town was partly
Surikash, Allabria and parts of Parsuash.
settled by prisoners of war and deportees under the con-
trol of Assyrian ocials, who had to ensure they were [7] Isaiah 20:1
paying sucient respect to the gods and the king. The
court moved to Dur-Sharrukin in 706 BC, although it was [8] Van Der Spek, R., The Struggle of King Sargon II of
not completely nished. Assyria Against the Chaldaean Meradoch-Baladan (710-
707 BC)", Jaarberecht, No.25, Leiden (1977-78)
2.76 Sennacherib beginning of the Iron Age, and under Tiglath-pileser III
and his sons Shalmaneser V and Sargon II (combined
Sennacherib (Akkadian: Sn-ahh-erba, "Sn has reigns 744705 BCE), Assyria extended its rule over
replaced the brothers"; Syriac: , translit. Mesopotamia, Anatolia and Syria-Palestine, making its
Snr; Hebrew: [1] pronounced in Modern He- capital Nineveh, one of the richest cities of the ancient
brew [/saneiv/] or in some Mizrahi dialects [/saneiv]) world.[13][14] The empires rise aroused the fear and ha-
was the king of Assyria from 705 BCE to 681 BCE. tred of its neighbours, notably Babylon, Elam and Egypt,
He is principally remembered for his military campaigns and the many smaller kingdoms of the region such as
against Babylon and Judah, and for his building programs Judah. Any perceived weakness on the part of Assyria led
- most notably at the Akkadian capital of Nineveh.[2] He inevitably to rebellion, particularly by the Babylonians.[15]
was assassinated in obscure circumstances in 681 BCE,[3] Solving the so-called Babylonian problem was Sen-
apparently by his eldest son (his designated successor, nacheribs primary preoccupation.[16]
Esarhaddon, was the youngest).[4]
The primary preoccupation of his reign was the so-called
Babylonian problem, the refusal of the Babylonians to
accept Assyrian rule, culminating in his destruction of the 2.76.2 The Babylonian problem
city in 689 BCE.[5] Further campaigns were carried out
in Syria (notable for being recorded in the Bibles Books Sennacheribs grandfather Tiglath-pileser III had made
of Kings,[6] ) in the mountains east of Assyria, against the himself king of Babylon, creating a dual monarchy
kingdoms of Anatolia and against the Arabs in the north- in which the Babylonians retained a nominal indepen-
ern Arabian deserts.[7] His death was welcomed in Baby- dence. This arrangement was never accepted by pow-
lon as divine punishment for the destruction of that city.[8] erful local leaders, particularly an important tribal chief
He was also a notable builder: it was under him that As- named Marduk-apla-iddina (the Merodach-baladan of
syrian art reached its peak.[9] His building projects in- the Bible). Marduk-apla-iddina paid tribute to Tiglath-
cluded the beautication of Nineveh, a canal 50 km long pileser, but when Tiglath-pilesers successor Shalmaneser
to bring water to the city,[10] and the Palace Without Ri- V was overthrown by Sargon II (Sennacheribs father) he
val, which included what may have been the prototype seized the opportunity to crown himself king of Babylon.
of the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon, or even The next thirty years saw a repeating pattern of Assyrian
the actual Hanging Gardens.[11] reconquest and renewed rebellion.[17]
Sargon dealt with the Babylonian problem by cultivat-
ing the Babylonians; Sennacherib took a radically dif-
2.76.1 Background: the Neo-Assyrian em- ferent approach, and there is little sign that he cared
pire, 911-612 BCE about Babylonian popular opinion or took part in the cer-
emonial duties expected of a Babylonian king, notably
the New Year ritual. His relations, instead, were pre-
dominantly military, and culminated in his complete de-
struction of Babylon in 689 BCE.[18] He destroyed the
temples and the images of the gods, except for that of
Marduk, the creator-god and divine patron of Babylon,
which he took to Assyria.[19] This caused consternation
in Assyria itself, where Babylon and its gods were held
in high esteem.[20] Sennacherib attempted to justify his
actions to his own countrymen through a campaign of re-
ligious propaganda.[21] Among the elements of this cam-
paign he commissioned a myth in which Marduk was put
on trial before Ashur, the god of Assyriathe text is frag-
mentary but it seems Marduk is found guilty of some
grave oense;[22] he described his defeat of the Babylo-
Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its expansions - dark green
nian rebels in language of the Babylonian creation myth,
shows the empire in 824 BCE, light green in 671 BCE.
identifying Babylon with the evil demon-goddess Tiamat
and himself with Marduk;[23] Ashur replaced Marduk in
Main articles: Neo-Assyrian Empire and Military history the New Year Festival; and in the temple of the festi-
of the Neo-Assyrian Empire val he placed a symbolic pile of rubble from Babylon.[24]
In Babylon itself, Sennachribs answer to the Babylonian
Assyria began as a Bronze Age city-state or small king- problem sparked an intense hatred that would eventually
dom on the middle-Tigris.[12] The kingdom collapsed at lead to a war for independence and the destruction of
the end of the Bronze Age, but was reconstituted at the Assyria.[25]
2.76. SENNACHERIB 69
2.76.3 Accession and military campaigns ibni was placed on the throne and for the next two years
Babylon was left in peace.[28]
In 701 BCE, Sennacherib turned from Babylonia to the
western part of the empire, where Hezekiah of Judah, in-
cited by Egypt and Marduk-apla-iddina, had renounced
Assyrian allegiance. The rebellion involved various small
states in the area: Sidon and Ashkelon were taken by
force and a string of other cities and states, including
Byblos, Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and Edom then paid
tribute without resistance. Ekron called on Egypt for
help but the Egyptians were defeated. Sennacherib then
turned on Jerusalem, Hezekiahs capital. He besieged the
city and gave its surrounding towns to Assyrian vassal
rulers in Ekron, Gaza and Ashdod. Sennacherib how-
ever never breached the city.[29] Hezekiah remained on
his throne as a vassal ruler.[30] (The campaign is recorded
with dierences in the Assyrian records and in the bibli-
cal Books of Kings).
In 699 BCE, Bel-ibni, who had proved untrustworthy or
incompetent as king of Babylon, was replaced by Sen-
nacheribs eldest son, Ashur-nadin-shumi.[31] Marduk-
apla-iddina continued his rebellion with the help of Elam,
and in 694 Sennacherib took a eet of Phoenician ships
down the Tigris River to destroy the Elamite base on
the shore of the Persian Gulf, but while he was doing
this the Elamites captured Ashur-nadin-shumi and put
Nergal-ushezib, the son of Marduk-apla-iddina, on the
throne of Babylon.[20] Nergal-ushezib was captured in
693 BCE and taken to Nineveh, and Sennacherib attacked
Assyrian warriors armed with slings from the palace of Sen-
nacherib, 7th century BCE
Elam again. The Elamite king ed to the mountains
and Sennacherib plundered his kingdom, but when he
withdrew the Elamites returned to Babylon and put an-
other rebel leader, Mushezib-Marduk, on the Babylonian
Accession throne. Babylon eventually fell to the Assyrians in 689
BCE after a lengthy siege, and Sennacherib put an end to
Sennacherib was probably not the rst-born son of Sargon the Babylonian problem by utterly destroying the city
II (his name implies a compensation for dead broth- and even the mound on which it stood by diverting the
ers), but he was groomed for royal succession and en- water of the surrounding canals over the site.[25] (In fact
trusted with administrative duties from an early age.[26] the problem had not been solved: in 612 BCE a coali-
Sargon died in battle, and ancient sources give three dif- tion of Babylonians and other enemies of Assyria sacked
ferent years for Sennacheribs rst reign-year705 BCE, Nineveh, marking the end of the Assyrian empire).[32]
704 BCE, and 703 BCEsuggesting that the succes-
sion was not smooth.[16] The transition sparked upris-
ings in Syria-Palestine, where the Egyptians incited re-
bellion, and more seriously in Babylon, where Marduk-
apla-iddina II assumed the throne and assembled a large Minor campaigns
army of Chaldeans, Aramaeans, Arabs and Elamites.[26]
2.76.4 Administration and building ft) once they arrived at the site, presumably by a ramp.
projects There are also 3,000 metres (10,000 ft) of stone panels
carved in bas-relief, that include pictorial records doc-
umenting every construction step including carving the
statues and transporting them on a barge. One picture
shows 44 men towing a colossal statue. The carving shows
three men directing the operation while standing on the
Colossus. Once the statues arrived at their destination,
the nal carving was done. Most of the statues weigh be-
tween 9,000 and 27,000 kilograms (20,000 and 60,000
lb).[9][10]
The stone carvings in the walls include many battle
scenes, impalings and scenes showing Sennacheribs men
parading the spoils of war before him. He also bragged
about his conquests: he wrote of Babylon: Its inhab-
itants, young and old, I did not spare, and with their
corpses I lled the streets of the city. He later wrote
about a battle in Lachish: And Hezekiah of Judah who
had not submitted to my yoke...him I shut up in Jerusalem
his royal city like a caged bird. Earthworks I threw up
against him, and anyone coming out of his city gate I
made pay for his crime. His cities which I had plundered
I had cut o from his land. [11]
At this time, the total area of Nineveh comprised about 7
square kilometres (1,700 acres), and fteen great gates
View of ancient Nineveh, Description de L'Univers (Alain penetrated its walls. An elaborate system of eighteen
Manesson Mallet, 1719). canals brought water from the hills to Nineveh, and sev-
eral sections of a magnicently constructed aqueduct
The Assyrian empire was divided into provinces, each erected by Sennacherib were discovered at Jerwan, about
provincial governor being responsible for matters such as 65 kilometres (40 mi) distant. [12] The enclosed area
the maintenance of roads and public buildings, and for had more than 100,000 inhabitants (maybe closer to
the implementation of administrative policy. One major 150,000), about twice as many as Babylon at the time,
element of that policy was the massive deportation and re- placing it among the largest settlements worldwide.
distribution of populations, which aimed to punish, pre- It is possible that the garden which Sennacherib built next
vent rebellion, and repopulate depopulated areas in order to his palace, with its associated irrigation works, was the
to maintain food production in the empire. As many as original Hanging Gardens of Babylon.[34]
4.5 million people may have been moved between 745
BCE and 612 BCE, and Sennacherib alone could have
been responsible for displacing 470,000 people.[33] 2.76.5 Death
Sennacherib made Nineveh a truly magnicent city. He
laid out new streets and squares and built within it the fa- Sennacherib was assassinated in obscure circumstances
mous palace without a rival, the plan of which has been in 681 BCE.[3] An inscription by his youngest son and
mostly recovered and has overall dimensions of about 503 successor, Esarhaddon, describes how Esarhaddon heard
by 242 metres (1,650 ft 794 ft). It comprised at least 80 that his brothers were ghting in the streets of Nineveh,
rooms, many of which were lined with sculpture. A large hurried back with an army, defeated them all, and took
number of cuneiform tablets were found in the palace. the throne.[35] The inscription does not mention that the
The solid foundation was made out of limestone blocks brothers were ghting because one of them had just mur-
and mud bricks; it was 22 metres (72 ft) tall. In total, dered Sennacherib, which is indicated in the Babylonian
the foundation is made of roughly 2,680,000 cubic me- chronicles, the Bible, and in later Assyrian records.[35]
tres (3,510,000 cu yd) of brick (approximately 160 mil- It seems that the murderer was a prince named Arda-
lion bricks). The walls on top, made out of mud brick, Mulii (called Adrammelech in the Bible), the eldest
were an additional 20 metres (66 ft) tall. Some of the son before Esarhaddons appointment as heir;[4] Esarhad-
principal doorways were anked by colossal stone door dons silence on the subject may have been to avoid a per-
gures weighing up to 30,000 kilograms (30 t); they in- ception of instability among the people.[36] To one Baby-
cluded many winged lions or bulls with a mans head. lonian historian, Sennacheribs death at the hands of his
These were transported 50 kilometres (30 mi) from quar- sons was divine punishment for what the king had done
ries at Balatai and they had to be lifted up 20 metres (66 to Babylon.[8]
2.76. SENNACHERIB 71
temple).[37]
2.76.7 References
[1] As seen in 2Kings 18:13, Isaiah 36:1, Isaiah 37:17, and
2Chronicles 32:1
[30] Grabbe 2003, p. 314. Porter, Barbara Nevling (1994). Images, Power, and
Politics. American Philosophical Society.
[31] Grayson 1991, p. 107-108.
Russell, John Malcolm (1991). Sennacheribs
[32] Oates 1991, p. 180.
Palace Without Rival at Nineveh. University of
[33] Cline & Graham 2011, p. 50. Chicago Press.
[34] Stephanie Dalley (2013)The Mystery of the Hanging Gar- Von Soden, Wolfram (1994). The Ancient Orient:
den of Babylon: an elusive world Wonder traced OUP An Introduction to the Study of the Ancient Near East.
ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5 Eerdmans.
[35] Porter 1994, p. 108.
[37] Simo Parpola (1980). The Murderer of Sennacherib. Daniel David Luckenbill, The Annals of Sen-
nacherib, Oriental Institute Publications 2, Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1924
2.76.8 Bibliography
Rare Stela of Sennacherib.
Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in An-
Prism of Sennacherib
cient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press.
The murderer of Sennacherib - by Simo Parpola
Brinkman, J.A. (1991). Babylonia in the Shadow
of Assyria (747-626 B.C.)". In Boardman, John; Sennacheribs Invasion of Judah - by Craig C.
Edwards, I. E. S. The Cambridge Ancient History, Broyles
Volume III Part II. Cambridge University Press.
Interactive Map of Sennacheribs Invasion of Judah,
Cline, Eric H.; Graham, Mark W. (2011). Ancient including the accounts of Sennacherib, Herodotus,
Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. 2 Kings, Isaiah and Micah
Cambridge University Press.
States that the prism is preserved in the Oriental In-
Dalley, Stephanie (2013). The Mystery of the Hang- stitute, University of Chicago.
ing Garden of Babylon: An Elusive World Wonder
Traced. Oxford University Press. A site on the study of King Sennacherib by Jack Tay-
lor, II
Dalley, Stephanie (1998). The Legacy of
Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. First Campaign of Sennacherib Translated Cylinder
113203. British Museum
Foster, Benjamin Read; Foster, Karen Polinger
(2009). Civilizations of Ancient Iraq. Princeton Uni-
versity Press. 2.77 Esarhaddon
Grabbe, Lester (2003). Like a Bird in a Cage: The
Invasion of Sennacherib in 701 BCE. A&C Black. Esarhaddon (Akkadian: Aur-aa-iddina "Ashur has
given a brother"; Hebrew: [; 1] Ancient Greek:
Grayson, A.K. (1991). Assyria: Sennacherib and ;[2] Latin: Asor Haddan[2] ) was a king of the
Essarhaddon. In Boardman, John; Edwards, I. E. Neo-Assyrian Empire who reigned 681 669 BC. He was
S. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume III Part the youngest son of Sennacherib and the West Semitic
II. Cambridge University Press. queen Naqi'a (Zakitu), Sennacheribs second wife.
BC.
Victory stele.
Kings of Assyria
2.77.6 References
2.77.7 Bibliography
Libya, Elam, Gutium, Parthia, Cissia, Phrygia, Mannea, of "Gutium", Amurru, and Meluhha, the Persians, the
Corduene, Aramea, Urartu, Lydia, Cilicia, Commagene, Arabs and Nabateans dwelling in the Arabian Peninsula,
Caria, Cappadocia, Phoenicia, Canaan, the Suteans, and even Elam. According to a later Aramaic tale on Pa-
Sinai, Israel, Judah, Samarra, Moab, Edom, Ammon, pyrus 63, Shamash-shum-ukin formally declared war on
Nabatea, Arabia, the Neo-Hittites, Dilmun, Meluhha, Ashurbanipal in a letter where he claims that his brother
Nubia, Scythia, Cimmeria, Armenia and Cyprus, with is only the governor of Nineveh and his subject.[16] Again
few problems during Ashurbanipals reign. For the time the Assyrians delayed an answer, this time due to un-
being, the dual monarchy in Mesopotamia went well, with favourable omens. Its not certain how the rebellion af-
Shamash-shum-ukin accepting his position as the vassal fected the Assyrian heartlands but there was some un-
of his brother peacably.[11] rest in the cities.[17] When Babylon nally was attacked,
the Assyrians were victorious. Civil war prevented by
For his assignment of his brother, Ashurbanipal sent a
statue of the divinity Marduk with him as sign of good further military aid, and in 648 BC Borsippa and Baby-
lon were besieged. Without aid the situation was hope-
will.[12] Shamash-shuma-ukins power was limited. He
performed Babylonian rituals but the ocial building less. After two years Shamash-shum-ukin met his end in
his burning palace just before the city surrendered. This
projects were still executed by his younger brother. Dur-
ing his rst years Elam was still in peace as it was un- time Babylon was not destroyed, as under Sennacherib,
der his father. Ashurbanipal sent food supplies to the but a massacre of the rebels took place, according to
Elamites during a famine. Around 664 BC the situation the kings inscriptions, with the Assyrians exacting sav-
changed and Urtaku, the Elamite king, attacked Assyrias age revenge upon the Babylonians, Arameans, Chaldeans
colony of Babylonia by surprise. Assyria delayed in send- and Persians, together with an invasion of Arabia and
ing aid to Babylon. This could have been caused for two the brutal subjugation of the Arab tribes to the south of
reasons: either the soothing messages of Elamite am- Mesopotamia. Ashurbanipal allowed Babylon to keep its
bassadors or Ashurbanipal might simply not have been semi autonomous position, but it became more formal-
present at that time. However the Assyrians eventually ized than before. The next king Kandalanu (an Assyrian
attacked and the Elamites retreated before the Assyrian governor) left no ocial inscription, probably as his func-
troops, and in the same year Urtaku died. He was suc- tion was only ritual.[18]
ceeded by Teumman (Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak)
who was not his legitimate heir, so many Elamite princes 2.78.4 End of the Assyrian Empire
had to ee to Ashurbanipals court, including Urtakus
oldest son Humban-nikash. In 658/657 BC the two em- During the nal two decades of Ashurbanipals rule, As-
pires clashed again, when the province of Gambulu in 664 syria was peaceful and its dominance went unchallenged,
rebelled against the Assyrians and Ashurbanipal decided but the country apparently faced an underlying decline
to punish them. On the other hand, Teumman saw his due to over-expansion, the lack of funds from its devas-
authority threatened by the Elamite princes at the As- tated colonies, and insucient troops to govern its vast
syrian court and demanded their extradition. The Assyr- empire. Documentation from the last years of Ashurba-
ian forces invaded Elam and fought a battle at the Ulaya nipals reign is scarce. The last attestations of Ashurban-
river.[13] ipals reign are of his year 38 (631 BC), but according to
Elam was defeated in the battle in which, according to As- the Greek historian Castor, he reigned for 42 years until
[19]
syrian reliefs, Teumman committed suicide.[14] Ashurba- 627 BC.
nipal installed Humban-nikash as king of Madaktu and After Ashurbanipals death in 627 BC he was succeeded
another prince, Tammaritu, as king of the city Hidalu. by Ashur-etil-ilani (626 623 BC). However, Assyria
Elam was considered a vassal of Assyria and tribute was soon descended into a series of internal civil wars that
imposed on it. With the Elamite problem solved the would ultimately lead to its downfall. Ashur-etil-ilani
Assyrians could nally punish Gambulu and seized its was deposed as ruler in 623 BC by a general named
capital. Then the victorious army marched home taking Sin-shumu-lishir who was also declared king of Baby-
with them the head of Teumman. In Nineveh, when the lon. Ashur-etil-ilanis brother Sin-shar-ishkun deposed
Elamite ambassadors saw the head, one tore out his beard the usurper in 622 BC, but he too was beset by a series of
and the other committed suicide. As further humiliation crippling civil wars against his rule in Assyria itself. Dur-
the head of the Elamite king was put on display at the ing his rule, the Assyrian Empire began to unravel, with
port of Nineveh. The death and head of Teumman was subject peoples ceasing to pay tribute. Babylonia took
depicted multiple times in the reliefs of Ashurbanipals advantage of the anarchy in Assyria and rebelled under
palace.[15] Nabopolassar who claimed the throne in 620 BC, and the
Friction grew between the two brother kings and in next four years saw Sin-shar-iskun encamped in Babylo-
652 BC Babylon rebelled. This time Babylon was not nia trying to unseat Nabopolassar whilst trying to quell
alone it had allied itself with a host of peoples re- wholesale rebellion amongst his own people in the Assyr-
sentful of Assyrian rule, including Sutean, Chaldean and ian heartland.
Aramean tribes dwelling in its southern regions, the kings The anarchic state in Mesopotamia weakened Assyria to
78 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
such a degree that a number of its vassal peoples - the banipals palace in the Nineveh was re-excavated in De-
Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians and cember 1853. The library was discovered in the Lion-
Cimmerians, attacked it in unison in 616 BC, and af- Hunt Room (Murray, 2009).[22] The Library of Ashur-
ter a brutal struggle, sacked Nineveh and slew Sin-shar- banipal at Nineveh is perhaps the most compelling dis-
ishkun in 612 BC. Assyrian resistance continued from covery in the Ancient Near East (despite how, unfortu-
612 BC, under Ashur-uballit II, an Assyrian general who nately, the British discoverers kept no record of their nd-
was crowned amid the house to house ghting in Nin- ings from dierent sites and soon after reaching Europe,
eveh and managed to ght his way out of the city and the tablets appeared to have been irreparably mixed with
form a new Assyrian capital at Harran. However, defeat each other and with tablets originating from other sites,
by the alliance at Carchemish in 605 BC ended any re- see: Library of Ashurbanipal 1, Discovery). There have
alistic hopes of a resurrection of an Assyrian empire, al- been over 30,000 clay tablets and fragments uncovered in
though traces of Assyrian imperial organisation, admin- Ashurbanipals library,[23] providing archaeologists with
istration and possible resistance endured in and around an amazing wealth of Mesopotamian literary, religious
Dur-Katlimmu until 599 BC. and administrative work.
Those clay tablets were written in cuneiform, which de-
rives from the Latin word cunea which means wedge
2.78.5 Art and culture in English, because it is created by making wedges on
clay tablets. The Assurbanipal Library in Nineveh was
a royal library, and the rst library to classify their col-
lection according to genres. Four-sided tablets were uti-
lized for nancial transactions and two-sided clay tablets
were reserved for agricultural records (Murray, 2009).[22]
Among the ndings was the Enuma Elish, also known
as the Epic of Creation,[24] which depicts a traditional
Babylonian view of creation where the god Marduk slays
Tiamat, the personication of salt water, and creates the
world from her body. In this particular version, man
is created from the blood of a revolting god, Qingu,
in order to toil on behalf of the gods. Also found in
Nineveh, The Epic of Gilgamesh[25] is a compelling ac-
count of the hero and his friend Enkidu seeking out to
destroy the demon Humbaba. The Gods punished the
pair for their arrogance, however, by having Enkidu die
from an illness. After Enkidus death, Gilgamesh seeks
Utnapishtim, the survivor of the Deluge, in order to nd
out the secret of immortality. Also the Annals of Ashur-
banipal were found here. The annals of Ashurbanipal
were detailed, almost novelistic accounts of his military
and civic achievements.[26]
The library also included hymns and prayers, medical,
mathematical, ritual, divinatory and astrological texts,
alongside all sorts of administrative documents, letters
The king, detail from the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal and contracts. The discovery of these tablets in 1853
by Hormuzd Rassam (himself an Assyrian) provided
Ashurbanipal was proud of his scribal education. He as- the modern world its rst detailed glimpse of the lan-
serts this in the statement: I Assurbanipal within [the guages and literature of ancient Mesopotamia (Murray,
palace], took care of the wisdom of Nebo, the whole of 2009).[22] Ashurbanipal had a fascination with the past,
the inscribed tablets, of all the clay tablets, the whole of and during his forty-two year reign he sponsored the
their mysteries and diculties, I solved..[20] He was one collection and copying of older texts for his library at
of the few kings who could read the cuneiform script in Nineveh.[27]
Akkadian and Sumerian, and claimed that he even read Aside from the many other myths found in Nineveh, a
texts from before the great ood. He was also able to large selection of omen texts has been excavated and
solve mathematical problems. During his reign, he col- deciphered. Marc Van de Mieroop points out the Enuma
lected cuneiform texts from all over Mesopotamia, espe- Anu Enlil was a popular text among them: It contained
cially Babylonia, in the library of Nineveh.[21] omens dealing with the moon, its visibility, eclipses, and
Nineveh was the capital city of Assyria from the 9th7th conjunction with planets and xed stars, the sun, its
centuries BC, but had been destroyed in 612 BC. Ashur- corona, spots, and eclipses, the weather, namely light-
2.78. ASHURBANIPAL 79
Assyria. Feast of Assurbanipal, King and Queen at table; British [2] Ashurbanipal from the Encyclopdia Britannica
Museum Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collec-
[3] See other versions at Ezra 4:10
tion
[4] Marcus Junianus Justinus. Epitome of the Philippic His-
tory of Pompeius Trogus. His successors too, following
ning, thunder, and clouds, and the planets and their visi- his example, gave answers to their people through their
bility, appearance, and stations.[28] ministers. The Assyrians, who were afterwards called
Other genres found during excavations included stan- Syrians, held their empire thirteen hundred years. The
dard lists used by scribes and scholars, word lists, bilin- last king that reigned over them was Sardanapalus, a man
more eeminate than a woman.
gual vocabularies, lists of signs and synonyms, lists of
medical diagnoses, astronomic/astrological texts. The [5] Northen Magill, Frank; Christina J. Moose; Alison Aves;
scribal texts proved to be very helpful in deciphering Taylor and Francis (1998). Dictionary of World Biogra-
cuneiform.[21] phy: The ancient world. pp. 141142.
The Nineveh library was Ashurbanipals passion. In or- [6] 1.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Melville, Sarah C. (1999).
der to preserve the wisdom and knowledge of his time The role of Naqia/Zakutu in Sargonid politics. Helsinki:
the king accumulated several works. He commissioned Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. ISBN 9514590406.
copies of literary works from libraries around the king-
[7] Luckenbill, D.D. Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylo-
dom by scribes in order to obtain the hidden treasures
nia II. p. 314.
of the scribes knowledge. {{[29] }}
The British Museum in London has the Lion Hunt of [8] It must be noted, however, that these atrocities were
usually reserved for those local princes and their no-
Ashurbanipal, an exhilarating set of Assyrian palace re-
bles who had revolted and that in contrast with the Is-
liefs from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal, also exca- raelites, for instance, who exterminated the Amalekites
vated at Nineveh, depicting the king hunting and killing for purely ethno-cultural reasons, the Assyrians never in-
lions. In Assyria, the lion hunt was seen as a royal sport; dulged in systematic genocides. (Georges Roux, Ancient
the depictions were seen as a symbol of the kings ability Iraq, Third Edition, p. 291)
to guard the nation.[30] The Garden Party relief shows
the king and his queen having a banquet celebrating the [9] They have been maligned. Certainly they could be rough
Assyrian triumph over Tuemman in the campaign against and tough to maintain order, but they were defenders
of civilization, not barbarian destroyers. (H.W.F. Saggs,
Elam. The ne carvings serve as testimony to Ashurbani-
The Might That Was Assyria, p. 2)
pals high regard for art, but also communicate an impor-
tant message meant to be passed down for posterity.[31] [10] Roaf, M. Cultural atlas of Mesopotamia and the ancient
near east 2004. pp. 190191.
The sculptor Fred Parhad (1934) created a larger-than-
life statue of Ashurbanipal, which was placed on a [11] Georges Roux Ancient Iraq
street near the San Francisco City Hall main square in
1988.[32][33] The sculpture shows Asurbanipal wearing a [12] Frame, G. Babylonia 689-627. p. 104.
short tunic and holds a lion cub in his proper right arm. [13] This is the name according to Assyrian sources; the river
The gure stands on a concrete base, with bronze plaque is today identied with either the Karkheh or Karun.
and rosettes. The statue stands across from City Hall next
to the Asian Art Museum and faces the San Francisco Li- [14] Banipal, Cem (1986). The War of Banipalian. ankaya:
brary. Bilkentftp Press. pp. 3152.
Robert E. Howard wrote a short story entitled The Fire [15] Frame, G. Babylonia 689627 BC. pp. 118124.
of Asshurbanipal (sic), rst published in the Decem-
[16] Steiner and Ninms, RB 92 1985
ber 1936 issue of Weird Tales magazine, about an ac-
cursed jewel belonging to a king of long ago, whom the [17] Frame, G. Babylonia 689627 BC. pp. 131141.
80 CHAPTER 2. ASSYRIAN KINGS
[18] Oates, J. (2003). Babylon. p. 123. Luckenbill, Daniel David (1926). Ancient Records
of Assyria and Babylonia: From Sargon to the End.
[19] Most important examples are the Harran inscription and
2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
the Uruk king list.
[20] Cylinder A, Column I, Lines 3133, in Smith, George. Murray, S. (2009). The Library: An Illustrated His-
History of Assurbanipal, Translated from the Cuneiform tory. New York, NY:: Skyhorse Pub.
Inscriptions. London: Harrison and Sons, 1871: pg.6
Oates, J. (1965). Assyrian Chronology,
[21] Roaf, M. (2004). Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the 631-612 B.C. Iraq. 27 (2): 135159.
Ancient Near East. p. 191. doi:10.2307/4199788.
[22] Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library: An Illustrated His- Olmstead, A. T. (1923). History of Assyria. New
tory. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing. pp. 310. York: Scribner.
ISBN 9780838909911.
Russell, John Malcolm (1991). Sennacheribs
[23] https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_
projects/ashurbanipal_library_phase_1.aspx Assurban- Palace without Rival at Nineveh. Chicago: Univer-
ipal Library Phase 1, British Museum One sity of Chicago Press.
[30] ""Assyria: Lion Hunt (Room 10a). British Museum.. History Of Assurbanipal, Translated from the
Retrieved 23 November 2014. Cuneiform Inscriptions by George Smith
[31] ""'Garden Party' relief from the North Palace of Ashur- Historical Prism Inscriptions of Ashurbanipal I:
banipal (Room S),. British Museum.. Retrieved 23 Editions E, B15, D, and K Oriental Institute
November 2014.
Geldings for the Gods and the origine in life are
[32] Smithsonian Art Inventories Catalog Ashurbanipal,
(sculpture)". Retrieved 23 November 2014. Greece and the myth of Greece and Greek people
[33] Ashurbanipal Statue at the Main San Francisco Library [1] Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los An-
in San Francisco. Retrieved 23 November 2014. geles: J. Paul Gerry Museum. pp. 1617.
[34] Price, R. M. (ed.): Nameless Cults: The Cthulhu Mythos
Fiction of Robert E. Howard, Chaosium (2001), pp. 99
118. 2.79 Ashur-etil-ilani
central Assyria covering this time, and the lack of o- 2.80 Sin-shumu-lishir
cial recordings of events (e.g. royal inscriptions). The
most important source for this period is the Nabopolas- Sin-shumu-lishir (or Sin-shum-lishir, Sn-umu-
sar Chronicle, which, however, is quite fragmentary for lir), was a usurper king of a part of the Assyrian empire
this period. during 626 BC. Little is known about this king due to the
lack of sources covering this time.
2.79.2 Reign
2.80.1 Reign
The death of Ashurbanipal between 631 and 627 BC
opened the way for a serious struggle for the control Sin-shumu-lishir rst appears in Assyrian sources as a
of Assyria between several pretenders which led to the general of the Assyrian king Ashur-etil-ilani.[1] It seems
downfall of the Neo Assyrian Empire. The contest may that he later tried to seize the throne. He is credited with
have begun a few years earlier during Ashurbanipals life- a reign of one year by the Uruk king list, preceding Sin-
time. The development of the events, and even the num- shar-ishkun.
ber of parties involved is not known with certainty. It
His rst year was attested in texts from the Babylonian
seems fairly certain that upon Ashurbanipals death, allied
cities of Bab-ili, Nippur, and Ru'a.[2] Because there is
hordes of Scythians, Cimmerians, Medes and Persians,
only evidence about his rst year as ruler, it is not likely
taking advantage of Assyrias weakness due to internal
that his reign lasted much longer. Sin-shumu-lishir never
strife, crossed the borders of the Assyrian Empire, de-
controlled all of the Assyrian empire and most likely only
stroying Ashkelon and raiding as far as Egypt. Calah
a part of Babylonia.
(Nimrud) was burned, but the strong walls of Nineveh
protected the remnants of the Assyrian army that had His short reign must have taken place in 626 BC because
taken refuge there. When the raiders had passed on to before that year Kandalanu reigned over his attested cities
other regions, a new palace was erected among the ru- and after that Nabopolassar and Sinsharishkun did so.[3]
ins of the neighbouring city. But its architectural poverty
and small size show that the resources of Assyria were at
a low ebb. 2.80.2 Notes
[1] R. Borger J.C.S. 19 1965 p 75
2.79.3 Dating his reign [2] N. Na'aman, ZA 81 1991, p. 251
took advantage of the anarchy to quietly free themselves The fate of Sinsharishkun is not certain, as the section
from Assyrian rule, and then Assyria faced threats from of the Babylonian chronicle in which he is mentioned
the Chaldeans, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Scythians, at the siege of Nineveh is damaged. It is likely that he
and Cimmerians.[1] was killed defending his capital during Battle of Nineveh
(612 BC) by Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes/Persians
and Scythians.
2.81.2 Last Strike against Babylon
Despite the loss of its major cities, an independent As-
syria endured, centered on its last capital city of Harran
After temporarily defeating his rivals, Sinsharishkun
under its last king Ashur-uballit II. However this too was
faced a much larger threat. Babylon, a vassal state of
overrun by the alliance in 608 BC, and a nal victory was
Assyria for three centuries, took advantage of the anar-
achieved at Carchemish in 605 BC.
chy within Assyria and rebelled under the previously un-
known Nabopolassar, the leader of the Chaldean peoples
of south eastern Mesopotamia, in 626 BC. 2.81.4 In literature
What followed was a long war fought in the
Mesopotamian heartland. Nabopolassar tried to The ctional discovery of the tomb of Sinsharishkun just
capture Nippur, the main Assyrian center of power in before the outbreak of the First World War is the central
Babylonia, but was defeated by Assyrian reinforcements. topic of the novel Land of Marvels by Barry Unsworth.
However Nabopolassar did manage to take the city of
Babylon itself with the help of the Babylonian citizens,
and was crowned king in the city circa 625 BC. 2.81.5 References
Sinsharishkun, crippled by civil war in Assyria proper, [1] Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq
then lost more ground before succeeded in recapturing
Uruk in the far south in about 624 BC, only to quickly lose Na'aman, N., Chronology and history in the late
it again. Sin-shar-ishkun led a large army to Babylonia Assyrian empire"', Zeitschrift fr Assyriologie, 81
in 623 BC to nally crush the Babylonian and Chaldean (1991), 243-267.
rebels, however yet another major rebellion broke out
in the Assyrian homeland. A relief army was sent back Zawadzki, S., The fall of Assyria and Median-
north, but promptly joined the rebels, so that the usurper Babylonian relation in light of the Nabopolassar
could reach the capital Nineveh without interference, and chronicle, Poznan 1988.
claim the throne. Chronicles for the next few years are
Unsworth, B., Land of Marvels: a Novel, Hutchin-
mostly absent due to the civil anarchy in Assyria, how-
son, London 2009.
ever eventually Sin-shar-ishkun was able to quell the lat-
est homeland rebellion. Crucially, precious time was
lost to solve the Babylonian problem, with Nabopolas-
sar taking advantage to entrench himself as ruler of most
of Babylonia. In 620 or 619 BC Nabopolassar suc-
cessfully captured Nippur and so became the master of 2.82 Ashur-uballit II
Babylonia. However, he was forced to contend with Sin-
Shar-Ishkuns Assyrian armies encamped in the Babylo- Ashur-uballit II (Aur-uballi II) was the last king of the
nian heartlands attempting to unseat him for the next four Neo Assyrian Empire, succeeding Sin-shar-ishkun (623
years. 612 BC). He took his name from Ashur-uballit I, the As-
syrian king who had overthrown Mitanni Empire and de-
feated the Hittite Empire, and started the Middle Assyr-
2.81.3 War in the Assyrian heartlands ian Empire (1365 BC 1020 BC). While it is clear that
he was a member of the Assyrian royal family, and that
This stalemate ended in 616 BC, when Nabopolassar he was a tartan (General) of the Assyrian army before
entered into an alliance with Cyaxares, king of the declaring himself king, there is some disagreement as to
Medes, who had also taken advantage of the unremit- whether or not he was the brother of Sin-shar-ishkun.
ting civil wars in Assyria to free his Iranian peoples: the
Medes, Persians and Parthians from the Assyrian yoke
and form them into a powerful force. In 616 BC, this al- 2.82.1 Reign
liance of peoples, now also including the Scythians and
Cimmerians felt strong enough to move the center of Ashur-uballit II refused to submit in vassalage to
operations northward and launch an attack on the war Cyaxares and Nabopolassar, and fought his way out
ravaged Assyrian heartland. In the years that followed of Nineveh during the siege and capture of that city
Ashur, Kalhu, and Nineveh were besieged and destroyed by the Babylonian-Chaldean-Mede-Persian-Scythian-
amid bitter ghting. Cimmerian alliance in mid 612 BC. Thereafter, he
2.82. ASHUR-UBALLIT II 83
2.82.2 Fate
Ashur-uballit II again managed to ght his way out of the
city, and called once more upon Assyrias former Egyp-
tian colony. The forces of Egypt under Pharaoh Necho II
came to his assistance. King Josiah of Judah allied him-
self with Babylon and Media and tried to block Nechos
way, but was defeated and killed at Megiddo. Pharaoh
Necho II joined with Ashur-uballit II and marched on
with him to besiege Harran in 609 BC. They were de-
feated and the Egyptians retreated into northern Syria.
It is possible that Ashur-uballit II was killed in this second
siege of Harran, although this is not certain. He may have
survived and been involved in the nal Egyptian defeat
along with some remnants of the former assyrian empires
army in the region, at Carchemish in 605 BC, or survived
and lived on in obscurity.[3] In any event, he disappeared
from history, marking the nal end of the Assyrian em-
pire.
2.82.3 Notes
[1] Approche scientique d'une chronologie absolue
Archived February 9, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
(French)
Babylonian kings
3.1 Nabopolassar ranean eet along the shore. He prepared to cross the
ridge of hills which shuts in on the south the great Jezreel
Nabopolassar (/nboplsr/; Akkadian: Nab- Valley, but he found his passage blocked by the Judean
apal-uur; c. 658 BC 605 BC) was a king of Babylonia army. Their king, Josiah, sided with the Babylonians and
and a central gure in the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Em- attempted to block his advance at Megiddo, where a erce
pire.[1] The death of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal around battle was fought and Josiah was killed. Necho continued
627 BC resulted in political instability. In 626 BC, a on and joining forces with Ashur-uballit, they crossed the
native dynasty arose under Nabopolassar, a former As- Euphrates and laid siege to Harran. Failing to capture
syrian ocial. Nabopolassar made Babylon his capital Harran, they retreated to northern Syria.
and ruled over Babylonia for a period of about twenty In 605 BC, Nabopolassars son, crown prince Nebuchad-
years (626605 BC). He is credited with founding the nezzar fought Necho and the remnants of the Assyrian
Neo-Babylonian Empire. By 616 BC, Nabopolassar had army at the Battle of Carchemish. Within months of
united the entire area under his rule.[2] his abdication in 605 BC, Nabopolassar died of natural
Nabopolassar formed an alliance with Cyaxares of the causes at about 53 years of age, and Nebuchadnezzar
[2]
II
Medes to confront the Assyrians and their Egyptian al- hurried to Babylon to secure the throne.
lies. By 615 BC he had seized Nippur.[3] He then led During Nabopolassars reign, there was a boom of Neo-
his forces to assist the Medes besieging the city of Ashur, Babylonian building projects that would continue through
but the Babylonian army did not reach the battleeld until the reign of his son, Nebuchadnezzar II. Temples and
after the city had fallen.[4] ziggurats were repaired or rebuilt in almost all the old
dynastic cities, while Babylon itself was enlarged and sur-
rounded by a double enceinte, or line of fortication, con-
3.1.1 Nineveh sisting of towered and moated fortress walls. The rst
mention of Nebuchadnezzar II comes from the records
Assyria, weakened by internal strife and ineectual rule, of Nabopolassar, saying he was a laborer in the restora-
was unable to resist the Babylonians and the Medes , tion of the temple of Marduk.[6]
who united to sack the Assyrian capital of Nineveh in
A cylinder found in 1921 in Baghdad, Iraq is attributed
612 BC.[5] Following a prolonged siege at the Battle of
to Nabopolassar. He is described therein as extremely pi-
Nineveh, Nabopolassar took control of the city. Ashur-
ous, and that he sought out the temples... and the com-
uballit II was a member of the Assyrian royal family and
plete performance of their rites. He attributes his success
a tartan (general) in the army. He became king after Sin-
to Shazu (one of the names associated with Marduk[7] ).
shar-ishkun, who may have been his brother, and who
Throughout the inscription, Nabopolassar describes some
probably died during the fall of Ninevah.
of his greatest military conquests and submits himself to
Marduk and other deities.[8]
3.1.2 Harran
84
3.2. NEBUCHADNEZZAR II 85
Nabopolassar Cylinder
3.2 Nebuchadnezzar II
Nebuchadnezzar redirects here. For other uses, see
Nebuchadnezzar (disambiguation).
Nebuchadnezzars dream
Bout of insanity
Daniel Interpreting Nebuchadnezzars Dream Daniel 4 concluded with Nebuchadnezzar losing his san-
ity and living in the wild like an animal for seven times
Daniel 2 is attributed to the second year of Nebuchad- (usually thought to be seven years) during his reign. Af-
nezzars reign, in which Nebuchadnezzar is said to dream ter this, his sanity and position are restored. Theologians
of a huge image made of various materials (gold, silver, have interpreted this story in several ways. Origen at-
bronze, iron and clay). The prophet Daniel tells him that tributed the metamorphosis as a representation of the fall
Gods interpretation is that it stands for the rise and fall of Lucifer, Bodin and Cluvier maintained it was a meta-
of world powers, starting with Nebuchadnezzars own as morphosis of both soul and body, Tertullian conned the
the golden head. transformation to the body only, without the loss of rea-
son, cases of which Augustine stated were reported in
Italy, but gave them little credit. Gaspard Peucer asserted
that the transformation of men into wolves was common
Golden idol and ery furnace in Livonia. Some Jewish rabbis asserted there was an ex-
change of souls between the man and ox, while others
In Daniel 3, Nebuchadnezzar erected a large idol made argued for an apparent or docetic change which was not
of gold for worship during a public ceremony on the real. The most generally received opinion, which was also
plain of Dura. When three Hebrews, whose names were held by Jerome, was that the madman was under the in-
Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (respectively renamed uence of hypochondriachal monomania by which God
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego by their captors, to fa- could humble the pride of kings.[19]
cilitate their assimilation into Babylonian culture), refuse
Modern writers have speculated that the biblical story
to take part, he has them cast into a ery furnace. They
might refer to an illness with a natural organic cause.
are protected by what Nebuchadnezzar describes as The
Some consider it to have been an attack of clinical lycan-
son of God (Daniel 3:25 KJV) and emerge unscathed
thropy or alternatively porphyria.[20] Psychologist Henry
without even the smell of smoke.[15] Daniel 3 goes on to
Gleitman wrote that Nebuchadnezzars insanity was a re-
say that Nebuchadnezzar realized that no man-made god
sult of general paresis or paralytic dementia seen in ad-
has the power to save and praised the God of Shadrach,
vanced cases of pre-Columbian syphilis.[21]
Meshach, and Abednego. He then made a decree that
anyone of any nation that would make any accusation Some scholars[22] think that Nebuchadnezzars portrayal
against God would be mutilated and their homes be by Daniel is a mixture of traditions about Nebuchadnez-
destroyed.[16] zar and about Nabonidus (Nabuna'id) who became con-
fused with him. For example, Nabonidus was the natural,
or paternal father of Belshazzar, and the seven years of in-
sanity could be related to Nabonidus sojourn in Tayma
Nebuchadnezzars dream of an immense tree
in the desert.
reference to Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 4:7),[23] as well as an of Saddam Hussein inscribed on bricks inserted
account of Nebuchadnezzars siege of Jerusalem and loot- into the walls of the ancient city of Babylon dur-
ing and destruction of the temple (Jer. 52). ing a reconstruction project he initiated;[34] he
named one of his Republican Guards divisions af-
ter Nebuchadnezzar.[35]
Helel, Son of the Morning
A bottle of wine with a volume equivalent to 20 stan-
Chapter 14 of the Book of Isaiah refers to what Jewish dard bottles (15 litres) is called a Nebuchadnezzar.
exegesis of the prophetic vision of Isaiah 14:1215 iden-
ties as King Nebuchadnezzar II; the Hebrew text says Nebuchadnezzars Furnace is a type of daylily.
the of son day-star, ,Shaar ben Helel
) - The name of Morpheus vessel in the lms The Ma-
morning(".[24] It is a taunting prophecy against an oppres- trix and The Matrix Reloaded.
sive king.[25] In Isaiah 14,[26] the king is being mocked,
as he is struck through with a sword, killed, and thrown
into a common grave. Mainstream Christianity reads into 3.2.6 See also
this passage to the fall of Lucifer because verse 20 says
that this king of Babylon will not be joined with them Babylonia
[all the kings of the nations] in burial, because thou hast
Kings of Babylonia
destroyed thy land, thou hast slain thy people; the seed of
evil-doers shall not be named for ever, but rather be cast
out of the grave, while All the kings of the nations, all 3.2.7 References
of them, sleep in glory, every one in his own house.[27]
Helel ben Shaar may refer to the Morning Star, but [1] Anton Nystrm, Allmn kulturhistoria eller det mnskliga
Isaiah gives no indication that Helel is a star.[28][29] lifvet i dess utveckling, bd 2 (1901)
According to Tabari, Nebuchadnezzar, whose Persian [3] Lamb, Harold. 1960. Cyrus the Great. New York: Dou-
name was Bukhtrashah, was of Persian descent, from the bleday, p. 104.
progeny of Jdharz. Some believe he lived as long as 300 [4] Schrader, Eberhard. 1888. The Cuneiform Inscriptions
years.[30] While much of what is written about Nebuchad- and the Old Testament. London: Williams and Norgate,
nezzar depicts a ruthless warrior, some texts show a ruler p. 48 (footnote).
who was concerned with both spiritual and moral issues
in life and was seeking divine guidance.[31] [5] Chicago Assyrian Dictionary sub Kudurru Ca5'
Nebuchadnezzar was seen as a strong, conquering force in [6] Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book VIII, ch.
Islamic texts and historical compilations, like Tabari. The 68.
Babylonian leader used force and destruction to grow an [7] Ronald F. Youngblood; F. F. Bruce; R. K. Harrison, eds.
empire. He conquered kingdom after kingdom, including (2012). Unlock the Bible: Keys to Exploring the Culture
Phoenicia, Philistia, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Jerusalem, and Times. Thomas Nelson. p. 347. ISBN 1418547263.
and more.[32] The most notable events that Tabaris col-
[8] Allen, Leslie C. (2008). Jeremiah: A Commentary.
lection focuses on is the destruction of Jerusalem.[30]
Westminster John Knox Press. p. 472. ISBN 978-
0664222239.
3.2.5 In popular culture [9] Elgood, Percival George. 1951. Later Dynasties of Egypt.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell, p. 106.
Voltaire interprets the legacy of Nebuchadnezzar and his
[10] Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, The British Mu-
relationship with Amasis in a short story entitled The
seum
White Bull.
[11] Smith, William and Fuller, J.M. 1893. A Dictionary of the
The opera Nabucco (1842) by Giuseppe Verdi. Bible: Comprising Its Antiquities, Biography, Geography,
and Natural History. London: John Murray, vol. I, p.
The Nabucco pipeline, a planned natural gas 314.
pipeline that will transport natural gas from Turkey
to Austria, via Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary. [12] Foster, Karen Polinger (1998). http://environment.yale.
edu/documents/downloads/0-9/103foster.pdf |url= miss-
Saddam Hussein considered himself to be the rein- ing title (help) (PDF). Transformations of Middle Eastern
carnation of Nebuchadnezzar[33] and had the in- Natural Environments: Legacies and Lessons. New Haven:
scription To King Nebuchadnezzar in the reign Yale University. pp. 320329. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
3.2. NEBUCHADNEZZAR II 89
[13] Dalley, Stephanie, (2013) The Mystery of the Hanging [34] Archeology Under Dictatorship, Michael L. Galaty and
Garden of Babylon: an elusive world Wonder traced, Charles Watkinson, p. 203.
OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5
[35] Fontenot, Gregory; Degen, E. J.; Tohn, David. 2005.
[14] Rollinger, Robert (2013). Berossos and the Monu- On point: the United States Army in Operation Iraqi Free-
ments. In Haubold, Johannes; et al. The World of dom. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, p. 263.
Berossos. Harrassowitz. p. 155. ISBN 978-3-447-06728- ISBN 978-1-59114-279-9
7.
[16] Daniel 3:2829. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 17 January Arnold, Bill T. (2005). Who Were the Babylonians?.
2015. BRILL.
[17] Blue Letter Bible Strongs H5732. Bertman, Stephen (2005). Handbook to Life in An-
cient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press.
[18] Daniel 4. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
Cline, Eric H.; Graham, Mark W. (2011). Ancient
[19] Samuel Fallows, The Popular and Critical Bible En-
cyclopaedia and Scriptural Dictionary The Howard- Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam.
Severance Company (1920) Vol. 2 p. 302 Cambridge University Press.
[20] Kroeger, Catherine Clark; Evans, Mary J. (2009). The Dalley, Stephanie (1998). The Legacy of
Womens Study Bible: New Living Translation (Second Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press.
ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-529125-
4. Foster, Benjamin Read; Foster, Karen Polinger
(2009). Civilizations of Ancient Iraq. Princeton Uni-
[21] Henry Gleitman, Psychology (New York: W W Norton, versity Press.
2007), p. 219.
Freedman, David Noel (2000). Nebuchadnez-
[22] Wolfram von Soden: Eine babylonische Volksber-
zar. In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C.
lieferung von Nabonid in den Danielerzhlungen. In:
Zeitschrift fr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 53
Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans.
(1935), pp. 8189.
Lee, Wayne E. (2011). Warfare and Culture in
[23] Calvins Bible Commentaries: Jeremiah and Lamentations, World History. NYU Press.
Part I, John Calvin, translated by John King, Forgotten
Books, 2007, p. 168. McKenzie, John L. (1995). The Dictionary Of The
Bible. Simon and Schuster.
[24] Astronomy Helel, Son of the Morning.. The unedited
full-text of the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia. JewishEncyclo- Wiseman, D.J. (1991a). Babylonia 605539 BC.
pedia.com. Retrieved 1 July 2012. In Boardman, John; Edwards, I. E. S. The Cam-
bridge Ancient History, Volume III Part II. Cam-
[25] Wilken, Robert (2007). Isaiah: Interpreted by Early
bridge University Press.
Christian and Medieval Commentators. Grand Rapids MI:
Wm Eerdmans Publishing. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-8028- Wiseman, D.J. (1991b). Nebuchadrezzar and Baby-
2581-0.
lon: The Schweich Lectures of The British Academy
[26] Bible. 1983. OUP/British Academy.
[29] Isaiah Chapter 14. mechon-mamre.org. The Mamre In- Chapter 23, The Chaldaean Kings in Georges
stitute. Retrieved 29 December 2014. Roux, Ancient Iraq (3rd ed.). London: Penguin
Books, 1992. ISBN 0-14-012523-X
[30] abar, Muammad Ibn-arr A- (1987). The History of
Al-Tabar. State Univ. of New York Pr. pp. 4370. ABC 5: Chronicle Concerning the Early Years of
Nebuchadnezzar
[31] Wiseman, D.J. (1985). Nebuchadrezzar and Babylon.
Oxford. Nabuchodonosor on the Catholic Encyclopedia
[32] Tabouis, G.R. (1931). Nebuchadnezzar. Whittlesey
This article incorporates text from a publication
House. p. 3.
now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George
[33] Encyclopedia of the Developing World, edited by Thomas (1897). "Nebuchadnezzar". Eastons Bible Dictio-
M. Leonard, p. 793. nary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
90 CHAPTER 3. BABYLONIAN KINGS
This article incorporates text from a publication now the latters death.[1] Originally, Josephus assigned eigh-
in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. teen years to his reign,[7] but in a later work, Josephus
(1913). "Nabuchodonosor". Catholic Encyclopedia. states that Berossus assigned a reign of two years.[8] Seder
New York: Robert Appleton. Olam Rabbah assigned twenty-three years to his reign.[9]
Leviticus Rabbah 18:2 states that Evil-Merodach was
Stefan Zawadski, Nebuchadnezzars Campaign in made king while Nebuchadrezzar was still living, and was
the 30th Year (575 BC): A Conict with Tyre?" in punished for this act of rebellion by his father, who had
Mordechai Cogan and Dan`el Kahn (eds), Treasures him imprisoned.[1] In Esther Rabbah, Evil-Merodach,
on Camels Humps: Historical and Literary Studies owing to his fathers actions before his death, is heir to
from the Ancient Near East Presented to Israel Eph'al a bankrupt treasury.[1]
(Jerusalem, Magnes Press, 2008).
Ascent
3.4.3 External links
3.5 Labashi-Marduk
Labashi-Marduk, (Akkadian translation, wearing/clad
in Marduk) [1] was king of Babylon (556 BC), and son
of Neriglissar. Labashi-Marduk succeeded his father
when still only a boy, after the latters four-year reign. Terracotta cylinder by Nabonidus concerning repairs on the tem-
ple of Sn, British Museum
Most likely due to his very young age, he was deemed
unt to rule, and was murdered in a conspiracy only
nine months after his inauguration[2] He is traditionally Nabonidus background is not clear. He said in his in-
listed as a king of the Chaldean Dynasty, being, proba- scriptions that he was of unimportant origins.[2] Similarly,
bly, the son of Neriglissar and his wife, the daughter of his mother Addagoppe, who lived to an old age and may
Nebuchadnezzar. Nabonidus was chosen next as the new have been connected to the temple of the moon-god Sn in
king. Harran, does not mention her family background in her
inscriptions. There are two arguments for an Assyrian
background: repeated references in Nabonidus royal
3.5.1 References propaganda and imagery to Ashurbanipal, the last great
Neo-Assyrian king; and Nabonidus originating from, and
[1] Hyatt, The Interpreters Bible, 1951, volume V his special interest in Harran, an Assyrian city and the last
stronghold of the Neo-Assyrians after the fall of Nineveh,
[2] Albertz, R.; Israel in exile: The history and literature of their main capital.[3] However, it has been pointed out that
the sixth century BC; Society of Biblical Literature, At- Nabonidus royal propaganda was hardly dierent from
lanta 2003, ISBN 1-58983-055-5. his predecessors, while his Persian successor, Cyrus the
92 CHAPTER 3. BABYLONIAN KINGS
Reign
a city being conquered. Spoliated statues were From the month of Kislmu to the
usually carried o to the land of the victorious month of Addaru, the gods of Akkad which
power (Assyria in most known cases) where Nabonidus had made come down to Babylon,
they remained in captivity until a turn of were returned to their sacred cities.
events would allow them to be restored to their Babylonian Chronicles on the 17th year of
shrines. (...) Rather than incur the capture of the reign of Nabonidus.
their gods and the resulting implications of
such capture, namely, that the gods were aban-
doning the city and calling for its destruction,
cities often tried to prevent the transfer of the Nabonidus stay in Tayma It is not clear yet why
statues to enemy territory, since continued Nabonidus stayed in Tayma for so long. His reason for
possession of them in the face of adversity going there seems clear: Tayma was an important oasis,
proved that the gods were still protecting from where lucrative Arabian trade routes could be con-
and supporting their people and native land. trolled. The Assyrians before him had already attempted
(...) [D]uring the months which preceded the to do the same.[13] However, why Nabonidus stayed for
invasion and conquest of Babylonia by the so long (probably about ten years, perhaps from 553
Persians in 539 BC, King Nabonidus ordered 543 BC) and why he returned when he did remain un-
a massive gathering of the gods of Sumer resolved questions. It has been proposed that this was
and Akkad into the capital. Unlike previous because he did not feel at home in Babylon, which was
attempts, the gathering ordered by Nabonidus opposed to his emphasis on Sn. Regarding his return,
is documented by a number of historical and this may have had to do with the mounting threat of Cyrus
archival sources. [after this, Beaulieu goes on and growing disagreements with Belshazzar, who was re-
to discuss these sources in detail] lieved of his command directly after Nabonidus had come
P.-A. Beaulieu 1993:241-2 back, along with a number of administrators.[14] During
his stay, Nabonidus adorned Tayma with a complex of
royal buildings, most of which have come to light during
recent excavations.[15]
But this exposed him to criticism by his enemies, notably
Cyrus, who was trying to show why he was a better king
than Nabonidus had been, and took this as an example The Persian conquest of Babylonia
of Nabonidus lack of tness to rule.[12] In the words of,
again, Beaulieu: Dierent accounts of the fall of Babylon survive. Ac-
cording to the Cyrus Cylinder, the people opened their
The returning of the statues to their gates for Cyrus and greeted him as their liberator. Isaiah
sanctuaries provided Cyrus with one of his 4055 prophesied that the Persians would carry o Baby-
many propagandistic anti-Nabonidus themes. lonian women and cultic statues. Herodotus said that
Not content with re-establishing the gods in Cyrus defeated the Babylonians outside their city, after
their residence, he charged the deposed king which a siege began. When this took too long, Cyrus di-
with having brought them to the capital against verted the Euphrates, so that his troops could march into
their will. the city through the river bed.[16] Xenophon had a sim-
P.-A. Beaulieu 1993:243 ilar view, but he did not mention the battle.[17] Finally,
Berossus claimed that Cyrus beat the Babylonian army,
but this time, Nabonidus was supposed to have ed to
And in the words of Cyrus himself, as recorded on the nearby Borsippa. There he hid, while Cyrus took Baby-
Cyrus Cylinder, found in Babylon in 1879: lon and demolished its outer walls. When Cyrus turned
towards Borsippa, Nabonidus soon surrendered.[18]
As for the gods of Sumer and Akkad As these accounts contradict each other, (the Cyrus
which Nabonidus, to the wrath of the lord of Cylinder and Isaiah; for the latter, see Cyrus in the
the gods, brought to Babylon, at the command Judeo-Christian tradition), oral traditions (Herodotus and
of Marduk, the great lord, I (Cyrus) caused Xenophon) and conicting records (Berossus), they are
them to dwell in peace in their sanctuaries, (in) quite confusing. The Nabonidus Chronicle is more help-
pleasing dwellings. May all the gods I brought ful. This is a part of the Babylonian Chronicles, which
(back) to their sanctuaries plead daily before are concise, factual accounts of historical events, and
Bel and Nabu for the lengthening of my days, are therefore considered to be very reliable, although not
may they intercede favorably on my behalf. very informative.[19] Regarding the capture of Babylon by
Cyrus Cylinder, 3034 Cyrus, this text says:
Tendezschriften: Textausgabe und Grammatik (Mnster: Retrieved 2007-10-16. Also: H. Hayajneh, First evi-
Ugarit-Verlag 2001); P.-A. Beaulieu, Nabonidus the mad dence of Nabonidus in the Ancient North Arabian inscrip-
king: A reconsideration of his steles from Harran and tions from the region of Tayma, Proceedings of the Sem-
Babylon, in M. Heinz and M.H. Feldman (eds.), Rep- inar for Arabian Studies 31 (2001:8195).
resentations of political power: Case histories from times
of change and dissolving order in the ancient Near East [16] Herodotus, Histories 1.188191
(Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2007), 13766.
[17] Xenophon, Cyropaedia 7.5.136
[2] Collected in Beaulieu 1989.
[18] From the Babyloniaca: Fragmente der griechischen His-
[3] W. Mayer, Nabonidus Herkunft, in M. Dietrich and toriker 680F9a = Flavius Josephus, Against Apion 1.149
O. Loretz (eds.), Dubsar anta-men: Studien zur Altorien- 153.
talistik (Mnster: Ugarit-Verlag 1998), 24561; Parpola,
Simo (2004). National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo- [19] R.J. van der Spek, "Review of J.-J. Glassner,
Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Mesopotamian chronicles (ed. B. Foster) (Leiden:
Times (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. Brill 2004)" (PDF)., Review of Biblical Literature
JAAS. 18 (2): 19. Similarly: Parpola, Simo. Assyrians (2005/09).
after Assyria. University of Helsinki, The Neo-Assyrian
Text Corpus Project (State Archives of Assyria). [20] P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A history of the Per-
sian Empire (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2002), 505,
[4] A. Kuhrt, "'Ex oriente lux': How we may widen our per- 807; G. Tolini, "Quelques lments concernant la prise
spectives on ancient history, in R. Rollinger, A. Luther de Babylon par Cyrus (octobre 539 av. J.-C.)" (PDF).,
and J. Wiesehfer (eds.), Getrennte Wege? Kommunika- Arta (2005/03); A. Kuhrt, "Ancient Near Eastern his-
tion, Raum und Wahrnehmung in der alten Welt (Frank- tory: The case of Cyrus the Great of Persia (PDF)., in
furt am Main: Verlag Antike 2007), 61732. H.G.M. Williamson (ed.), Understanding the history of
ancient Israel. (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007),
[5] Watrall, Ethan. [http://anthropology.
10727.
msu.edu/anp203h-ss14/files/2013/08/
ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2-.pdf>. [21] J. Wiesehfer, Kontinuitt oder Zsur? Babylon under
ANP203-History-of-Archaeology-Lecture-2"] (PDF). den Achaimeniden, in J. Renger (ed.), Babylon: Focus
Anthropology.msu.edu. Retrieved 7 April 2014. Mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege frher Gelehrsamheit,
[6] Lendering, Jona. [http://www.livius.org/na-nd/ Mythos in der Moderne (Saarbrcken: SDV 1999), 167
nabonidus/cylinder.html> Nabonidus Cylinder from 88; M. Jursa, The transition of Babylonia from the Neo-
Sippar"]. Livius.org. Retrieved 7 April 2014. Babylonian empire to Achaemenid rule, in H. Crawford
(ed.), Regime change in the ancient Near East and Egypt:
[7] Hurst, K. Kris. The History of Archaeology Part 1. From Sargon of Agade to Saddam Hussein (New York:
About.com. Retrieved 4/5/14. Check date values in: Oxford University Press 2007), 7394.
|access-date= (help)
[22] Kuhrt 2007 ("'Ex oriente lux'...).
[8] Hurst, k. Kris. The History of Archaeology Part 1.
About.com. Retrieved 4/5/14. Check date values in: [23] 1.8688
|access-date= (help)
[24] J. Oelsner, Review of R. Rollinger, Herodots baby-
[9] Beaulieu 1989:4665; Machinist/Tadmor 1993. lonischer logos: Eine kritische Untersuchung der Glaub-
wrdigkeitsdiskussion (Innsbruck: Institut fr Sprach-
[10] Kuhrt 1990. wissenschaft 1993)", Archiv fr Orientforschung 46/47
(1999/2000:378-80); R. Rollinger, The Median em-
[11] P.-A. Beaulieu, An episode in the fall of Babylon to the
pire, the end of Urartu and Cyrus the Great campaign
Persians, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 52 (1993:241-
in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)", Ancient West
61)
& East 7 (2008:4963).
[12] Beaulieu 1993; A. Kuhrt, The Cyrus cylinder and
Achaemenid imperial policy, Journal for the Study of the
Old Testament 25 (1983:8397). 3.6.6 External links
[13] Beaulieu 1989:149205. On Taymas importance for
Cylinder of Nabonidus at the British Museum.
trade: C. Edens and G. Bawden, History of Tayma'
and Hejazi trade during the rst millennium B.C., Jour-
Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar Translation.
nal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 32
(1989:48103).
Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur Translation.
[14] Beaulieu 1989:149205.
Lihyanite inscription of Nabonidus, at Nat. Mu-
[15] An overview of the history of Tayma, current archaeo- seum of Natural History site
logical work, as well as bibliographical references, are
given in Deutsches Archologisches Institut: Tayma. Nabonidus archaeology
96 CHAPTER 3. BABYLONIAN KINGS
out giving his name, also repeatedly refers to the king a shield and defending themselves as best they
that was slain when Babylon fell to the army of Cyrus. could.[11]
Achaemenid invasion Both Xenophon and Daniel 5 describe the demise of Bels-
hazzar as occurring on the night that the city was taken.[12]
Main article: Fall of Babylon Achaemenid invasion Xenophon, Herodotus, and Daniel agree that the city was
taken by surprise, suddenly, at the time of a festival,
and with some (but apparently not much) loss of life.
Cyropaedia is a historical romance written in the early Since Cyropaedia, the silence of other classical sources
4th century BCE by Xenophon and it is considered to be a regarding Belshazzar led to the denial of the historicity
partly ctional biography of Cyrus the Great. Cyropaedia of Daniels naming Belshazzar as the king who was slain,
(4.6.3), but not Herodotus, describes two kings reigning until cuneiform evidence was found corroborating the ex-
over the Babylonian kingdom when the city fell, father istence of Belshazzar as the king reigning in Babylon.
and son, and it was the younger king, who was reigning
when the city was taken and who was killed that night.
Cyropaedia does not name either king. 3.7.4 Jewish tradition
Cyropaedia (7.5.20-33), in agreement with Herodotus
(I.292), says that the combined Median and Persian army Belshazzar appears in many works of classical Jewish
entered the city via the channel of the Euphrates river, rabbinic literature. The chronology of the three Baby-
the river having been diverted into trenches that Cyrus lonian kings is given in the Talmud (Megillah 11a-b) as
had dug for the invasion, and that the city was unpre- follows: Nebuchadnezzar reigned forty-ve years, Evil-
pared because of a great festival that was being observed. merodach twenty-three, and Belshazzar was monarch of
Cyropaedia (7.5.26-35) describes the capture of Babylon Babylonia for two years, being killed at the beginning of
by Gobryas,[10] who led a detachment of men to the cap- the third year on the fatal night of the fall of Babylon
ital and slew the king of Babylon. In 7.5.25, Gobryas (Meg. 11b).
remarks that this night the whole city is given over to The references in the Talmud and the Midrash to Bels-
revelry, including to some extent the guards. Those who hazzar emphasize his tyrannous oppression of his Jewish
opposed the forces under Gobryas were struck down, in- subjects. Several passages in the Prophets are interpreted
cluding those outside the banquet hall. The capture of the as though referring to him and his predecessors. For in-
city, and the slaying of the son king of the king (4.6.3), stance, the passage, As if a man did ee from a lion, and
is described in Cyropaedia (7:5.26-30) as follows: a bear met him (Amos v. 19), the lion is said to rep-
resent Nebuchadnezzar, and the bear, equally ferocious
(26) Thereupon they entered; and of those if not equally courageous, is Belshazzar. (The book of
they met some were struck down and slain, and Amos., nevertheless, is pre-exilic.)
others ed into their houses, and some raised
The three Babylonian kings are often mentioned together
the hue and cry, but Gobryas and his friends
covered the cry with their shouts, as though as forming a succession of impious and tyrannical monar-
they were revellers themselves. And thus, mak- chs who oppressed Israel and were therefore foredoomed
ing their way by the quickest route, they soon to disgrace and destruction. The verse in Isaiah xiv. 22,
found themselves before the kings palace. (27) And I will rise up against them, saith the Lord of hosts,
Here the detachment under Gobryas and Ga- and cut o from Babylon name and remnant and son and
datas found the gates closed, but the men ap- grandchild, saith the Lord, is applied by these interpre-
pointed to attack the guards rushed on them tations to the trio: Name to Nebuchadnezzar, rem-
as they lay drinking round a blazing re, and nant to Evil-merodach, son to Belshazzar, and grand-
closed with them then and there. (28) As the child Vashti (ib.). The command given to Abraham to
din grew louder and louder, those within be- cut in pieces three heifers (Genesis 15:9) as a part of
came aware of the tumult, till, the king bid- the covenant established between him and his God, was
ding them see what it meant, some of them thus elucidated by readers of Daniel as symbolizing Baby-
opened the gates and ran out. (29) Gadatas and lonia, which gave rise to three kings, Nebuchadnezzar,
his men, seeing the gates swing wide, darted Evil-merodach, and Belshazzar, whose doom is preg-
in, hard on the heels of the others who ed ured by this act of cutting to pieces (Midrash Genesis
back again, and they chased them at the swords Rabbah xliv.).
point into the presence of the king. (30) They The Midrash literature enters into the details of Belshaz-
found him on his feet, with his drawn scimi- zars death. Thus the later tradition states that Cyrus and
tar in his hand. By sheer weight of numbers Darius were employed as doorkeepers of the royal palace.
they overwhelmed him: and not one of his ret- Belshazzar, being greatly alarmed at the mysterious hand-
inue escaped, they were all cut down, some y- writing on the wall, and apprehending that someone in
ing, others snatching up anything to serve as disguise might enter the palace with murderous intent, or-
98 CHAPTER 3. BABYLONIAN KINGS
dered his doorkeepers to behead anyone who attempted The artist Sting makes reference to Balthazars
to force an entrance that night, even though such person Feast in The Last Ship, comparing the fall of Baby-
should claim to be the king himself. Belshazzar, over- lon to the economic collapse of the shipbuilding in-
come by sickness, left the palace unobserved during the dustry.
night through a rear exit. On his return the doorkeepers
refused to admit him. In vain did he plead that he was Literature
the king. They said, Has not the king ordered us to put
to death any one who attempts to enter the palace, though
he claim to be the king himself?" Suiting the action to the The fourteenth-century poem Cleanness by the Pearl
word, Cyrus and Darius grasped a heavy ornament form- Poet recounts the feast and subsequent events as a
ing part of a candelabrum, and with it shattered the skull warning against spiritual impurity.
of their royal master (Cant. R. iii. 4).
Vision of Belshazzar by the poet Lord Byron
chronicles both the feast and Daniels pronunciation.
3.7.5 Art and popular culture Robert Frost's poem, The Bearer of Evil Tidings,
Music is about a messenger headed to Belshazzars court to
deliver the news of the kings imminent overthrow.
Remembering that evil tidings were a dangerous
Oratorio Il convito di Baldassarro by Pirro Alber-
thing to bear, the messenger ees to the Himalayas
gati, composed in 1691.
rather than facing the monarchs wrath.
Oratorio Belshazzar by George Frideric Handel,
composed in the late summer of 1744. Emily Dickinson's poem Belshazzar had a letter,
#1459 from the Poems of Emily Dickinson is about
Opera Ciro in Babilonia by Gioachino Rossini, rst Belshazzars immortal correspondence. Her poem
performed in 1812. was written in 1879.
Incidental music Belshazzars Feast by Jean Sibelius, Herman Melville's book Moby Dick at chapter 99
op. 51, composed in 1906. has the rst mate Starbuck murmer to himself The
Cantata Belshazzars Feast by Sir William Walton, old man seems to read Belshazzars awful writing
composed in 1930-1. as he spies Ahab speaking to the doubloon he had
nailed to the mast of the Pequod.
Singer/Songwriter Johnny Cash wrote a song titled
Belshazar, based on the Biblical story. It was In his novel Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser entitles
recorded at Sun Studio in Memphis, Tennessee in a chapter The Feast of Belshazar - A Seer to Trans-
1957. It was covered by Bob Dylan and The Band as late in which the gluttony of turn-of-the-century
Belchezaar, on sessions for The Basement Tapes New York City is highlighted.
recorded in Woodstock, NY.
Belshazzar was the title of a 1930 novel by H. Rider
The Jewish songwriter Harold Rome wrote, for the Haggard.
musical Pins and Needles in 1937, a gospel song,
Mene Mene Tekel Upharsin, which made the anal- Robert E. Howard, creator of Conan the Barbar-
ogy between Belshazzar and Hitler, saying the for- ian, liked to incorporate historical names into his
mer didn't pay no income taxes:/The big shot of the pseudo-historical stories. He wrote a (non-Conan)
Babylon-Jerusalem Axis. Interpreting the writing adventure story, Blood of Belshazzar which Roy
on the wall, Daniel sums it up tersely: King, stop Thomas adapted into a Conan story in Marvel
your ghtin' and your auntin'./You been weighed, Comics Conan the Barbarian #27 as The Blood
and you're found wantin'. of Bel-Hissar. Howard also used the name of
'Nabonidus (father of Belshazzar) in the Conan tale
The Austin, Texas band Sound Team references Rogues in the House which appeared in Marvels
Belshazzar with the lyric: But I don't have to sleep Conan the Barbarian #11.
at Belshazzars house anymore / Gave up the cen-
ter line on the track No More Birthdays o their In Shakespeares Merchant of Venice, Portia dis-
Movie Monster LP. guises herself as Balthazar in Act IV, scene i.
The Norwegian singer/songwriter Eth Eonel wrote a Heinrich Heine wrote a short poem entitled Bel-
song titled Belsassar, which was released in 2011 satzar in his collection Junge Leiden.[13]
on the album Drawing Lines (1989)". The song
lays out an aquatic version of Belshazzars feast, in In Wallace Stevens' poem Country Words the poet
which Belshazzar is a sh, and the writing on the sings a canto to Belshazzar and wants him reading
wall becomes the writing in the sand. right.
3.7. BELSHAZZAR 99
In Fazil Iskander's novel "Sandro of Chegem", one [4] Hitchcock, Roswell D. Entry for 'Belshazzar'". An In-
of the chapters depicting a dinner involving an Abk- terpreting Dictionary of Scripture Proper Names. . New
hazian dance ensemble and Stalin is titled Belshaz- York, N.Y., 1869.
zars Feast.
[5] Fried, Lisbeth S. (2004). The priest and the great king
: temple-palace relations in the Persian Empire. Winona
Paintings, drawings Lake, Ind: Eisenbrauns. p. 38. ISBN 9781575060903.
Belshazzars Feast is a painting by John Martin from [7] Raven 1922, p. 630-631.
c. 1821.
[8] Stevenson, W. H (2013). King Jamess Bible: A Selection.
In The Hand-Writing upon the Wall (1803), James Routledge. p. 269, Commentary on Daniel 5:1. ISBN
Gillray caricatured Napoleon in the role of Belshaz- 9781317862130.
zar. [9] Raven 1922, p. 631.
During the 1884 United States presidential cam- [10] In Cyropaedia 7, Xenophon says that Gobryas (Greek:
paign, Republican candidate James G. Blaine dined Ugbaru) was a governor of Gutium. This captor is not
at a New York City restaurant with some wealthy found in Herodotus, however the name was veried when
business executives including Commodore Van- the Cyrus Cylinder was translated, naming Gubaru as the
derbilt, Jay Gould, etc. This was featured in newspa- leader of the forces that captured Babylon.
pers, with a drawing illustrating The Feast of Bels-
[11] Translation by Henry Graham Dakyns, available online.
hazzar Blaine... On the wall in the background was
written Mene Mene Tekel Upharsin. [12] Gaston, Thomas (2009). Historical Issues in the Book of
Daniel. Oxford: Taanathshiloh. pp. 8184. ISBN 978-0-
9561540-0-2.
Film, television
[13] Kortlnder, Bernd (Hrsg.), Heine, Heinrich - Smtliche
Belshazzar is a main character in one of the four sto- Gedichte. Kommentierte Ausgabe, Stuttgart 1997.
ries presented in D. W. Grith's lm Intolerance Reclam.
(1916).
Persian kings
101
102 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
and the genealogy given in the Behistun Inscription pelvis, and covered the entire kingdom. These were in-
and by Herodotus[8] holds that Cyrus the Great was an terpreted by his advisers as a foretelling that his grandson
Achaemenid. However it has been suggested by M. Wa- would one day rebel and supplant him as king. Astyages
ters that Cyrus is unrelated to the Achaemenids or Darius summoned Mandane, at the time pregnant with Cyrus,
the Great and that his family was of Teispid and Anshan- back to Ecbatana to have the child killed. Harpagus del-
ite origin instead of Achaemenid.[41] egated the task to Mithradates, one of the shepherds of
Astyages, who raised the child and passed o his stillborn
son to Harpagus as the dead infant Cyrus.[48] Cyrus lived
Early life in secrecy, but when he reached the age of 10, during a
childhood game, he had the son of a nobleman beaten
Cyrus was born to Cambyses I, King of Anshan and Man- when he refused to obey Cyruss commands. As it was
dane, daughter of Astyages, King of Media during the unheard of for the son of a shepherd to commit such an
period of 600-599 BC. act, Astyages had the boy brought to his court, and inter-
By his own account, generally believed now to be accu- viewed him and his adopted father. Upon the shepherds
rate, Cyrus was preceded as king by his father Cambyses confession, Astyages sent Cyrus back to Persia to live
I, grandfather Cyrus I, and great-grandfather.[42] Cyrus with his biological parents.[49] However, Astyages sum-
married Cassandane[43] who was an Achaemenian and moned the son of Harpagus, and in retribution, chopped
the daughter of Pharnaspes who bore him two sons, him to pieces, roasted some portions while boiling others,
Cambyses II and Bardiya along with three daughters, and tricked his adviser into eating his child during a large
Atossa, Artystone, and Roxane.[44] Cyrus and Cassan- banquet. Following the meal, Astyages servants brought
dane were known to love each other very much - Cas- Harpagus the head, hands and feet of his son on platters,
sandane said that she found it more bitter to leave Cyrus so he could realize his inadvertent cannibalism.[50] In an-
than to depart her life.[45] After her death, Cyrus insisted other version, Cyrus was presented as the son of a poor
on public mourning throughout the kingdom.[46] The family that worked in the Median court.
Nabonidus Chronicle states that Babylonia mourned Cas-
sandane for six days (identied from 2126 March 538
BC).[47] After his fathers death, Cyrus inherited the Per- 4.1.2 Rise and military campaigns
sian throne at Pasargadae which was a vassal of Astyages.
It is also noted that Strabo has said that Cyrus was orig-
inally named Agradates by his step-parents; therefore, it
is probable that, when reuniting with his original family,
following the naming customs, Cyruss father, Cambyses
I, named him Cyrus after his grandfather, who was Cyrus
I.
Median Empire
Though his father died in 551 BC, Cyrus the Great had al-
ready succeeded to the throne in 559 BC; however, Cyrus
was not yet an independent ruler. Like his predecessors,
Cyrus had to recognize Median overlordship. Astyages,
last king of the Median Empire and Cyrus grandfather,
may have ruled over the majority of the Ancient Near
Painting of king Astyages sending Harpagus to kill young Cyrus East, from the Lydian frontier in the west to the Parthians
and Persians in the east.
Mythology Herodotus gave a mythological account of According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, Astyages
Cyruss early life. In this account, Astyages had two launched an attack against Cyrus, king of Ansan.
prophetic dreams in which a ood, and then a series of According to the historian Herodotus, it is known that
fruit bearing vines, emerged from his daughter Mandanes Astyages placed Harpagus in command of the Median
104 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
army to conquer Cyrus. However, Harpagus contacted Babylon (539 BC). It was common in the past to give
Cyrus and encouraged his revolt against Media, before 547 BC as the year of the conquest due to some inter-
eventually defecting along with several of the nobility pretations of the Nabonidus Chronicle, but this position
and a portion of the army. This mutiny is conrmed by is currently not much held.[57] The Lydians rst attacked
the Nabonidus Chronicle. Babylonian texts suggest that the Achaemenid Empires city of Pteria in Cappadocia.
the hostilities lasted for at least three years (553-550), Croesus besieged and captured the city enslaving its in-
and the nal battle resulted in the capture of Ecbatana. habitants. Meanwhile, the Persians invited the citizens
According to the historians Herodotus and Ctesias, Cyrus of Ionia who were part of the Lydian kingdom to revolt
spared the life of Astyages and married his daughter, against their ruler. The oer was rebued, and thus Cyrus
Amytis. This marriage pacied several vassal including levied an army and marched against the Lydians, increas-
the Bactrians, Parthians, and Saka.[51] Herodotus notes ing his numbers while passing through nations in his way.
that Cyrus also subdued and incorporated Sogdia into The Battle of Pteria was eectively a stalemate, with both
the empire during his military campaigns of 546-539 sides suering heavy casualties by nightfall. Croesus re-
BC.[52][53] treated to Sardis the following morning.[58]
With Astyages out of power, all of his vassals (includ- While in Sardis, Croesus sent out requests for his allies
ing many of Cyruss relatives) were now under his com- to send aid to Lydia. However, near the end of the win-
mand. His uncle Arsames, who had been the king of ter, before the allies could unite, Cyrus the Great pushed
the city-state of Parsa under the Medes, therefore would the war into Lydian territory and besieged Croesus in his
have had to give up his throne. However, this transfer of capital, Sardis. Shortly before the nal Battle of Thym-
power within the family seems to have been smooth, and bra between the two rulers, Harpagus advised Cyrus the
it is likely that Arsames was still the nominal governor Great to place his dromedaries in front of his warriors;
of Parsa, under Cyruss authoritymore of a Prince or the Lydian horses, not used to the dromedaries smell,
a Grand Duke than a King.[54] His son, Hystaspes, who would be very afraid. The strategy worked; the Lydian
was also Cyruss second cousin, was then made satrap of cavalry was routed. Cyrus defeated and captured Croe-
Parthia and Phrygia. Cyrus the Great thus united the twin sus. Cyrus occupied the capital at Sardis, conquering the
Achamenid kingdoms of Parsa and Anshan into Persia Lydian kingdom in 546 BC.[58] According to Herodotus,
proper. Arsames would live to see his grandson become Cyrus the Great spared Croesuss life and kept him as an
Darius the Great, Shahanshah of Persia, after the deaths advisor, but this account conicts with some translations
of both of Cyruss sons.[55] Cyruss conquest of Media of the contemporary Nabonidus Chronicle (the King who
was merely the start of his wars.[56] was himself subdued by Cyrus the Great after conquest
of Babylonia), which interpret that the king of Lydia was
slain.[59]
Lydian Empire and Asia Minor
Before returning to the capital, a Lydian named Pactyas
Further information: Battle of Pteria, Battle of Thymbra, was entrusted by Cyrus the Great to send Croesuss trea-
and Siege of Sardis (547 BC) sury to Persia. However, soon after Cyruss depar-
The exact dates of the Lydian conquest are unknown, ture, Pactyas hired mercenaries and caused an uprising
in Sardis, revolting against the Persian satrap of Lydia,
Tabalus. With recommendations from Croesus that he
should turn the minds of the Lydian people to luxury,
Cyrus sent Mazares, one of his commanders, to sub-
due the insurrection but demanded that Pactyas be re-
turned alive. Upon Mazaress arrival, Pactyas ed to
Ionia, where he had hired more mercenaries. Mazares
marched his troops into the Greek country and subdued
the cities of Magnesia and Priene. The end of Pactyas
is unknown, but after capture, he was probably sent to
Cyrus and put to death after a succession of tortures.[60]
Mazares continued the conquest of Asia Minor but died
of unknown causes during his campaign in Ionia. Cyrus
sent Harpagus to complete Mazaress conquest of Asia
Minor. Harpagus captured Lycia, Cilicia and Phoenicia,
using the technique of building earthworks to breach the
Croesus on the pyre. Attic red-gure amphora, 500490 BC,
walls of besieged cities, a method unknown to the Greeks.
Louvre (G 197) He ended his conquest of the area in 542 BC and returned
to Persia.
but it must have taken place between Cyruss overthrow
of the Median kingdom (550 BC) and his conquest of
4.1. CYRUS II OF PERSIA 105
By the year 540 BC, Cyrus captured Elam (Susiana) and The details of Cyruss death vary by account. The account
its capital, Susa.[61] The Nabonidus Chronicle records of Herodotus from his Histories provides the second-
that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult longest detail, in which Cyrus met his fate in a erce bat-
statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into tle with the Massagetae, a tribe from the southern deserts
the capital, suggesting that the conict had begun pos- of Khwarezm and Kyzyl Kum in the southernmost por-
sibly in the winter of 540 BC.[62] Near the beginning tion of the steppe regions of modern-day Kazakhstan and
of October, Cyrus fought the Battle of Opis in or near Uzbekistan, following the advice of Croesus to attack
the strategic riverside city of Opis on the Tigris, north of them in their own territory.[72] The Massagetae were re-
Babylon. The Babylonian army was routed, and on Oc- lated to the Scythians in their dress and mode of living;
tober 10, Sippar was seized without a battle, with little they fought on horseback and on foot. In order to acquire
to no resistance from the populace.[63] It is probable that her realm, Cyrus rst sent an oer of marriage to their
Cyrus engaged in negotiations with the Babylonian gen- ruler, the empress Tomyris, a proposal she rejected.
erals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore He then commenced his attempt to take Massagetae terri-
avoid an armed confrontation.[64] Nabonidus was staying tory by force (ca. 529),[73] beginning by building bridges
in the city at the time and soon ed to the capital, Baby- and towered war boats along his side of the river Jaxartes,
lon, which he had not visited in years.[65] or Syr Darya, which separated them. Sending him a
Two days later, on October 7 (proleptic Gregorian cal- warning to cease his encroachment (a warning which she
endar), Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without stated she expected he would disregard anyway), Tomyris
any resistance from the Babylonian armies, and detained challenged him to meet her forces in honorable warfare,
Nabonidus.[66] Herodotus explains that to accomplish this inviting him to a location in her country a days march
feat, the Persians, using a basin dug earlier by the Baby- from the river, where their two armies would formally
lonian queen Nitokris to protect Babylon against Median engage each other. He accepted her oer, but, learn-
attacks, diverted the Euphrates river into a canal so that ing that the Massagetae were unfamiliar with wine and
the water level dropped to the height of the middle of a its intoxicating eects, he set up and then left camp with
mans thigh, which allowed the invading forces to march plenty of it behind, taking his best soldiers with him
directly through the river bed to enter at night.[67] On Oc- and leaving the least capable ones. The general of To-
tober 29, Cyrus himself entered the city of Babylon and myriss army, Spargapises, who was also her son, and a
detained Nabonidus.[68] third of the Massagetian troops, killed the group Cyrus
had left there and, nding the camp well stocked with
Prior to Cyruss invasion of Babylon, the Neo-Babylonian food and the wine, unwittingly drank themselves into
Empire had conquered many kingdoms. In addition to inebriation, diminishing their capability to defend them-
Babylonia itself, Cyrus probably incorporated its subna- selves when they were then overtaken by a surprise attack.
tional entities into his Empire, including Syria, Judea, and
They were successfully defeated, and, although he was
Arabia Petraea, although there is no direct evidence of taken prisoner, Spargapises committed suicide once he
this fact.[69]
regained sobriety. Upon learning of what had transpired,
After taking Babylon, Cyrus the Great proclaimed him- Tomyris denounced Cyruss tactics as underhanded and
self king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king swore vengeance, leading a second wave of troops into
of the four corners of the world in the famous Cyrus battle herself. Cyrus the Great was ultimately killed, and
Cylinder, an inscription deposited in the foundations of his forces suered massive casualties in what Herodotus
the Esagila temple dedicated to the chief Babylonian god, referred to as the ercest battle of his career and the an-
Marduk. The text of the cylinder denounces Nabonidus cient world. When it was over, Tomyris ordered the body
as impious and portrays the victorious Cyrus pleasing the of Cyrus brought to her, then decapitated him and dipped
god Marduk. It describes how Cyrus had improved the his head in a vessel of blood in a symbolic gesture of re-
lives of the citizens of Babylonia, repatriated displaced venge for his bloodlust and the death of her son.[72][74]
peoples and restored temples and cult sanctuaries. Al- However, some scholars question this version, mostly be-
though some have asserted that the cylinder represents a cause Herodotus admits this event was one of many ver-
form of human rights charter, historians generally portray sions of Cyruss death that he heard from a supposedly
it in the context of a long-standing Mesopotamian tradi- reliable source who told him no one was there to see the
tion of new rulers beginning their reigns with declarations aftermath.[75]
of reforms.[70] Herodotus also recounts that Cyrus saw in his sleep the
Cyrus the Greats dominions comprised the largest em- oldest son of Hystaspes (Darius I) with wings upon his
pire the world had ever seen.[9] At the end of Cyruss rule, shoulders, shadowing with the one wing Asia, and with
the Achaemenid Empire stretched from Asia Minor in the the other wing Europe.[76] Archaeologist Sir Max Mal-
106 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
Burial soon died after only seven years of rule. He was suc-
ceeded either by Cyruss other son Bardiya or an impos-
Main article: Tomb of Cyrus tor posing as Bardiya, who became the sole ruler of Persia
Cyrus the Greats remains were interred in his capi- for seven months, until he was killed by Darius the Great.
tal city of Pasargadae, where today a limestone tomb The translated ancient Roman and Greek accounts give a
(built around 540530 BC[82] ) still exists, which many vivid description of the tomb both geometrically and aes-
believe to be his. Strabo and Arrian give nearly iden- thetically; The tombs geometric shape has changed little
tical descriptions of the tomb, based on the eyewitness over the years, still maintaining a large stone of quadran-
report of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, who at the request gular form at the base, followed by a pyramidal succes-
of Alexander the Great visited the tomb two times.[83] sion of smaller rectangular stones, until after a few slabs,
Though the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place the structure is curtailed by an edice, with an arched
of Cyrus the Great has remained largely intact; and the roof composed of a pyramidal shaped stone, and a small
tomb has been partially restored to counter its natural de- opening or window on the side, where the slenderest man
terioration over the centuries. According to Plutarch, his could barely squeeze through.[86]
epitaph said,
Within this edice was a golden con, resting on a table
with golden supports, inside of which the body of Cyrus
O man, whoever you are and wherever you the Great was interred. Upon his resting place, was a cov-
come from, for I know you will come, I am ering of tapestry and drapes made from the best available
Cyrus who won the Persians their empire. Do Babylonian materials, utilizing ne Median worksman-
not therefore begrudge me this bit of earth that ship; below his bed was a ne red carpet, covering the
covers my bones.[84] narrow rectangular area of his tomb.[86] Translated Greek
accounts describe the tomb as having been placed in the
Cuneiform evidence from Babylon proves that Cyrus died fertile Pasargadae gardens, surrounded by trees and orna-
around December 530 BC,[85] and that his son Cambyses mental shrubs, with a group of Achaemenian protectors
II had become king. Cambyses continued his fathers pol- called the Magi, stationed nearby to protect the edice
icy of expansion, and captured Egypt for the Empire, but from theft or damage.[86][87]
4.1. CYRUS II OF PERSIA 107
Main articles: Cyrus the Great in the Bible and Cyrus the
Great in the Qur'an
Dhul-Qarnayn is thought to refer to Cyrus by some Qur'anic com-
Though it is generally believed that Zarathushtra's teach-
mentators.
ings maintained inuence on Cyruss acts and policies,
so far no clear evidence has been found to indicate that
Cyrus practiced a specic religion. Pierre Briant wrote well as Jewish sources and the historians accounts. Cyrus
that given the poor information we have, it seems quite had a general policy of religious tolerance throughout his
reckless to try to reconstruct what the religion of Cyrus vast empire. Whether this was a new policy or the con-
might have been.[101] His views are believed expressed tinuation of policies followed by the Babylonians and As-
in the content of the Cylinder: syrians (as Lester Grabbe maintains)[102] is disputed. He
brought peace to the Babylonians and is said to have kept
"-mi-a-am ma- h ar iluBel iluNabu a his army away from the temples and restored the statues
a-ra-ku ume-ia li-ta-mu- lit-ta-ka-ru a-ma- of the Babylonian gods to their sanctuaries.[13]
a-ta du-un-ki-ia a-na iluMarduk beli-ia li-iq-
His treatment of the Jews during their exile in Babylon
bu- ' a m Ku-ra-a arri pa-li- hi-ka u m Ka-
after Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed Jerusalem is reported
am-bu-zi-ia mari- u' " (Cylinder, Akkadian
in the Bible. The Jewish Bibles Ketuvim ends in Second
language line:35)
Chronicles with the decree of Cyrus, which returned the
exiles to the Promised Land from Babylon along with a
pray daily before Bl and Nab for long life
commission to rebuild the temple.
for me, and may they speak a gracious word for
me and say to Marduk, my lord, May Cyrus,
the king who worships you, and Cambyses, his Thus saith Cyrus, king of Persia: All the
son, (Cylinder, English Translation line:35) kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD, the God
of heaven given me; and He hath charged me to
The policies of Cyrus with respect to treatment of minor- build Him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Ju-
ity religions are well documented in Babylonian texts as dah. Whosoever there is among you of all His
4.1. CYRUS II OF PERSIA 109
people the LORD, his God, be with him let Babylon, God commiserated the captivity and
him go there. (2 Chronicles 36:23) calamity of these poor people, according as he
had foretold to them by Jeremiah the prophet,
This edict is also fully reproduced in the Book of Ezra. before the destruction of the city, that after
they had served Nebuchadnezzar and his pos-
In the rst year of King Cyrus, Cyrus the terity, and after they had undergone that servi-
king issued a decree: Concerning the house tude seventy years, he would restore them again
of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place to the land of their fathers, and they should
where sacrices are oered, be rebuilt and let build their temple, and enjoy their ancient
its foundations be retained, its height being 60 prosperity. And these things God did aord
cubits and its width 60 cubits; with three layers them; for he stirred up the mind of Cyrus, and
of huge stones and one layer of timbers. And let made him write this throughout all Asia: Thus
the cost be paid from the royal treasury. Also saith Cyrus the king: Since God Almighty hath
let the gold and silver utensils of the house of appointed me to be king of the habitable earth,
God, which Nebuchadnezzar took from the tem- I believe that he is that God which the nation
ple in Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be re- of the Israelites worship; for indeed he fore-
turned and brought to their places in the tem- told my name by the prophets, and that I should
ple in Jerusalem; and you shall put them in the build him a house at Jerusalem, in the coun-
house of God. (Ezra 6:3-5) try of Judea. This was known to Cyrus by
his reading the book which Isaiah left behind
him of his prophecies; for this prophet said
that God had spoken thus to him in a secret
vision: My will is, that Cyrus, whom I have
appointed to be king over many and great na-
tions, send back my people to their own land,
and build my temple. This was foretold by Isa-
iah one hundred and forty years before the tem-
ple was demolished. Accordingly, when Cyrus
read this, and admired the Divine power, an
earnest desire and ambition seized upon him
to fulll what was so written; so he called for
the most eminent Jews that were in Babylon,
and said to them, that he gave them leave to
go back to their own country, and to rebuild
The Cyrus Street, Jerusalem, Israel their city Jerusalem, and the temple of God,
for that he would be their assistant, and that
The Jews honored him as a dignied and righteous king. he would write to the rulers and governors that
In one Biblical passage, Isaiah refers to him as Messiah were in the neighborhood of their country of
(lit. His anointed one) (Isaiah 45:1), making him the Judea, that they should contribute to them gold
only gentile to be so referred. Elsewhere in Isaiah, God and silver for the building of the temple, and
is described as saying, I will raise up Cyrus in my righ- besides that, beasts for their sacrices.
teousness: I will make all his ways straight. He will
rebuild my city and set my exiles free, but not for a
price or reward, says God Almighty. (Isaiah 45:13) As
the text suggests, Cyrus did ultimately release the nation
of Israel from its exile without compensation or tribute.
These particular passages (Isaiah 4055, often referred to
as Deutero-Isaiah) are believed by most modern critical
scholars to have been added by another author toward the
end of the Babylonian exile (ca. 536 BC).[103]
Josephus, the rst-century Jewish historian, relates the
traditional view of the Jews regarding the prediction of
Cyrus in Isaiah in his Antiquities of the Jews, book 11,
chapter 1:[104]
Cyrus was praised in the Tanakh (Isaiah 45:16 and Ezra decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local
1:111) for the freeing of slaves, humanitarian equality religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial
and costly reparations he made. However, there was Jew- control.[109]
ish criticism of him after he was lied to by the Cuthites, Some contemporary Muslim scholars have suggested
who wanted to halt the building of the Second Tem- that the Qur'anic gure of Dhul-Qarnayn is Cyrus the
ple. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Great.[110] This theory was proposed by Sunni scholar
Cyrus in turn stopped the construction, which would not Abul Kalam Azad and endorsed by Shi'a scholars
be completed until 515 BC, during the reign of Darius Allameh Tabatabaei, in his Tafsir al-Mizan and Makarem
I.[105][106] According to the Bible it was King Artaxerxes
Shirazi.
who was convinced to stop the construction of the temple
in Jerusalem. (Ezra 4:724)
Politics and management
4.1.6 See also [16] The Biblical Archaeology Society. Cyrus the Messiah -
The BAS Library. bib-arch.org.
List of kings of Persia
[17] Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis; Sarah Stewart (2005). Birth of the
Kay Bahman Persian Empire. I. B. Tauris. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-84511-
062-8.
[4] Dandamayev,Muhammad A.,CYRUS iii. Cyrus II The [21] Neil MacGregor, The whole world in our hands, in Art
Great, Encyclopdia Iranica and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy, and Practice, p. 383
4, ed. Barbara T. Homan. Cambridge University Press,
[5] Image: 2006. ISBN 0-521-85764-3
[6] (Dandamaev 1989, p. 71) [22] The Cyrus Cylinder travels to the US. British Museum.
2012. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
[7] Xenophon, Anabasis I. IX; see also M. A. Dandamaev
Cyrus II, in Encyclopaedia Iranica. [23] Cyrus cylinder, worlds oldest human rights charter, re-
turns to Iran on loan. The Guardian. Associated Press.
[8] Schmitt Achaemenid dynasty (i. The clan and dynasty) 10 September 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
[9] Kuhrt, Amlie (1995). 13. The Ancient Near East: C. [24] Oldest Known Charter of Human Rights Comes to San
3000330 BC. Routledge. p. 647. ISBN 0-415-16763-9. Francisco. 13 August 2013. Retrieved 21 September
2013.
[10] Cambridge Ancient History IV Chapter 3c. p. 170. The
quote is from the Greek historian Herodotus. [25] Daniel, Elton L. (2000). The History of Iran. Westport,
CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-30731-
[11] Beckwith, Christopher. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: 8.
A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the
Present. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University [26] Mitchell, T.C. (1988). Biblical Archaeology: Documents
Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2. Page 63. from the British Museum. London: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-36867-7.
[12] Cyruss date of death can be deduced from the last two ref-
erences to his own reign (a tablet from Borsippa dated to [27] Arnold, Bill T.; Michalowski, Piotr (2006). Achaemenid
12 August and the nal from Babylon 12 September 530 Period Historical Texts Concerning Mesopotamia. In
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lonian Chronology 626 B.C. A.D. 75, 1971.
[29] Schmitt 2010, p. 515.
[13] Dandamayev Cyrus (iii. Cyrus the Great) Cyruss reli-
gious policies. Plutarch, Artaxerxes 1. 3 classics.mit.edu; Photius, Epitome
[30]
of Ctesias' Persica 52 livius.org
[14] The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV p. 42. See also:
G. Buchaman Gray and D. Litt, The foundation and ex- [31] Tait 1846, p. 342-343.
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Ancient History Vol. IV, 2nd edition, published by The [32] Max Mallowan p. 392. and p. 417
University Press, 1927. P. 15. Excerpt: The administra-
[33] (Schmitt 1985b) under i. The clan and dynasty.
tion of the empire through satrap, and much more belong-
ing to the form or spirit of the government, was the work [34] e. g. Cyrus Cylinder Fragment A. 21.
of Cyrus ...
[35] Schmitt, R. Iranian Personal Names i.-Pre-Islamic
[15] Jona Lendering (2012). Messiah Roots of the concept: Names. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 4. Naming the
From Josiah to Cyrus. livius.org. Retrieved January 26, grandson after the grandfather was a common practice
2012. among Iranians.
4.1. CYRUS II OF PERSIA 113
[36] Visual representation of the divine and the numinous [58] Herodotus, The Histories, Book I, 440 BC. Translated by
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[61] Tavernier, Jan. Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronol-
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[62] Kuhrt, Amlie. Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes, in
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The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol IV Persia, Greece
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[39] Dandamev, M. A. (1990). Cambyses. Encyclopae- 521-22804-2
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[64] Tolini, Gauthier, Quelques lments concernant la prise de
[40] (Dandamaev 1989, p. 9)
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[41] M. Waters, Cyrus and the Achaemenids, Iran 42, 2004 gociations sengagrent alors entre Cyrus et les chefs de
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[43] Romm 2014. returned from Harran and had participated in the Akitu of
Nissanu 1 [April 4], 539 BC.
[44] Konig 1972, p. 7-12.
[66] Nabonidus Chronicle, 1516.
[45] Benjamin G. Kohl; Ronald G. Witt; Elizabeth B. Welles
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[48] Herodotus, p. 1.95.
[70] British Museum Website,The Cyrus Cylinder. British-
[49] Herodotus, p. 1.107-21.
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[50] Stories of the East From Herodotus, p. 7980
[71] M.A. Dandamaev, Cyrus II, in Encyclopaedia Iranica.
[51] Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander. Eisen-
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[54] Jack Martin Balcer (1984). Sparda by the bitter sea: im-
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[76] Ilya Gershevitch, ed. (1985). The Cambridge history of
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Urartu and Cyruss the Great Campaign in 547 B.C."; Great, Encyclopdia Iranica,Vol. VI, Fasc. 5, pp. 516-
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114 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
[78] https://archive.org/stream/ [97] Cyrus Kadivar (Jan 25, 2002). We are Awake. The
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[79] A history of Greece, Volume 2, By Connop Thirlwall, brance and line of continuity: See A. Sh. Shahbazi, Early
Longmans, 1836, p. 174 Sassanians Claim to Achaemenid Heritage, Namey-e Iran-
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[80] Xenophon, Cyropaedia VII. 7; M.A. Dandamaev, Cyrus ligion of Cyrus the Great in A. Kuhrt and H. Sancisi-
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Weerdenburg "Cyropaedia", in Encyclopaedia Iranica, on Theory, Leiden, 1988, p. 30; and The History of Ancient
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Curtis, et al. The Art and Archaeology of Ancient Persia:
[81] A political history of the Achaemenid empire, By M. A.
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[82] UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2006). Pasargadae. tute of Persian Studies, 1998, ISBN 1-86064-045-1, pp.
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[84] Life of Alexander, 69, in Plutarch: The Age of Alexander, required (help)).
translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert (Penguin Classics, 1973),
p.326.; similar inscriptions give Arrian and Strabo. [100] Cited quote as per media (documentary piece) titled
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[85] Cyruss date of death can be deduced from the last ref- nel. Release date: December 4, 2006. Media available
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[86] ((grk.) Lucius Flavius Arrianus), (en.) Arrian (trans.),
[102] Oded Lipschitz; Manfred Oeming, eds. (2006). The
Charles Dexter Cleveland (1861). A compendium of clas-
Persian Documents in the Book of Ezra: Are They Au-
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Greek and Roman writers, with biographical sketches. Bid-
Eisenbrauns. p. 542. ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7.
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[103] Simon John De Vries: From old Revelation to new: a
[87] Abraham Valentine Williams Jackson (1906). Persia past
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[88] Ralph Griths; George Edward Griths (1816). The Publishing 1995, ISBN 978-0-8028-0683-3, p. 126
Monthly review. 1816. p. 509.
[104] Josephus, Flavius. The Antiquities of the Jews, Book 11,
[89] Ulrich Wilcken (1967). Alexander the Great. W. W. Nor- Chapter 1
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[105] Goldwurm, Hersh (1982). History of the Jewish People:
[90] John Maxwell O'Brien (1994). Alexander the Great: the The Second Temple Era. ArtScroll. pp. 26, 29. ISBN
invisible enemy. Pyshcology Press. pp. 1001. ISBN 978- 0-89906-454-X.
0-415-10617-7. [106] Schiman, Lawrence (1991). From text to tradition: a his-
[91] James D. Cockcroft (1989). Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, tory of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism. KTAV Pub-
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55546-847-7. [107] Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Ju-
[92] Freeman 1999: p. 188 daism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud: A History of
the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355.
[93] The Cyrus cylinder: Diplomatic whirl. The Economist. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4.
23 March 2013.
[108] Philip R. Davies (1995). John D Davies, ed. Words Re-
[94] The Cyropaedia. google.com. membered, Texts Renewed: Essays in Honour of John F.A.
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[95] Cardascia, G., Babylon under Achaemenids, in Encyclo- 219. ISBN 978-1-85075-542-5.
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[109] Winn Leith, Mary Joan (2001) [1998]. Israel among the
[96] Richard Nelson Frye (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Nations: The Persian Period. In Michael David Coogan
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Books). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. [128] See also Amlie Kuhrt, Babylonia from Cyrus to
285. ISBN 0-19-513937-2. LCCN 98016042. OCLC Xerxes, in The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol IV
44650958. Retrieved 14 December 2012. Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, p. 124.
Ed. John Boardman. Cambridge University Press, 1982.
[110] Ma'arefat Al-Maad Ma'ad Shanasi, . ISBN 0-521-22804-2
[111] John Curtis; Julian Reade; Dominique Collon (1995). [129] The telegraph (16 July 2008). Cyrus Cylinder. The
Art and empire. The Trustees of the British Museum by Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-1140-7.
[130] Hekster, Olivier; Fowler, Richard (2005). Imaginary
[112] From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire
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by Pierre Briant
Rome. Oriens et occidens 11. Franz Steiner Verlag. p.
[113] Herodotus, Herodotus, trans. A.D. Godley, vol. 4, book 33. ISBN 978-3-515-08765-0.
8, verse 98, pp. 9697 (1924).
[131] Barbara Slavin (6 March 2013). Cyrus Cylinder a Re-
[114] Wilcox, Peter; MacBride, Angus (1986). Romes Ene- minder of Persian Legacy of Tolerance. Al-Monitor. Re-
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ing. p. 14. ISBN 0-85045-688-6.
[132] MacGregor, Neil (24 February 2013). A 2,600-year-old
[115] Ebadi, Shirin (10 December 2003). In the name of the icon of freedom comes to the United States. CNN. Re-
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Prize 2003 presentation ceremony. Retrieved 24 August
2006.
4.1.8 Bibliography
[116] Persepolis Recreated, Publisher: NEJ International Pic-
tures; 1ST edition (2005) ISBN 978-964-06-4525-3 Kuhrt (2013), The Persian Empire: A Corpus of
ASIN: B000J5N46S
Sources from the Achaemenid Period
[117] Jakob Jonson: Cyrus the Great in Icelandic epic: A liter-
ary study. Acta Iranica. 1974: 4950
Grayson (1975), Assyrian and Babylonian Chroni-
cles
[118] Nadon, Christopher (2001), Xenophons Prince: Republic
and Empire in the Cyropaedia, Berkeley: UC Press, ISBN Ancient sources
0-520-22404-3
[119] Cyrus and Jeerson: Did they speak the same language? The Nabonidus Chronicle of the Babylonian Chron-
http://www.payvand.com/news/13/apr/1111.html icles
[120] Cyrus Cylinder: How a Persian monarch in- The Verse account of Nabonidus
spired Jeerson, http://www.bbc.com/news/
world-us-canada-21747567 The Prayer of Nabonidus (one of the Dead Sea
[121] Boyd, Julian P. The Papers of Thomas Jeerson. Re-
scrolls)
trieved 18 August 2010. The Cyrus Cylinder
[122] H.F. Vos, Archaeology of Mesopotamia, p. 267 in The
Herodotus (The Histories)
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, ed. Georey
W. Bromiley. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1995. ISBN Ctesias (Persica)
0-8028-3781-6
The biblical books of Isaiah, Daniel, Ezra and
[123] The Ancient Near East, Volume I: An Anthology of Texts
Nehemiah
and Pictures. Vol. 1. Ed. James B. Pritchard. Princeton
University Press, 1973. Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews)
[124] British Museum: Cyrus Cylinder. British Museum. Re-
Thucydides (History of the Peloponnesian War)
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Justin (Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Moorey, P.R.S. (1991). The Biblical Lands, VI.
Trogus) (English) New York: Peter Bedrick Books . ISBN 0-87226-
247-2
Polybius (The Histories (Polybius))
Olmstead, A. T. (1948). History of the Persian Em-
Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca historica) pire [Achaemenid Period]. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-62777-2
Athenaeus (Deipnosophistae)
Palou, Christine; Palou, Jean (1962). La Perse An-
Strabo (History) tique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Church, Alfred J. (1881). Stories of the East From Dougherty, Raymond Philip (1929). Nabonidus and
Herodotus. London: Seeley, Jackson & Halliday. Belshazzar: A Study of the Closing Events of the Neo-
Babylonian Empire. New Haven: Yale University
Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Press.
Achaemenid empire. Leiden: Brill. p. 373. ISBN
90-04-09172-6. Drews, Robert (October 1974). Sargon, Cyrus,
and Mesopotamian Folk History. Journal
Freeman, Charles (1999). The Greek Achievement: of Near Eastern Studies. 33 (4): 387393.
The Foundation of the Western World. New York: doi:10.1086/372377.
Viking. ISBN 0-7139-9224-7.
Harmatta, J. (1971). The Rise of the Old Persian
Fried, Lisbeth S. (2002). Cyrus the Mes- Empire: Cyrus the Great. Acta Antiquo. 19: 315.
siah? The Historical Background to Isaiah Lawrence, John M. (1985). Cyrus: Messiah,
45:1. Harvard Theological Review. 95 (4). Politician, and General. Near East Archaeological
doi:10.1017/S0017816002000251. Society Bulletin. n.s. 25: 528.
Frye, Richard N. (1962). The Heritage of Persia. Lawrence, John M. (1982). Neo-Assyrian and
London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 1-56859- Neo-Babylonian Attitudes Towards Foreigners and
008-3 Their Religion. Near East Archaeological Society
Bulletin. n.s. 19: 2740.
Gershevitch, Ilya (1985). The Cambridge History of
Iran: Vol. 2 ; The Median and Achaemenian periods. Mallowan, Max (1972). Cyrus the Great (558
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0- 529 BC)". Iran. 10: 117. doi:10.2307/4300460.
521-20091-1. JSTOR 4300460.
4.2. CAMBYSES II 117
Wiesehfer, Josef (1996). Ancient Persia : from 550 Spiegel also regards Kamboja/Kambujiya (Cambyses)
BC to 650 AD. Azizeh Azodi, trans. London: I. B. and Kuru/Kyros (Cyrus) as the names of two prehistoric
Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-999-0. legendary heroes of the Indo-Iranians who were later re-
vived naturally in the royal family of the Achaemenes and
Jovy, Alexander (2011). I am Cyrus: The story of further opines that the myths about Cyrus the Great were
the Real Prince of Persia. Reading: Garnet Publish- largely due to the confusion between the historical and
ing. ISBN 978-1-85964-281-8. the legendary heroes of prehistory.[22]
James Hope Moulton regards Spiegels suggestions as
4.1.10 External links the best of other etymological explanations of these two
names.[15] On the other hand, Arnold J. Toynbee dis-
Cyrus Cylinder Full Babylonian text of the Cyrus cusses the issue of two Persian names Kambujiya (Cam-
Cylinder as it was known in 2001; translation; brief byses) as well as Kurush (Cyrus) elaborately and regards
introduction them both as derived from two groups of Eurasian no-
mads, the Kambojas and the Kurus, mentioned in the
Xenophon, Cyropaedia: the education of Cyrus, Sanskrit texts and who, according to him, had entered
translated by Henry Graham Dakyns and revised by India and Iran in the Migration Period of the eighth and
F.M. Stawell, Project Gutenberg. seventh century BC.[23][24][25]
Cyrus the Great An article about Cyrus by Iran Toynbee concludes that the conquest of the world
Chamber Society by the elder branch of the House of Achaemenes
had been achieved by the valor of the Kuru and
360 Panoramic Image Tomb of Cyrus The Great Kamboja Nomad reinforcements; hence, as a com-
memoration, the elder branch of the House had
named all their great princes from Cyrus I onwards,
4.2 Cambyses II alternately, as Cyrus (Kurosh/Kuru) and Cambyses
(Kambujiya/Kamboja).[24][26][27]
Cambyses redirects here. For other uses, see Cambyses
(disambiguation).
4.2.2 Rise to power
Cambyses II (Old Persian: Kambjiya[4][5] When Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539
[6]
Aramaic: Kanbz ; Ancient Greek: BC, Cambyses was employed in leading religious
Kambss; Latin Cambyses; Medieval Hebrew , ceremonies.[28] In the cylinder which contains Cyrus
Kambisha[7] ) (d. 522 BC) son of Cyrus the Great (r. 559 proclamation to the Babylonians, Cambyses name is
530 BC), was emperor of the Achaemenid Empire. joined to his fathers in the prayers to Marduk. On a
Cambyses grandfather was Cambyses I, king of Anshan. tablet dated from the rst year of Cyrus, Cambyses is
Following Cyrus the Great's conquest of the Near East called king of Babylon, although his authority seems to
and Central Asia, Cambyses II further expanded the em- have been ephemeral. Only in 530 BC, when Cyrus set
pire into Egypt during the Late Period by defeating the out on his last expedition into the East, did Cyrus asso-
Egyptian Pharaoh Psamtik III during the battle of Pelu- ciate Cambyses with the throne. Numerous Babylonian
sium in 525 BC. After the Egyptian campaign and the tablets of the time date from the accession and the rst
truce with Libya, Cambyses invaded the Kingdom of year of Cambyses, when Cyrus was king of the coun-
Kush (located in what is now the Sudan) but with little tries (i.e., of the world).
success.[8] After the death of his father in 530 BC, Cambyses be-
came sole king. The tablets dating from his reign in
Babylonia run to the end of his eighth year, in 522 BC.
4.2.1 Etymology Herodotus (3.66), who dates his reign from the death of
Cyrus, gives his reign a length of seven years ve months,
Though numerous scholars link Cambyses to the Sanskrit from 530 BC to the summer of 523 BC.[29]
tribal name Kamboja there are also few scholars who
suggest Elamite origin of the name.[9][10] Jean Przyluski
had sought to nd an Austric (Kol or Munda) anity for 4.2.3 The traditions of Cambyses
Kamboja.[11]
Friedrich von Spiegel,[12] Sten Konow,[13] Ernst The traditions about Cambyses, preserved by the Greek
Herzfeld,[14] James Hope Moulton,[15] Wojciech authors, come from two dierent sources. The rst,
Skalmowski [16][17] and some other scholars [18] think which forms the main part of the account of Herodotus
that Kambjiya is adjectival form of the Sanskrit tribal (3. 24; 1037), is of Egyptian origin. Here Cambyses
name Kamboja.[12][14][19][20][21] is made the legitimate son of Cyrus and a daughter of
118 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
Apries named Nitetis (Herod. 3.2, Dinon fr. II, Polyaen. a large supply of water to the stations. King Amasis had
viii. 29), whose death he avenges on the successor of the hoped that Egypt would be able to withstand the threat-
usurper Amasis. Nevertheless, (Herod. 3.1 and Ctesias ened Persian attack through his alliance with the Greeks.
a/i. Athen. Xiii. 560), the Persians corrected this tradi- However, this hope failed, as the Cypriot towns and the
tion: tyrant Polycrates of Samos, who possessed a large eet,
Cambyses wants to marry a daughter of Amasis, who now preferred to join the Persians, and the commander
sends him a daughter of Apries instead of his own daugh- of the Greek troops, Phanes of Halicarnassus, also went
ter, and by her Cambyses is induced to begin the war. His over to them. In the decisive battle at Pelusium the Egyp-
great crime is the killing of the Apis bull, for which he is tian army was defeated, and shortly afterwards Memphis
punished by madness, in which he commits many other was taken. The captive king Psammetichus was executed,
crimes, kills his brother and his sister, and at last loses his having attempted a rebellion. The Egyptian inscriptions
empire and dies from a wound in the thigh, at the same show that Cambyses ocially adopted the titles and the
place where he had wounded the sacred animal. Inter- dress of the Pharaohs.
mingled are some stories derived from the Greek mer-
cenaries, especially about their leader Phanes of Halicar-
nassus, who betrayed Egypt to the Persians. In the Per- Attempts to conquer south and west of Egypt
sian tradition the crime of Cambyses is the murder of his
brother; he is further accused of drunkenness, in which From Egypt, Cambyses attempted the conquest of Kush,
he commits many crimes, and thus accelerates his ruin. located in the modern Sudan, but his army was not able
to cross the deserts and after heavy losses he was forced
These traditions are found in dierent passages of
to return. In an inscription from Napata (in the Berlin
Herodotus, and in a later form, but with some trustworthy
museum) the Nubian king Nastasen relates that he had
detail about his household, in the fragments of Ctesias.
defeated the troops of Kambasuten and taken all his
With the exception of Babylonian dated tablets and some
ships. This was once thought to refer to Cambyses II
Egyptian inscriptions, we possess no contemporary evi-
(H. Schafer, Die Aethiopische Knigsinschrift des Berliner
dence about the reign of Cambyses but the short account
Museums, 1901); however, Nastasen lived far later and
of Darius I in the Behistun Inscription. It is dicult
was likely referring to Khabash. Another expedition
to form a correct picture of Cambysess character from
against the Siwa Oasis also failed and the plan of attacking
these inscriptions.
Carthage was frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenicians
to operate against their kindred.
4.2.4 Darius account
The death of Cambyses
Conquest of Egypt
According to most ancient historians, in Persia the throne
Further information: Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)
was seized by a man posing as his brother Bardiya, most
It was quite natural that, after Cyrus had conquered the
likely a magus, or a Zoroastrian priest named Gaumata.
Some modern historians consider that this person really
was Bardiya, whereas the story that he was an impostor
was spread by Darius I after he became monarch.[30]
Whoever this new monarch was, Cambyses attempted to
march against him, but died shortly after under disputed
circumstances. According to Darius, who was Cambyses
lance-bearer at the time, he decided that success was im-
possible, and died by his own hand in 522 BC. Herodotus
and Ctesias ascribe his death to an accident. Ctesias
writes that Cambyses, despondent from the loss of fam-
ily members, stabbed himself in the thigh while working
with a piece of wood. He died eleven days later from
Cambyses II of Persia capturing pharaoh Psamtik III from Per- the wound. Herodotus story is that while mounting his
sian seal, VI century BCE horse, the tip of Cambyses scabbard broke and his sword
pierced his thigh - Herodotus mentions it is the same place
Middle East, Cambyses should undertake the conquest of where he stabbed a sacred cow in Egypt. He then died
Egypt, the only remaining independent state in that part of gangrene of the bone and mortication of the wound.
of the world. The war took place in 525 BC, when Amasis Some modern historians suspect that Cambyses was as-
II had just been succeeded by his son Psamtik III. Cam- sassinated, either by Darius as the rst step to usurping
byses had prepared for the march through the desert by the empire for himself, or by supporters of Bardiya.[31]
forming an alliance with Arabian chieftains, who brought According to Herodotus (3.64) he died in Ecbatana, i.e.
4.2. CAMBYSES II 119
Hamath; Josephus (Antiquites xi. 2. 2) names Damascus; Mining Authority, and the Ligabue Research Institute)
Ctesias, Babylon, which is highly unlikely.[32] that searched for the Lost Army of Cambyses. The six-
The location of Cambyses tomb is uncertain and has been month search was conducted along the Egyptian-Libyan
debated for a long time. Some archaeologists believe border in a remote 100-square-kilometer area of com-
that he was buried in Pasargadae, and identify the tower plex dunes south west of the uninhabited Bahrein Oasis,
known as Zendan-e Sulaiman as his tomb.[33] The pos- approximately 100 miles south east of Siwa (Amon) Oa-
sibly unnished stone platform known as Takht-e Rus- sis. The $250,000 expedition had at its disposal 20 Egyp-
tam near Naqsh-e Rustam has long been suggested by ar- tian geologists and labourers, a National Geographic pho-
tographer, two Harvard Film Studies documentary lm-
chaeologists as a location for Cambyses tomb, based on
the similarity of its design and dimensions with those of makers, three camels, an ultra-light aircraft, and ground-
penetrating radar. The expedition discovered approxi-
the tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae. However, among the
Persepolis Fortication Tablets there is one in Elamite mately 500 tumuli (Zoroastrian-style graves) but no arte-
facts. Several tumuli contained bone fragments. Ther-
that refers to the "umar of Cambyses and Lady Upandu
in Narezza" (NN 2174). Henkelman has argued that u- moluminence later dated these fragments to 1,500 BC,
approximately 1000 years earlier than the Lost Army. A
mar should be translated as tomb.[34] Since Narezza
is typically identied with the modern area of Neyriz in recumbent winged sphinx carved in oolitic limestone was
Fars province, Henkelman argues that Cambyses tomb also discovered in a cave in the uninhabited Sitra Oasis
must have been located in that area. The Lady Upandu (between Bahariya and Siwa Oases), whose provenance
of the text is not known from any other source, but could appeared to be Persian. Chafetz was arrested when he
have been Cambyses queen. returned to Cairo in February 1984 for smuggling an
airplane into Egypt, even though he had the written per-
mission of the Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining
Authority to bring the aircraft into the country. He was
4.2.5 The lost army of Cambyses interrogated for 24 hours. The charges were dropped af-
ter he promised to donate the ultra-light to the Egyptian
Government. The aircraft now sits in the Egyptian War
Museum in Cairo.[37][38]
In the summer of 2000, a Helwan University geologi-
cal team, prospecting for petroleum in Egypts Western
Desert, came across well-preserved fragments of textiles,
bits of metal resembling weapons, and human remains
that they believed to be traces of the Lost Army of Cam-
byses. The Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities an-
nounced that it would organize an expedition to investi-
gate the site, but released no further information.[39]
In November 2009, two Italian archaeologists, Angelo
and Alfredo Castiglioni, announced the discovery of hu-
man remains, tools and weapons which date to the era
The lost army of Cambyses II according to a 19th-century en- of the Persian army. These artefacts were located near
graving Siwa Oasis.[40] According to these two archaeologists this
is the rst archaeological evidence of the story reported
According to Herodotus 3.26, Cambyses sent an army to by Herodotus. While working in the area, the researchers
threaten the Oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis. The army noticed a half-buried pot and some human remains. Then
of 50,000 men was halfway across the desert when a mas- the brothers spotted something really intriguingwhat
sive sandstorm sprang up, burying them all.[35] Although could have been a natural shelter. It was a rock about
many Egyptologists regard the story as apocryphal, peo- 35 meters (115 feet) long, 1.8 meters (5.9 feet) high and
ple have searched for the remains of the soldiers for years. 3 meters (9.8 feet) deep. Such natural formations oc-
These have included Count Lszl Almsy (on whom the cur in the desert, but this large rock was the only one in
novel The English Patient was based), and modern ge- a large area.[41] However, these two Italian archaeolo-
ologist Tom Brown. In January 1933, Orde Wingate gists presented their discoveries in a documentary lm
searched unsuccessfully for the Lost Army of Camby- rather than a scientic journal. Doubts have been raised
ses in Egypts Western Desert, then known as the Libyan because the Castiglioni brothers also happen to be the
Desert.[36] two lm-makers who produced ve controversial African
shockumentaries in the 1970sincluding Addio ultimo
From September 1983 to February 1984, Gary S. uomo, Africa ama, and Africa dolce e selvaggialms in
Chafetz, an American journalist and author, led an ex- which audiences saw unedited footage of the severing of
pedition (sponsored by Harvard University, The National a penis, the skinning of a human corpse, the deowering
Geographic Society, the Egyptian Geological Survey and
120 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
of a girl with a stone phallus, and a group of hunters tear- [4] Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun
ing apart an elephants carcass.[42] The Secretary General Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-
of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, Zahi Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 59. ISBN 964-
Hawass, has said in a press release that media reports of 8499-05-5.
this are unfounded and misleading and that The Cas- [5] Kent, Ronald Grubb (1950). Old Persian: Grammar, Text,
tiglioni brothers have not been granted permission by the Glossary. p. 178.
SCA to excavate in Egypt, so anything they claim to nd
is not to be believed.[43] [6] Aramaic Documents from Egypt: A Key-word-in-context
Concordance By Bezalel Porten, Jerome A. Lund, p. 365
In 2012, the same claims of the Castiglioni broth-
ers resurfaced, as an expedition of the University of [7] David Flusser, ed. The Josippon [Josephus Gorion-
Lecce.[44] ides], Edited with an Introduction Commentary and Notes,
Jerusalem: Mossad Bialik, 1981, p. 48, 10:34. Note that
In 2014, Olaf Kaper of the University of Leiden said he
in Rashi's commentary on Daniel 11:2, this name has been
found an inscription by Petubastis III, who later became corrupted to , Bambisha, due to the graphic simi-
Pharaoh, claiming that he ambushed and defeated the larity of the Hebrew letters kaph and bet.)
Persian army. He postulates that the sandstorm scenario
was a cover up by Cambyses successor Darius I.[45][46] [8] Herodotus (1737). The History of Herodotus. D. Midwin-
ter., pp. 246-250
4.2.6 In ction [9] Tavernier, Jan (2007). Iranica in the Achaemenid Period
(ca. 550-330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names
and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts. Peeters
Cambyses II has appeared as a character in several
Publishers. pp. 1819. ISBN 978-90-429-1833-7.
works of ction. Thomas Preston's play King Camby-
ses, a lamentable Tragedy, mixed full of pleasant mirth [10] Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (2005). Birth of
was probably produced in the 1560s. A tragedy by the Persian Empire: The Idea of Iran. I.B.Tauris. p. 21.
Elkanah Settle, Cambyses, King of Persia, was produced ISBN 978-1-84511-062-8.
in 1667. Cambyses and his downfall are also central to
Egyptologist Georg Ebers' 1864 novel, Eine gyptische [11] Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (1972). Iranianism; Iranian cul-
ture and its impact on the world from Achaemenian times.
Knigstochter (An Egyptian Princess). Qambeez is a 1931
Asiatic Society. p. 7.
play about him by Ahmed Shawqi. In 1929, Robert E.
Howard (under the pseudonym Patrick Howard) pub- [12] (Eranische Alterthumskunde, voL ii. p. 294)
lished a poem, "Skulls and Dust", about Cambysess
death. He is a main character in Tamburas (1965; En- [13] Kharoshh inscriptions: with the exception of those of
glish translation 1967) by Karlheinz Grosser. Aoka, 1991, p 36, Sten Konow
Paul Sussman's novel The Lost Army of Cambyses (2002) [14] The Persian Empire, 1968, p 344-45, Ernst Herzfeld,
recounts the story of rival archaeological expeditions Gerold Walser.
searching for the remains of his army. An archaeologi-
[15] See: Early Zoroastrianism, 2005, p 45, James Hope
cal search for Cambyses army is an important plot device Moulton; See also: The Thinker: a review of world-wide
in Tess Gerritsen's novel The Keepsake (2008). The lost Christian thought: Volume 2. p 490
army also features in Christopher Golden's Hellboy novel
The Lost Army (2003), and Biggles Flies South (1938). [16] Studies in Iranian linguistics and philology, 2004, p 268,
Wojciech Skalmowski.
In Harry Turtledove's alternate history novel Ruled Bri-
tannia, Christopher Marlowe, who in our timeline died [17] Pakistan archaeology: Issue 26, 1991, p 121, Wojciech
in 1593, is still alive in 1597 and has written a play Skalmowski, Pakistan. Dept. of Archaeology & Muse-
about Cambyses. No details are given about the play, ex- ums.
cept that a Ghost, played by viewpoint character William
[18] See: tam: Volumes 7-10 , 1976, p 45, Akhila
Shakespeare, appears in it.
Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad, Lucknow; India antiqua: a
volume of Oriental studies presented by his friends and
pupils to Jean Philippe Vogel, C.I.E., on the occasion of
4.2.7 References
the ftieth anniversary of his doctorate, 1947, p 184, In-
[1] http://www.persepolis.nu/ stituut Kern (Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden); Journal: Issue
44, 1973, p 119, K.R. Cama Oriental Institute
[2] See W. Henkelman, The umar of Cambyses and Hys-
taspes ", in Achaemenid history XIII: A Persian Perspec- [19] The Persian Empire: Studies in geography and ethnog-
tive, Essays in Memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg raphy of the ancient Near East, 1968, p 344 sqq, Ernst
(Leiden 2003), pp. 101172. Herzfeld, Gerold Walser
[3] G. Posener, La premire domination perse en gypte, [20] Historia (Ammienus Marcellinus), 1977, p 90, Art
Cairo, 1936, pp. 30-36. 199/200, Edourard Galletier, Jacques Fountaine.
4.2. CAMBYSES II 121
[21] Orientalia Lovaniensia periodica: Issues 24-25, 1993, p [29] For the dates, see Parker & Dubberstein, Babylonian
74, W. Skalmowski, Institut orientaliste de Louvain Chronology.
[22] Die Altpersischen Keilinscheiften: Im Grundtexte Mit [30] Holland, Tom Persian Fire
Uebersetzukg, Grammatik Und Glossar, 1881, pp 85/ 86,
Friedrich von Spiegel; Cf: Kuhns Beitrge zur vergle- [31] Van De Mieroop, Marc (2003). A History of the Ancient
ichenden Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der Arischen, Near East: Ca. 3000323 BCE. Blackwell History of the
Celtischen, Und Slawischen Sprachen, Volume-1, 1858, p Ancient World series. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
36/37, Friedrich von Spiegel, (Ed) August Schleicher ISBN 978-0-631-22552-2.
[23] According to Toynbee: [32] See A. Lincke, Kambyses in der Sage, Litteratur und
Kunst des Mittelalters, in Aegyptiaca: Festschrift fr
[T]he occurrence of the two names (i.e
Georg Ebers (Leipzig 1897), pp. 4161; also History of
Kuru and Kamboja) in Transcaucasia as well
Persia.
as in and near Indiaand in Transcaucasia at
close quartersindicates that we have here
[33] Maryam Tabeshian (13 December 2006). Discovered
two more names of Eurasian Nomad peoples
Stone Slab Proved to be Gate of Cambysess Tomb.
who took part, and this in one anothers com-
Cultural Heritage News Agency. Retrieved 27 December
pany, in the Volkerwanderung of eighth and
2009.
seventh centuries BC; and, if, like so many
of their fellows, these Kurus and Kambojas
[34] See W. Henkelman, The umar of Cambyses and Hys-
split into two wings whose paths diverged so
taspes ", in Achaemenid history XIII: A Persian Perspec-
widely, it does not seem unwarrantable to
tive, Essays in Memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg
guess that a central detachment of this pair of
(Leiden 2003), pp. 101172.
migrating peoples may have found its way to
Luristan and there have been taken into part-
[35] William Godwin (1876). Lives of the Necromancers.
nership by Kurus Is father Cispis.
p. 32.
A study of history: Volume 7, 1961, p 553 seq, Arnold
Joseph Toynbee, Edward DeLos Myers, Royal Institute [36] Rooney, David (2000) [1994]. Wingate and the Chin-
of International Aairs). dits. London: Cassell Military Paperbacks. ISBN 0-304-
35452-X.
[24] Buddha Prakash (1964). Political and Social Movements
in Ancient Panjab. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 105106, [37] Chafetz, Gary (November 9, 2009). The Lost Army -
126. ISBN 9788120824584. Found at last?". THe World Post. New York, NY. Re-
trieved 2014-08-11.
[25] Modern Researches in Sanskrit: Dr. Veermani Pd. Upad-
hyaya Felicitation Volume. Patna: Indira Prakashan, [38] http://www.amazon.com/The-Lost-Army-ebook/dp/
1987, Misra, Satiya Deva (ed.). B0092PABYO/ref=sr_1_1_title_1_kin?s=books&ie=
UTF8&qid=1346782296&sr=1-1&keywords=the+lost+
[26] Observes A. J. Toynbee, army+%2B+chafetz
If the Lydian Monarchy had broken the
[39] http://www.archaeology.org/0009/newsbriefs/cambyses.
force of the Cimmerian horde in Anatolia and
html
had imposed its own rule as far eastwards as
the River Halys, the Lydians had owed their
[40] Lorenzi, Rossella (November 9, 2009). Vanished Per-
success to the valour of their mercenary Spar-
sian Army Said Found in Desert. MSNBC.com. New
diya Nomad cavalry; and as for the conquest
York, NY: NBC Universal. Retrieved 2009-11-09.
of the World by the elder branch of the House
of Achaemenes, as the alternating name of
[41] Lorenzi, Rossella (November 9, 2009). The Quest for
Kurus and Kambujiya born by their princes
Cambysess Last Army. discovery.com. Retrieved 2009-
from Cyrus-I onwards testify, their fortune
11-22.
had been made for them by the valour of the
Kuru and Kamboja Nomad reinforcements.
[42] http://www.pulpinternational.com/pulp/section/
See: Estudio de la historia: Volume 7, Part 2, 9161, pp Mondo%20Bizarro.html
577/78, Arnold Joseph Toynbee OR A study of history:
Volume 7, 1961, pp 553 seq, 580 seq, Arnold Joseph [43] Press Release Alleged Finds in Western Desert.
Toynbee, Edward DeLos Myers, Royal Institute of Inter- Archived from the original on 16 November 2009.
national Aairs).
[44] Vanquished Persian Army said found in Desert.
[27] Punjab history conference. Punjabi University, Patiala,
1996, Gursharan Singh (ed.) ISBN 81-7380-220-3 ISBN [45] Egyptologist Discovers What Really Happened to Miss-
81-7380-221-1. ing 50,000-Strong Persian Army.
4.2.8 External links Persia but before setting out for Egypt, killed Bardiya and
kept this secret. However, according to Herodotus who
Literature gives two detailed stories, Bardiya went to Egypt with
Cambyses and was there for some time but later Camby-
Ebers, Georg. An Egyptian Princess 1864. (En- ses sent him back to Susa out of envy, because Bardiya
glish translation of Eine gyptische Knigstochter) at alone could draw the bow brought from the Ethiopian
Project Gutenberg. king. Herodotus then states that Cambyses had a dream
in which he saw his brother sitting on the royal throne.
Meyer, Eduard (1911). "Cambyses". Encyclopdia
As a result of this dream Cambyses sent his trusted coun-
Britannica (11th ed.).
selor Prexaspes from Egypt to Susa with the order to kill
[13]
Preston, Thomas. Cambises 1667. Plaintext ed. Smerdis (i.e., Bardiya).
Gerard NeCastro (closer to original spelling) in his Bardiyas death was not known to the people, and so in
collection Medieval and Renaissance Drama. the spring of 522 BC, an usurper pretended to be him
and proclaimed himself king on a mountain near the Per-
sian town of Paishiyauvada. Darius claimed that the real
4.3 Bardiya name of the usurper was Gaumata, a Magian priest from
Media; this name has been preserved by Justin i. 9 (from
For other entities named Bardiya or Bardia, see Bardia Charon of Lampsacus?) but given to his brother Cam-
(disambiguation). byses (called Patizeithes by Herodotus) who is said to
have been the real promoter of the intrigue. Accord-
ing to Herodotus, the name of the Magian usurper was
[1]
Bardia or Bardiya (Old Persian: Bardiya;[2] Oropastes, but according to Ctesias it was Sphendadates.
Ancient Greek: Smerdis) (possibly died 522 BC)
was a son of Cyrus the Great and the younger brother of The despotic rule of Cambyses, coupled with his long ab-
Cambyses II, both Persian kings. There are sharply di- sence in Egypt, contributed to the fact that the whole
vided views on his life. He either ruled the Achaemenid people, Persians, Medes and all the other nations, ac-
Empire for a few months in 522 BC, or was imper- knowledged the usurper, [14]
especially as he granted a tax re-
[3]
sonated by a magus called Gaumta. (Old Persian: lief for three years. Cambyses began to march against
) [4][5] him, but died in the spring of 522 BC in disputed circum-
stances. Before his death he confessed to the murder of
his brother, and publicly explained the whole fraud, but
4.3.1 Name and sources this was not generally believed. Nobody had the courage
to oppose the new king, who ruled for seven months over
The princes name is listed variously in the historical the whole empire. The new king transferred the seat of
sources. His Persian name is Bardia or Bardiya. He government to Media. A number of Persian nobles dis-
is called Tonyoxarces (Sphendadates) by Ctesias,[6] he covered that their new ruler was an impostor, and a group
is called Tanooxares by Xenophon, who takes the name of seven nobles formed a plot to kill him. They surprised
from Ctesias,[7] and he is called Mardos by Justin[8] and him at a castle in Nisa, home of the Nisean horses, and
Aeschylus.[9] In the prevalent Greek form of his name, stabbed him to death in September 522 BC. One of the
Smerdis, the Persian name has been assimilated to the seven, Darius, was proclaimed as ruler shortly after.
Greek (Asiatic) name Smerdis or Smerdies, a name which
also occurs in the poems of Alcaeus and Anacreon.
In English-language histories he has traditionally been
called Smerdis, but recent histories tend to call him 4.3.3 Revisionist view
Bardiya.[10][11]
Some modern historians dispute the traditional story.
They believe that the person who ruled for a few months
4.3.2 Traditional view was the real son of Cyrus, and that the story of his imper-
sonation by a magus was an invention of Darius to justify
The traditional view is based on the majority of ancient his seizure of the throne.[15][16][17] According to M. Dan-
sources, e.g., Darius the Greats Behistun inscription, as damaev, this view must remain hypothetical.[13] There
well as Herodotus, Justin, and Ctesias, although there are are some implausibilities in the ocial story. For ex-
minor dierences between them. ample, the impostor resembled the real Bardiya so closely
Bardiya was the younger son of Cyrus the Great and a full that most of wives did not spot the dierence, except for
or half-brother of Cambyses II. According to Ctesias, on queen Phaidyme.[18][19] Darius often accused rebels and
his deathbed Cyrus appointed Bardiya as satrap (gover- opponents of being impostors (such as Nebuchadnezzar
nor) of some of the far-eastern provinces.[12] According III), and it could be straining credulity to say that they all
to Darius the Great, Cambyses II, after becoming king of were.[11][16][20]
4.3. BARDIYA 123
4.3.4 Aftermath [3] This article does not take sides on this dispute, but fur-
ther investigation of recent scholarship in both Iran and
In the next year, another person claiming to be Bardiya, the West would be useful.
[21]
named Vahyazdta (Old Persian: ) rose [4] Akbarzadeh, D.; A. Yahyanezhad (2006). The Behistun
against Darius in eastern Persia and met with great suc- Inscriptions (Old Persian Texts) (in Persian). Khaneye-
cess, but he was nally defeated, taken prisoner and Farhikhtagan-e Honarhaye Sonati. p. 60. ISBN 964-
executed[22] Perhaps he is identical with the King Mara- 8499-05-5.
phis the Maraphian, name of a Persian tribe, who oc-
curs as successor in the list of Persian kings given by [5] Kent, Roland G. Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon
(1950).
Aeschylus.[23]
The real Bardiya had only one daughter, called Parmys, [6] Ctesias Pers. 8
who eventually married Darius the Great. [7] Xenophon Cyrop. Vin. 7.ii
Some contracts dating from his reign have been found in
[8] Aeschylus Pers. 774
Babylonia, where his name is spelt Barziya or Bardiya.[24]
Darius says that Bardiya destroyed some temples, which [9] Justin i.9, Mergis
Darius later restored. Bardiya also took away the herds
and houses of the people, which Darius corrected once [10] Leick, Gewdolyn Whos Who in the Ancient Near East
he gained the throne.[25] [11] Van De Mieroop, Marc A History of the Ancient Near East
The death of the false Bardiya was annually celebrated
[12] Ctesias, Persica: Book 11, Fragment 9, taken from
in Persia by a feast called the killing of the magian, Photius excerpt http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/ctesias/
(Magiophani) at which no magian was allowed to show photius_persica.html#%A78 cf. Xenophon Cyrop. vin.
himself.[26][27] 7, if
[2] Kent, Roland G. Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon [29] Clarke, Adam (18101826). Clarkes Commentary on the
(1950). Bible. p. Commentary on Ezra 4:7.
124 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
[30] Stackhouse, Thomas; George Gleig (1817). A History of the largest fraction of the worlds population of any em-
the Holy Bible Corrected and Improved. p. 529. pire in history. Based on historical demographic esti-
mates, Darius I ruled over approximately 50 million peo-
[31] Nichol, Francis D. Seventh-day Adventist Bible Commen-
ple, or at least 44% of the worlds population.[7]
tary. p. Notes on Daniel 6:2728.]
the temple services. This decree is dated approximately as king in case he should not return from battle.[22] How-
519 BCE.[17] Between Cyrus and Darius, an exchange of ever, once Cyrus had crossed the Aras River, he had a
letters with King Ahasuerus and Artaxerxes is described vision in which Darius had wings atop his shoulders and
(chapter 4, verse 7), the grandson of Darius I, during stood upon the connes of Europe and Asia (the known
whose reign Ezra and Nehemiah came to Jerusalem. The world). When Cyrus awoke from the dream, he inferred
generous funding of the temple gave Darius and his suc- it as a great danger to the future security of the empire, as
cessors the support of the Jewish priesthood.[18][19] The it meant that Darius would one day rule the whole world.
Elephantine papyri however mention the high priest Jo- However, his son Cambyses was the heir to the throne,
hanan of Ezra 10:6 as a contemporary of Darius II. not Darius, causing Cyrus to wonder if Darius was form-
Darius is mentioned in the near-contemporary biblical ing treasonable and ambitious designs. This led Cyrus to
order Hystaspes to go back to Persis and watch over his
books of Haggai and Zechariah (two of the Twelve Mi- [23]
nor Prophets), whose account is also reected in the later son strictly, until Cyrus himself returned. Darius did
not seem to have any treasonous thoughts as Cambyses II
books of EzraNehemiah.
ascended the throne peacefully; and, through promotion,
Darius was eventually elevated to be Cambysess personal
4.4.3 Early life lancer.
4.4.4 Accession
Taking precautions against further resistance, Darius sent the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and
soldiers to seize Intaphernes, along with his son, fam- appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the
ily members, relatives and any friends who were capable Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. Dar-
of arming themselves. Darius believed that Intaphernes ius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned
was planning a rebellion, but when he was brought to the through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia.
court, there was no proof of any such plan. Nonetheless,
Darius killed Intapherness entire family, excluding his
wifes brother and son. She was asked to choose between Babylonian revolt
her brother and son. She chose her brother to live. Her
reasoning for doing so was that she could have another
husband and another son, but she would always have but
one brother. Darius was impressed by her response and
spared both her brothers and her sons life.[28]
he attempted many tricks and strategieseven copying Darius eventually ordered a halt at the banks of Oarus,
that which Cyrus the Great had employed when he cap- where he built eight great forts, some eight miles distant
tured Babylon. However, the situation changed in Dar- from each other, no doubt as a frontier defence.[38] In
iuss favour when, according to the story, a mule owned his Histories, Herodotus states that the ruins of the forts
by Zopyrus, a high-ranking soldier, foaled. Following were still standing in his day.[40] After chasing the Scythi-
this, a plan was hatched for Zopyrus to pretend to be a ans for a month, Dariuss army was suering losses due
deserter, enter the Babylonian camp, and gain the trust to fatigue, privation and sickness. Concerned about los-
of the Babylonians. The plan was successful and Dar- ing more of his troops, Darius halted the march at the
iuss army eventually surrounded the city and overcame banks of the Volga River and headed towards Thrace.[41]
the rebels.[32] He had conquered enough Scythian territory to force the
Scythians to respect the Persian forces.[42][43]
During this revolt, Scythian nomads took advantage of
the disorder and chaos and invaded Persia. Darius rst
nished defeating the rebels in Elam, Assyria, and Baby-
Persian invasion of Greece
lon and then attacked the Scythian invaders. He pursued
the invaders, who led him to a marsh; there he found no
Main article: First Persian invasion of Greece
known enemies but an enigmatic Scythian tribe.[33]
See also: Ionian Revolt
Dariuss European expedition was a major event in his
European Scythian campaign Odryses
Byzantium Chalcedon
Perinthus Astakos
Lesbos
Adramyttium
Pergamon
EMPIRE
Pherae Skiathos
Mytilene
Phocaea
Pitane
Smyrna Sardis
480 Skyros 498
Chalcis
Chios
Clazomenae
Colophon Tralles
Anactorium Ephesus
Calydon
Delphi
Naupactus
Thebes
Plataea 479
490
Eretria
Marathon Karystos
Andros Ikaros
Samos
Lade
Mycale
479
Miletus
Mylasa
Athens
lived between the Danube River, River Don and the Black
Zakynthos Elis Argos Naxos
Serifos Paros
Amorgos
The Greek World during Olympia Sifnos
Tegea
the Persian Wars (500479 BC)
Sparta Lindos
Sea.[11][34]
Ios Astipalea
Messene
Ionian revolt Rhodes
Melos Anafe
Main battle Methoni Thera
Greek opponents of Persia
Greek neutral states Karpathos
ing a bridge of boats. Darius conquered large portions of Artaphernes/Datis (490 BC)
Xerxes/Mardonius (480 BC)
0 50 100 km
BCE, the body of Darius was embalmed and entombed xed tributes that the satrapies were required to pay. A
in the rock-cut sepulchre that had been prepared for him complete list is preserved in the catalogue of Herodotus,
several years earlier. beginning with Ionia and listing the other satrapies from
Xerxes, the eldest son of Darius and Atossa, succeeded west to east excluding Persis which was the land of the
to the throne as Xerxes I; however, prior to Xerxess Persians and the only province which was not a conquered
accession, he contested the succession with his elder land. Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents.
half-brother Artobarzanes, Dariuss eldest son who was Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with
born to his commoner rst wife before Darius rose to the Babylonian talent. Those paid in gold were measured
power.[46] with the Euboic talent. The total tribute from the satraps
[47]
In 1923 German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld made casts came to an amount less than 15,000 silver talents.
of the cuneiform inscriptions on Dariuss tomb. They are The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and
currently housed in the archives of the Freer Gallery of were members of the royal house or the six great noble
Art and Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Smithsonian Insti- families. These satraps were personally picked by Dar-
tution, Washington, DC. ius to monitor these provinces. Each of these provinces
were divided into sub-provinces with their own gover-
nors which were chosen either by the royal court or by
4.4.9 Government the satrap. To assess tributes, a commission evaluated
the expenses and revenues of each satrap. To ensure that
Organization one person did not gain too much power, each satrap
had a secretary who observed the aairs of the state and
communicated with Darius, a treasurer who safeguarded
provincial revenues and a garrison commander who was
responsible for the troops. Additionally, royal inspectors
who were the eyes and ears of Darius completed further
checks on each satrap.[48]
The imperial administration was coordinated by the
chancery with headquarters at Persepolis, Susa, and
Babylon with Bactria, Ecbatana, Sardis, Dascylium and
Memphis having branches. Darius chose Aramaic as a
common language, which soon spread throughout the em-
pire. However, Darius gathered a group of scholars to
create a separate language system only used for Persis
and the Persians, which was called Aryan script which
was only used for ocial inscriptions.[48]
Economy
Construction
Gold darics such as this one (with a purity of 95.83%) were only
issued by the king himself. (c. 490 BCE).
name of Cyrus the Great. It was previously believed that [11] Shahbazi 1996, p. 41.
Cyrus had constructed this building, however due to the
cuneiform script being used, the palace is believed to [12] Kuhrt 2013, p. 197.
have been constructed by Darius. [13] Frye 1984, p. 103.
In Egypt Darius built many temples and restored those [14] Schmitt 2000, p. 53.
that had previously been destroyed. Even though Dar-
ius was a Zoroastrian, he built temples dedicated to the [15] Roman Ghirshman, Iran (1954), Penguin Books, p 191.
Gods of the Ancient Egyptian religion. Several tem-
[16] Wilhelm Gesenius, Hebrisches und Aramisches Hand-
ples found were dedicated to Ptah and Nekhbet. Dar-
wrterbuch ber das Alte Testament, 17. Auage (1962),
ius also created several roads and routes in Egypt. The Springer-Verlag, p 392.
monuments that Darius built were often inscribed in
the ocial languages of the Persian Empire, Old Per- [17] Pfandl, Gerhard (2004). Daniel: The Seer of Babylon.
sian, Elamite and Babylonian and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Herald Publishing Association. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-8280-
To construct these monuments Darius employed a large 1829-6.
number of workers and artisans of diverse nationalities.
[18] Tropea 2006, p. 5455.
Several of these workers were deportees who had been
employed specically for these projects. These depor- [19] Bedford 2001, p. 183184.
tees enhanced the empires economy and improved inter-
cultural relations.[48] At the time of Dariuss death con- [20] Cook 1985, p. 217.
struction projects were still under way. Xerxes com- [21] Abbott 2009, p. 14.
pleted these works and in some cases expanded his fa-
thers projects by erecting new buildings of his own.[58] [22] Abbott 2009, p. 1415.
[6] Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart [37] Beckwith 2009, p. 6869.
concise edition vol.1. New York: W.W. Norton & Com-
[38] Boardman 1982, pp. 239243.
pany, Inc. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-393-25093-0.
[39] Boardman 2012, pp. 239243.
[7] "Five Empires That Were Close to World Domination".
Joseph Kaminski. March 20, 2016. Retrieved August 16, [40] Herodotus 2015, pp. 352.
2016.
[41] Chaliand 2004, p. 16.
[8] Shahbazi 1996, p. 40.
[42] Shahbazi 1996, p. 45.
[9] Duncker 1882, p. 192.
[43] Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rut-
[10] Egerton 1994, p. 6. gers University Press. pp. 910. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9.
4.4. DARIUS THE GREAT 133
[44] Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. A companion to An- Boardman, John, ed. (1982). The Cambridge An-
cient Macedonia John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 1- cient History. 10: Persia, Greece, and the Western
4443-5163-X pp 135138, p 343 Mediterranean. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. pp. 239243. ISBN 978-0-521-
[45] Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. A companion to An-
22804-6.
cient Macedonia John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 1-
4443-5163-X pp 135138 Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious
Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-
[46] Shahbazi.
7100-0121-5
[47] Shahbazi 1996, p. 47. Cook, J. M. (1985), The Rise of the Achaemenids
and Establishment of their Empire, The Median
[48] Shahbazi 1996, p. 48.
and Achaemenian Periods, Cambridge History of
[49] Farrokh 2007, p. 65. Iran, 2, London: Cambridge University Press
[50] Farrokh 2007, p. 6566. Herodotus, ed. (2015). The Histories. Knopf Dou-
bleday Publishing Group. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-375-
[51] Verlag 2009, p. 86. 71271-5.
[52] Moulton 2005, p. 48. Safra, Jacob (2002), The New Encyclopdia Britan-
nica, Encyclopdia Britannica Inc, ISBN 0-85229-
[53] Boyce 1979, p. 55. 787-4
[54] Boyce 1979, p. 5455. Slincourt, Aubrey (2002), The Histories, London:
Penguin Classics, ISBN 0-14-044908-6
[55] Boyce 1979, p. 56.
Shahbazi, Shapur (1996), Darius I the Great,
[56] Shahbazi 1996, p. 49. Encyclopedia Iranica, 7, New York: Columbia Uni-
versity
[57] Spielvogel 2009, p. 49.
Siliotti, Alberto (2006), Hidden Treasures of Antiq-
[58] Boardman 1988, p. 76. uity, Vercelli, Italy: VMB Publishers, ISBN 88-540-
0497-9
Poolos, J (2008), Darius the Great (illustrated ed.), Wilber, Donald N. (1989). Persepolis : the archae-
Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7910-9633-8 ology of Parsa, seat of the Persian kings (Rev. ed.).
Princeton, N.J.: Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-062-
Kuhrt, A. (2013). The Persian Empire: A Corpus 6.
of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-136-01694-3.
Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), Shadows in the desert: an- 4.5 Xerxes the Great
cient Persia at war, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-
1-84603-108-3
Ross, William; H. G. Wells (2004), The Outline of Xerxes I (/zrksiz/; Old Persian: x--y-a-r-
History: Volume 1 (Barnes & Noble Library of Es- -a ( Khashayarsha ) ruling over heroes,[2] Greek -
sential Reading): Prehistory to the Roman Republic [ksrkss]; 518465 BC), called Xerxes the Great,
(illustrated ed.), Barnes & Noble Publishing, ISBN was the fourth king of kings of the Achaemenid dynasty
978-0-7607-5866-3, retrieved 28 July 2011 of Persia. He ruled from 486 BC until his assassination
in 465 BC at the hands of Artabanus, the commander of
Abbott, Jacob (2009), History of Darius the Great: the royal bodyguard.
Makers of History, Cosimo, Inc., ISBN 978-1-
Xerxes I is most likely the Persian king identied
60520-835-0
as Ahasuerus (Hebrew Hebrew pronunciation:
[axavero]) in the biblical Book of Esther.[3][4][5] He is
4.4.14 Further reading also notable in Western history for his failed invasion of
Greece in 480 BC. Like his predecessor Darius I, he ruled
Burn, A.R. (1984). Persia and the Greeks : the de- the empire at its territorial apex. His forces temporarily
fence of the West, c. 546-478 B.C. (2nd ed.). Stan- overran
[6][7]
mainland Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth
ford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0- until the losses at Salamis and Plataea a year later
8047-1235-2. reversed these gains and ended the second invasion deci-
sively.
Ghirshman, Roman (1964). The Arts of Ancient
Iran from Its Origins to the Time of Alexander the
Great. New York: Golden Press. 4.5.1 Early life
Olmstead, Albert T. (1948). History of the Persian Rise to power
Empire, Achaemenid Period. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. Xerxes was born to Darius I and Atossa (daugh-
ter of Cyrus the Great). Darius and Atossa were
Vogelsang, W.J. (1992). The rise and organisation
both Achaemenids as they were both descendants of
of the Achaemenid Empire : the eastern Iranian evi-
Achaemenes. While Darius was preparing for another
dence. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-09682-5.
war against Greece, a revolt spurred in Egypt in 486 BC
Warner, Arthur G. (1905). The Shahnama of Fir- due to heavy taxes and the deportation of craftsmen to
dausi. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trbner and build the royal palaces at Susa and Perseopolis. Under
Co. Persian law, the king was required to choose a successor
before setting out on dangerous expeditions. When Dar-
Wiesehfer, Josef (1996). Ancient Persia : from 550 ius decided to leave (487-486 BC), Darius prepared his
BC to 650 AD. Azizeh Azodi, trans. London: I.B. tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (ve kilometers from his royal
Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-999-0. palace at Perseopolis) and appointed Xerxes, his eldest
4.5. XERXES THE GREAT 135
killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder, sources generally demonize Xerxes in a manner that is
he killed Artabanus and his sons.[29] Participating in these
reected in more modern works. For instance, he was
intrigues was the general Megabyzus, whose decision to played by David Farrar in the ctional lm The 300 Spar-
switch sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losingtans (1962), where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-
their control of the Persian throne.[30] crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features
prominently in the graphic novel 300 by Frank Miller, as
well as the lm adaptation 300 (2007) and its sequel 300:
4.5.5 Children Rise of an Empire (2014), as portrayed by Brazilian ac-
tor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is represented as a giant
By queen Amestris: man with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-
king. This portrayal has attracted controversy, especially
Amytis, wife of Megabyzus in Iran.[34] Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spar-
tans, a parody of the rst 300 movie replete with sopho-
Darius, the rst born, murdered by Artaxerxes I or moric humour and deliberate anachronisms.
Artabanus.
Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Bib-
Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I. lical story of Esther have also referenced Xerxes, such as
the video game Assassins Creed II and the lm One Night
Artaxerxes I with the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was
portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader
Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.
of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II
Rhodogune and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization
IV replaces him with Cyrus the Great and Darius I.
By unknown wives: Gore Vidal, in his historical ction novel Creation (1981),
describes at length the rise of the Achemenids, espe-
Artarius, satrap of Babylon. cially Darius I, and presents the life and death circum-
stances of Xerxes. Vidals version of the Persian Wars,
Tithraustes which diverges from the orthodoxy of the Greek his-
tories, is told through the invented character of Cyrus
Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas, Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of
satrap of Egypt. the prophet Zoroaster. Thanks to his family connection,
Parysatis[31] Cyrus is brought up in the Persian court after the murder
of Zoroaster, becoming the boyhood friend of Xerxes,
Ratashah[32] and later a diplomat who is sent to India, and later to
Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged access
to many leading historical gures of the period.[35]
4.5.6 Cultural depictions
Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the
1960 lm Esther and the King and by Joel Smallbone in
Xerxes is the central character of the Aeschylus play "The
the 2013 lm, The Book of Esther. In at least one of these
Persians. Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera Serse by
lms, the events of the Book of Esther are depicted as
the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric
taking place upon Xerxes return from Greece.
Handel. It was rst performed in the Kings Theatre Lon-
don on 15 April 1738. The famous aria "Ombra mai f" Xerxes plays an important background role (never mak-
opens the opera.[33] ing an appearance) in two short works of alternate his-
tory taking place generations after his complete victory
The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execu-
over Greece. These are: Counting Potsherds by Harry
tion of crown prince Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus
Turtledove in his anthology Departures and The Craft
(Megabise) and subsequent succession of Artaxerxes I is
of War by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1
romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera li-
(edited by Turtledove).
bretto Artaserse, which was rst set to music by Leonardo
Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as
Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.
Later generations fascination with ancient Sparta, and
particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes
portrayal in works of popular culture, although more of-
4.5.7 Etymology and transliteration
ten than not in a negative light, often portraying him as
ranging from unsympathetic to megalomaniacal. This Xerxes is the Greek version of the Old Persian name
can be blamed largely on the fact that most sources from Xaya-, which is today known in New Persian as
the period are of Greek origin. The authors of these Khashayar ().
138 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
[17] Roland G. Kent in Language Vol. 13 No. 4 Shabani, Reza (2007). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What
do I know about Iran? No. 75 (in Persian). Cultural
[18] M. Boyce, Achaemenid Religion in Encyclopdia Iranica. Research Burreau. p. 120. ISBN 964-379-109-2.
See also Boardman, J.; et al. (1988). The Cambridge An-
cient History Vol. IV (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. Shahbazi, A. Sh. Darius I the Great. Encyclopae-
ISBN 0-521-22804-2. p. 101. dia Iranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
[19] Farrokh 2007: 77 Schmitt, Rdiger. Achaemenid dynasty. Ency-
clopaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
[20] Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175.
D.C. Heath and Co., USA, 1992. Schmitt, Rdiger. Atossa. Encyclopaedia Iranica.
[21] G. Mafodda, La monarchia di Gelone tra pragmatismo,
vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
ideologia e propaganda, (Messina, 1996) pp. 119-136 McCullough, W. S. Ahasuerus. Encyclopaedia
[22] Barkworth, 1993. The Organization of Xerxes Army. Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Iranica Antiqua Vol. 27, pp. 149167
Boyce, Mary. Achaemenid Religion. Encyclopae-
[23] Martin Steskal, Der Zerstrungsbefund 480/79 der dia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Athener Akropolis. Eine Fallstudie zum etablierten
Chronologiegerst, Verlag Dr. Kova, Hamburg, 2004
Dandamayev, M. A. (1999). Artabanus.
Encyclopdia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Pau.
[24] Herodotus VIII, 97 Retrieved 2009-02-25.
4.6. ARTAXERXES LONGIMANUS 139
4.7 Xerxes II
4.6.9 References
[1] Henri Gauthier, Le Livre des rois d'gypte, IV, Cairo 1916Xerxes II (Persian: ,IPA:/zksiz/ -
(=MIFAO 20), p. 152. Xayr) was a Persian king and the son and successor
of Artaxerxes I. After a reign of forty-ve days, he was
[2] Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). Achaemenid Inscriptions assassinated in 424 BC by his brother Sogdianus, who
( ) (in Persian) (2nd ed.). Tehran: in turn was murdered by Darius II. He is an obscure
Shiraz Navid Publications. p. 129. ISBN 964-358-015-6. historical gure known primarily from the writings of
[9] Themistocles, Part II, by Plutarch Xerxes II was apparently only recognized as king in Persia
and Sogdianus in Elam. Ochus rst inscription as Darius
[10] Thucydides I, 137 II can be dated to January 10, 423 BC. He was already
satrap of Hyrcania and was soon recognized by Media,
[11] Plutarch, Themistocles, 29 Babylonia and Egypt. Xerxes II only ruled forty-ve days.
[12] The Book of Daniel. Montex Publish Company, By Jim He was reportedly murdered by Pharnacyas and Menos-
McGuiggan 1978, p. 147. tanes while drunk on Sogdianus orders. Sogdianus ap-
parently gained the support of his regions. Sogdianus was
[13] New International Bible Dictionary. Zondervan, 1987, p. killed a few months later. Darius II became the sole ruler
95. of the Persian Empire and would reign until 404 BC.[2]
[14] Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C.-A.D. 75. Brown Uni-
versity Press, 1956, pp. 17-18
4.7.1 References
[15] Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Zondervan,
1977, pp. 127-128 [1] S. Zawadzki, The Circumstances of Darius IIs Acces-
sion in Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux 34 (1995-1996) 45-
[16] Nehemiah 2:1-9 49
142 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
[2] S. Zawadzki, The Circumstances of Darius IIs Acces- 4.9 Darius Nothus
sion in Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux 34 (1995-1996) 45-
49
This article is about the ancient king of the Persian
Empire. For the video game, see Darius II (video game).
4.8.1 References Historians know little about Darius IIs reign. A rebellion
by the Medes in 409 BC is mentioned by Xenophon. It
[1] Kitto, J (1841). Palestine: the Bible History of the holy does seem that Darius II was quite dependent on his wife
land. London. p. 657. External link in |title= (help) Parysatis. In excerpts from Ctesias some harem intrigues
are recorded, in which he played a disreputable part.[1]
As long as the power of Athens remained intact he did not
4.8.2 External links meddle in Greek aairs. When in 413 BC, Athens sup-
ported the rebel Amorges in Caria, Darius II would not
A more detailed prole of Sogdianus have responded had not the Athenian power been bro-
4.10. ARTAXERXES MNEMON 143
ken in the same year at Syracuse. As a result of that 4.10 Artaxerxes Mnemon
event, Darius II gave orders to his satraps in Asia Mi-
nor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, to send in the over- Artaxerxes II Mnemon /rtzrksiz/ (Old Per-
due tribute of the Greek towns and to begin a war with sian: , meaning whose reign is through
Athens. To support the war with Athens, the Persian truth)[1] was king of Persia from 404 BC until his death
satraps entered into an alliance with Sparta. In 408 BC in 358 BC. He was a son of Darius II and Parysatis.
he sent his son Cyrus to Asia Minor, to carry on the war
with greater energy. Darius II died in 404 BC, in the nine-
teenth year of his reign, and was followed as Persian king 4.10.1 Rise to power
by Artaxerxes II.[1]
Darius II died in 404 BC, just before the nal victory
of the Egyptian general, Amyrtaeus, over the Persians in
4.9.1 Issue Egypt. His successor was his eldest son Arsames who
was crowned as Artaxerxes II in Pasargadae. He later re-
Prior to his accession, Darius II was married to the daugh- ceived the title of Mnemon from the Greeks who found
ter of Gobryas. With the daughter of Gobryas, Dar- his memory to be exceptional. Even before his corona-
ius II had four sons, through whom one of his sons be- tion, Artaxerxes was facing threats to his rule from his
came the father of Artabazanes, who served as King of younger brother, Cyrus the Younger.
Media Atropatene in the second half of the 3rd century
BC.[3][4][5] Four years earlier, Cyrus was appointed by his father as
the supreme governor of the provinces of Asia Minor.
By Parysatis (his half-sister) Artaxerxes II There, he managed to pacify local rebellions and become
a popular ruler among both the Iranians and Greeks.
Cyrus the Younger Towards the end of 405 BC, Cyrus became aware of
his fathers illness. By gathering support from the local
Oxathres or Oxendares or Oxendras
Greeks and by hiring Greek mercenaries commanded by
Artoxexes Clearchus, Cyrus started marching down towards Babylo-
nia, initially declaring his intention to crush the rebellious
Ostanes armies in Syria. [2]
Amestris wife of Teritouchmes & then Artaxerxes II By the time of Darius IIs death, Cyrus had already been
successful in defeating the Syrians and Cilicians and was
& seven other unnamed children
commanding a large army made up of his initial support-
ers plus those who had joined him in Phrygia and beyond.
By other wives Artostes
Upon hearing of his fathers death, Cyrus the Younger
The unnamed satrap of Media at 401 B.C. declared his claim to the throne, based on the argument
that he was born to Darius and Parysatis after Darius had
ascended to the throne, while Artaxerxes was born prior
4.9.2 See also to Darius II gaining the throne .
Artoxares Artaxerxes defended his position against his brother
Cyrus the Younger who, with the aid of a large army
of Greek mercenaries, attempted to usurp the throne.
4.9.3 References Though Cyrus mixed army fought to a tactical victory at
the Battle of Cunaxa in Babylon (401 BC), Cyrus himself
[1] One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates
text from a publication now in the public domain:
was killed in the exchange by Mithridates, rendering his
Meyer, Eduard (1911). "Darius". In Chisholm, Hugh. victory irrelevant. (The Greek historian Xenophon would
Encyclopdia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge Uni- later recount this battle in the Anabasis, focusing on the
versity Press. p. 833. struggle of the now stranded Greek mercenaries to return
home.)
[2] Brills New Pauly, Darius.
Darius
[11] Jan Jacob van Ginkel, John of Ephesus. A Monophysite 4.11.1 Name
Historian in Sixth-century Byzantium, Groningen, 1995
Artaxerxes III (Old Persian: , Ar-
taxar, he whose empire is well-tted or perfected, or
4.10.8 External links
Arta:"honoured"+Xerxes:"a king (the honoured king),
according to Herodotus the great warrior [4][5] ) was the
Artaxerxes by Plutarch
throne name adopted by Ochus when he succeeded his fa-
H. Hunger & R.J. van der Spek, An astronomi- ther in 358 BC. He is generally referred to as Ochus, but
cal diary concerning Artaxerxes II (year 42 = 363- in Iran he is known as Ardeshir III ( Modern
2 BC). Military operations in Babylonia in: Arta Persian form of Artaxerxes). In Babylonian inscriptions
2006.002 he is called Umasu, who is called Artakshatsu. The
same form of the name (probably pronounced Uvasu) oc-
Inscriptions of Artaxerxes II in transcribed Persian curs in the Syrian version of the Canon of Kings by Elias
and in English translation. of Nisibis.[4]
146 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
4.11.2 Early life and accession commanded by Phocion the Athenian, and Evagoras,
son of the elder Evagoras, the Cypriot monarch.[14][15]
Before ascending the throne Artaxerxes had been a satrap Idrieus succeeded in reducing Cyprus. Artaxerxes ini-
and commander of his fathers army.[6] In 359 BC, just tiated a counter-oensive against Sidon by commanding
before ascending the throne, he attacked Egypt as a re- the satrap of Syria and Mezseus, and the satrap of Cili-
action to Egypts failed attacks on coastal regions of cia to invade the city and to keep the Phoenicians in
Phoenicia.[7] In 358 BC his father, Artaxerxes II, died- check. Both satraps suered crushing defeats at the hands
-it was said to be because of a broken heart caused by of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000
his childrens behaviour--and, since his other sons, Dar- Greek mercenaries sent to him by Nectanebo II and com-
ius, Ariaspes and Tiribazus had already been eliminated manded by Mentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian
by plots, Artaxerxes III succeeded him as king.[8] His rstforces were driven out of Phoenicia.[15]
order was the execution of over 80 of his nearest relations
After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000
to secure his place as king.[9]
men against Sidon. Artaxerxes army comprised 300,000
In 355 BC, Artaxerxes forced Athens to conclude a peace foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, 300 triremes, and 500
which required the citys forces to leave Asia Minor transports or provision ships. After gathering this army,
and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious he sought assistance from the Greeks. Though refused aid
allies.[10] Artaxerxes started a campaign against the re- by Athens and Sparta, he succeeded in obtaining a thou-
bellious Cadusians, but he managed to appease both of sand Theban heavy-armed hoplites under Lacrates, three
the Cadusian kings. One individual who successfully thousand Argives under Nicostratus, and six thousand
emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, olians, Ionians, and Dorians from the Greek cities of
who later occupied the Persian throne as Darius III. Asia Minor. This Greek support was numerically small,
Artaxerxes then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal amounting to no more than 10,000 men, but it formed, to-
armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer gether with the Greek mercenaries from Egypt who went
guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these over to him afterwards, the force on which he placed his
armies equipped the western satraps with the means to chief reliance, and to which the ultimate success of his
revolt.[11] The order was however ignored by Artabazus expedition was mainly due.
of Lydia, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebel- The approach of Artaxerxes suciently weakened the
lion against the king. Athens sent assistance to Sardis. resolution of Tennes that he endeavoured to purchase
Orontes of Mysia also supported Artabazus and the com- his own pardon by delivering up 100 principal citizens
bined forces managed to defeat the forces sent by Artax- of Sidon into the hands of the Persian king, and then
erxes in 354 BC. However, in 353 BC, they were defeated admitting Artaxerxes within the defences of the town.
by Artaxerxes army and were disbanded. Orontes was Artaxerxes had the 100 citizens transxed with javelins,
pardoned by the king, while Artabazus ed to the safety and when 500 more came out as supplicants to seek
of the court of Philip II of Macedon. his mercy, Artaxerxes consigned them to the same fate.
Sidon was then burnt to the ground, either by Artax-
erxes or by the Sidonian citizens. Forty thousand people
4.11.3 First Egyptian Campaign died in the conagration.[15] Artaxerxes sold the ruins at a
high price to speculators, who calculated on reimbursing
In around 351 BC, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign themselves by the treasures which they hoped to dig out
to recover Egypt, which had revolted under his father, Ar- from among the ashes.[16] Tennes was later put to death by
taxerxes II. At the same time a rebellion had broken out Artaxerxes.[17] Artaxerxes later sent Jews who supported
in Asia Minor, which, being supported by Thebes, threat- the revolt to Hyrcania, on the south coast of the Caspian
ened to become serious.[12] Levying a vast army, Artax- Sea.[18][19]
erxes marched into Egypt, and engaged Nectanebo II. Af-
ter a year of ghting the Egyptian Pharaoh, Nectanebo
inicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the sup- 4.11.5 Second Egyptian Campaign
port of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophan-
tus and Lamius.[13] Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat See also: History of Achaemenid Egypt The second
and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt. Egyptian satrapy
The reduction of Sidon was followed closely by the in-
vasion of Egypt. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes, in addition to
4.11.4 Rebellion of Cyprus and Sidon his 330,000 Persians, had now a force of 14,000 Greeks
furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor: 4,000 under
Soon after this defeat, Phoenicia, Asia Minor and Cyprus Mentor, consisting of the troops which he had brought to
declared their independence from Persian rule. In 343 the aid of Tennes from Egypt; 3,000 sent by Argos; and
BC, Artaxerxes committed responsibility for the suppres- 1000 from Thebes. He divided these troops into three
sion of the Cyprian rebels to Idrieus, prince of Caria, who bodies, and placed at the head of each a Persian and a
employed 8,000 Greek mercenaries and forty triremes, Greek. The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes,
4.11. ARTAXERXES OCHUS 147
Sea, the same location that the Jews of Phoenicia had ear-
lier been sent.
After this victory over the Egyptians, Artaxerxes had the
city walls destroyed, started a reign of terror, and set
about looting all the temples. Persia gained a signi-
cant amount of wealth from this looting. Artaxerxes also
raised high taxes and attempted to weaken Egypt enough
that it could never revolt against Persia. For the 10 years
that Persia controlled Egypt, believers in the native reli-
gion were persecuted and sacred books were stolen.[20]
Before he returned to Persia, he appointed Pherendares
as satrap of Egypt. With the wealth gained from his re-
conquering Egypt, Artaxerxes was able to amply reward
his mercenaries. He then returned to his capital having
successfully completed his invasion of Egypt.
Head of Nectanebo II
Tomb of Artaxerxes III at Persepolis at Persepolis suggests that he regarded the father and the
son as one person, suggesting that the attributes of Ahu-
The Persian forces in Ionia and Lycia regained control ramazda were being transferred to Mithra. Strangely, Ar-
of the Aegean and the Mediterranean Sea and took over taxerxes had ordered that statues of the goddess Anhita
much of Athens former island empire. In response, be erected at Babylon, Damascus and Sardis, as well as at
Isocrates of Athens started giving speeches calling for a Susa, Ecbatana and Persepolis.[27]
crusade against the barbarians but there was not enough Artaxerxes name appears on silver coins (modeled on
strength left in any of the Greek city-states to answer his Athenian ones) issued while he was in Egypt. The re-
call.[21] verse bears an inscription in an Egyptian script, saying
[28]
Although there weren't any rebellions in the Persian Em- Artaxerxes Pharaoh. Life, Prosperity, Wealth.
pire itself, the growing power and territory of Philip II of
Macedon in Macedon (against which Demosthenes was in
In literature
vain warning the Athenians) attracted the attention of Ar-
taxerxes. In response, he ordered that Persian inuence
It is thought by some that the Book of Judith could
was to be used to check and constrain the rising power and
have been originally based on Artaxerxes campaign in
inuence of the Macedonian kingdom. In 340 BC, a Per-
Phoenicia, as Holofernes was the name of the brother of
sian force was dispatched to assist the Thracian prince,
the Cappadocian satrap Ariarathes, the vassal of Artax-
Cersobleptes, to maintain his independence. Sucient
erxes. Bagoas, the general that nds Holofernes dead, was
eective aid was given to the city of Perinthus that the nu-
one of the generals of Artaxerxes during his campaign
merous and well-appointed army with which Philip had
against Phoenicia and Egypt.[29][30]
commenced his siege of the city was compelled to give
up the attempt.[15] By the last year of Artaxerxes rule,
Philip II already had plans in place for an invasion of the Construction
Persian Empire, which would crown his career, but the
Greeks would not unite with him.[22]
In 338 BC Artaxerxes was poisoned by Bagoas with the
assistance of a physician.[23]
4.11.7 Legacy
See also: Zoroastrianism, Mithra, and Anahita
Historically, kings of the Achaemenid Empire were fol-
lowers of Zoroaster or heavily inuenced by Zoroastrian
ideology. The reign of Artaxerxes II saw a revival of the
cult of Anahita and Mithra, when in his building inscrip-
tions he invoked Ahuramazda, Anahita and Mithra and
The Unnished Gate at Persepolis gave archaeologists an insight
even set up statues of his gods.[24] Mithra and Anahita
into the construction of Persepolis.
had until then been neglected by true Zoroastrians--they
deed Zoroasters command that God was to be repre-
sented only by the ames of a sacred re.[17][25] Artax- See also: Persepolis
erxes III is thought to have rejected Anahita and wor-
shipped only Ahuramazda and Mithra.[26] An ambiguity There is evidence for a renewed building policy at Perse-
in the cuneiform script of an inscription of Artaxerxes III polis, but some of the buildings were unnished at the
4.11. ARTAXERXES OCHUS 149
time of his death. Two of his buildings at Persepolis were [4] Artaxerxes. Archived from the original on April 9,
the Hall of Thirty-Two Columns, the purpose of which is 2008. Retrieved March 11, 2008.
unknown, and the palace of Artaxerxes III. The unn-
[5] Smith, William (1867) [1842]. Artaxerxes. In William
ished Army Road and Unnished Gate, which connected Smith. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
the Gate of All Nations and the One-hundred Column Mythology. 1. Boston:Little, Brown, and Company. p.
Hall, gave archaeologists an insight into the construction 371. Arta:"honoured"+Xerxes:"a king (the honoured
of Persepolis.[12] In 341 BC, after Artaxerxes returned to king), according to Herodotus the great warrior
Babylon from Egypt, he apparently proceeded to build a
[6] Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Ju-
great Apadana whose description is present in the works
daism in the Second Temple Period. Continuum Interna-
of Diodorus Siculus.
tional Publishing Group. p. 323. ISBN 0-567-08998-3.
The Nebuchadnezzar II palace in Babylon was expanded
[7] Lipschits, Oded (2007). Garry N. Knoppers, Rainer Al-
during the reign of Artaxerxes III.[31] Artaxerxes tomb
bertz, ed. Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century
was cut into the mountain behind the Persepolis platform, B.C.E. EISENBRAUNS. p. 87. ISBN 1-57506-130-9.
next to his fathers tomb.
[8] Rhodes, Peter J. (2006). A History of the Classical Greek
World: 478323 BC. Blackwell Publishing. p. 224. ISBN
4.11.8 Family 0-631-22564-1. Retrieved September 24, 2016.
4.11.10 References [19] Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1990). The Acts of the Apostles:
The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary. Wm.
[1] Lendering, Jona. Artaxerxes III Ochus. Livius.Org. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 117. ISBN 0-8028-0966-9.
Archived from the original on February 22, 2008. Re- [20] Persian Period II. Archived from the original on Febru-
trieved March 1, 2008. ary 17, 2008. Retrieved March 6, 2008.
[2] Ghias Abadi, R. M. (2004). Achaemenid Inscriptions [21] Chapter V: Temporary Relief. Retrieved March 1,
( ) (in Persian) (2nd ed.). Tehran: 2008.
Shiraz Navid Publications. p. 144. ISBN 964-358-015-6.
[22] Philip of Macedon Philip II of Macedon Biography.
[3] Lendering, Jona. Artaxerxes IV Arses. Archived from Archived from the original on March 14, 2008. Retrieved
the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved June 8, 2008. March 7, 2008.
150 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
[23] Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A his- while Bagoas acted as the real power behind the throne.
tory of the Persian Empire. Eienbrauns. p. 769. ISBN Eventually, disgruntled by this state of aairs and pos-
1-57506-120-1. sibly inuenced by the nobles of the Royal Court, who
[24] J. Varza; Dr. M. Soroushian. The Achaemenians,
generally held Bagoas in contempt, Arses started plan-
Zoroastrians in Transition. Archived from the original ning Bagoas murder. The Vizier again acted rst in order
on March 26, 2008. Retrieved March 5, 2008. to protect himself and managed to poison Arses. Bagoas
then raised a cousin of Arses to the throne as King Darius
[25] Lendering, Jona. Ahuramazda and Zoroastranism. III of Persia. A major concern for Persia during this
Archived from the original on March 15, 2008. Retrieved Kings short reign were hostilities on the western borders
March 5, 2008. with Macedonia under Kings Philip II of Macedon and
[26] Hans-Peter Schmidt (14 January 2006). i. Mithra In Old Alexander the Great. This would lead to war between the
Indian And Mithra In Old Iranian. Archived from the two states during the reign of Arses successor.
original on March 3, 2008. Retrieved March 5, 2008.
He is known as Arses in Greek sources and that seems to
[27] The Origins Of Mithraism. Archived from the original be his real name but the Xanthus trilingue and potsherds
on February 7, 2008. Retrieved March 5, 2008. from Samaria report that he had taken the royal name of
Artaxerxes IV, following his father and grandfather.
[28] Silver tetradrachm of Artaxerxes III. Retrieved March
6, 2008.
Persianempire.info
Alexander covers the corpse of Darius with his cloak (18th- [14] Prevas 47.
century engraving)
[15] Prevas 48
Dariuss body back to Persepolis, gave him a magnicent [16] Ulrich Wilcken, Alexander the Great.
funeral and ordered that he be buried, like all his royal
[17] N.G.L. Hammond, The Genius of Alexander the Great.
predecessors, in the royal tombs.[24] Dariuss tomb has
not yet been discovered.[25] Alexander eventually married [18] Prevas 52
Darius daughter Stateira at Susa in 324 BC.
[19] http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/fa/
With the old king defeated and given a proper burial,
contents/articles/opinion/2013/03/
Alexanders rulership of Persia became ocial. This cyrus-cylinder-iran-religious-freedom-minority-rights.
led to Darius being regarded by some historians as cow- html#
ardly and inecient,[26] as under his rulership, the en-
tirety of the Persian Empire fell to a foreign invader. Af- [20] Prevas 55
ter killing Darius, Bessus took the regal name Artaxerxes
V and began calling himself the King of Asia.[17] He [21] Prevas 60
was subsequently captured by Alexander, tortured, and [22] Prevas 64-5
executed. Another of Darius generals ingratiated him-
self to Alexander by giving the conqueror Darius favored [23] Prevas 69
companion, Bagoas.[27]
[24] Prevas 71
[1] Heckel, Waldemar (2002). The Wars of Alexander the [26] W.W. Tarn, Alexander the Great.
Great. p. 24. ISBN 978-1841764733. Retrieved 19 June
2012. [27] This was a dierent Bagoas than the unfaithful minister
mentioned above. Crompton, Louis. Homosexuality &
[2] Jrgen von Beckerath, Handbuch der gyptischen Civilization (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
Knigsnamen (= Mnchner gyptologische Studien, vol 2003), p. 76.
46), Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1999.
ISBN 3-8053-2310-7, pp. 23031.
4.13.5 Bibliography
[3] Justin 10.3; cf. Diod. 17.6.1-2
Prevas, John. Envy of the Gods: Alexander the
[4] Plutarch, Life of Alexander 18.7-8, First Oration on the
Greats Ill-Fated Journey across Asia. Da Capo
Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander, 326.D.
Press, 2004.
[5] Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Histor-
ical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 160. ISBN 978-
1610693912. 4.13.6 External links
[6] DARIUS v. Darius III. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI, A detailed biography of Darius
Fasc. 1. 1994. pp. 5154.
A genealogy of Darius
[7] DARIUS v. Darius III. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VI,
Fasc. 1. 1994. pp. 5154. Pothos.org: Darius III (Codomannus)
154 CHAPTER 4. PERSIAN KINGS
[3] Robin Lane Fox, page 300 Alexander the Great, Library
of Congress CCN 73-18880
[4] Robin Lane Fox, page 280 Alexander the Great, Library
of Congress CCN 73-18880
Macedonian kings
5.1 Alexander the Great his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, re-
sulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the
Diadochi, Alexanders surviving generals and heirs.
This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. Alexanders legacy includes the cultural diusion which
For other uses, see Alexander the Great (disambiguation). his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He
founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most no-
Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 BC tably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexanders settlement of
10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek cul-
the Great (Greek: , Alxandros ture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization,
ho Mgas Koine Greek: [a.lk.san.dros ho m.gas]), was aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of
a king (basileus) of the Ancient Greek kingdom of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD and
Macedon[a] and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern
born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip Anatolia until the 1920s. Alexander became legendary
II to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he fea-
his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign tures prominently in the history and mythic traditions of
through Asia and northeast Africa, and he had created one both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the mea-
of the largest empires of the ancient world by the age of sure against which military leaders compared themselves,
thirty, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.[1][2] and military academies throughout the world still teach
He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one his tactics.[6][c] He is often ranked among the most inu-
of historys most successful military commanders.[3] ential people in human history.[7]
During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle
until the age of 16. After Philips assassination in 336
BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited 5.1.1 Early life
a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander
was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this au- Lineage and childhood
thority to launch his fathers Panhellenic project to lead
the Greeks in the conquest of Persia.[4][5] In 334 BC, he Alexander was born on the sixth day of the ancient Greek
invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to
began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Fol- 20 July 356 BC, although the exact date is disputed,[8]
lowing the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon.[9] He
power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most no- was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his
tably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subse- fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I,
quently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered king of Epirus.[10] Although Philip had seven or eight
the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety.[b] At that point, wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time,
his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus likely a result of giving birth to Alexander.[11]
River. Several legends surround Alexanders birth and
He sought to reach the ends of the world and the Great childhood.[12] According to the ancient Greek biographer
Outer Sea and invaded India in 326 BC, winning an im- Plutarch, Olympias, on the eve of the consummation
portant victory over the Pauravas at the Battle of the Hy- of her marriage to Philip, dreamed that her womb was
daspes. He eventually turned back at the demand of his struck by a thunder bolt, causing a ame that spread
homesick troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, far and wide before dying away. Sometime after the
the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream,
executing a series of planned campaigns that would have securing his wifes womb with a seal engraved with a
begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following lions image.[13] Plutarch oered a variety of interpreta-
156
5.1. ALEXANDER THE GREAT 157
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and 5.1.3 King of Macedon
married Cleopatra Eurydice, the niece of his general
160 CHAPTER 5. MACEDONIAN KINGS
Accession Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they
found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered,
adding their cavalry to Alexanders force. He then con-
TIS
tinued south towards the Peloponnese.[41]
N
O PO
PR
ES
D
EC
AN
ES
E
pher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the
LAD
Consolidation of power
der then marched for three days to the Danube, encoun- Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then
tering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and
river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid
retreat after the rst cavalry skirmish.[48] forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian
News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Il- naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in
lyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open Caria, Alexander successfully waged his rst large-scale
revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary
Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of
Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.[53] Alexander left
to ee with their troops. With these victories, he secured
his northern frontier.[49] the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid
dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.[54]
While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and
Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into moun-
headed south.[50] While the other cities again hesitated, tainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control
Thebes decided to ght. The Theban resistance was in- over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases.
eective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports
territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexan-
Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily der humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city.[55] At
at peace.[50] Alexander then set out on his Asian cam- the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander un-
paign, leaving Antipater as regent.[51] did the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to
await the future king of Asia".[56] According to the story,
Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot
5.1.4 Conquest of the Persian Empire was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.[57]
Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great and The Levant and Syria
Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great
into Asia
Asia Minor
332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured Arbela. Gaugamela would be the nal and decisive en-
after a long and dicult siege.[59][60] The men of military counter between the two. Darius ed over the mountains
age were massacred and the women and children sold into to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), while Alexander cap-
slavery.[61] tured Babylon.[69]
Egypt Persia
Site of the Persian Gate; the road was built in the 1990s
ders wine-pourer.[123][125] There was even a suggestion sarcophagus that was lled with honey, which was in
that Aristotle may have participated.[123] turn placed in a gold casket.[137][138] According to Aelian,
The strongest argument against the poison theory is the a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where
fact that twelve days passed between the start of his ill- Alexander was laid[139]
to rest would be happy and unvan-
ness and his death; such long-acting poisons were prob- quishable forever. Perhaps more likely, the succes-
ably not available.[126]
However, in a 2003 BBC docu- sors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol
mentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal
[140]
from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre pro- prerogative.
posed that the plant white hellebore (Veratrum album), While Alexanders funeral cortege was on its way to
which was known in antiquity, may have been used to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to
poison Alexander.[127][128][129] In a 2014 manuscript in Memphis.[137][139] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadel-
the journal Clinical Toxicology Schep suggested Alexan- phus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it
ders wine was spiked with Veratrum album, and that remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lath-
this would produce poisoning symptoms that match yros, one of Ptolemys nal successors, replaced Alexan-
the course of events described in the Alexander Ro- ders sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert
mance.[130] Veratrum album poisoning can have a pro- the original to coinage.[141] The recent discovery of an
longed course and it was suggested that if Alexander enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dat-
was poisoned, Veratrum album oers the most plausi- ing from the time of Alexander the Great [142] has given
ble cause.[130][131] Another poisoning explanation put for- rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the
ward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his burial place of Alexander. This would t with the in-
death were compatible with poisoning by water of the tended destination of Alexanders funeral cortege.
river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb
that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally
produced by bacteria.[132] knocked the nose o. Caligula was said to have taken
Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, in- Alexanders breastplate from the tomb for his own use.
cluding malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed
New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to Alexanders tomb to the public. His son and successor,
typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and as- Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his
cending paralysis.[133] Another recent analysis suggested own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are
pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis.[134] Other hazy.[141]
illnesses t the symptoms, including acute pancreati- The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near
tis and West Nile virus.[135][136] Natural-cause theories Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is
also tend to emphasize that Alexanders health may have so named not because it was thought to have contained
been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and Alexanders remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict
severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Alexander and his companions ghting the Persians and
Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his de- hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sar-
clining health.[133] cophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of
Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the
battle of Issus in 331.[143][144] However, more recently,
After death it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than
Abdalonymus death.
See also: Tomb of Alexander the Great
Alexanders body was laid in a gold anthropoid
Division of the empire
Testament
Physical appearance
turally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in king- Alexanders relationship with Hephaestion was sexual.
doms where the king was divine.[180] Thus, rather than Aelian, however, writes of Alexanders visit to Troy
megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a where Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles and
practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter riddling that
empire together.[181] he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way
as Patroclus was of Achilles.[193] Noting that the word
eromenos (ancient Greek for beloved) does not neces-
sarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been
bisexual, which in his time was not controversial.[194]
Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient
sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in
women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of
his life.[159] However, he was relatively young when he
died, and Ogden suggests that Alexanders matrimonial
record is more impressive than his fathers at the same
age.[195] Apart from wives, Alexander had many more fe-
male companions. Alexander accumulated a harem in the
style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly,[196]
showing great self-control in pleasures of the body.[170]
Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was in-
fatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not
forcing himself on her.[197] Green suggested that, in the
context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong
friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who
adopted him, and even Darius mother Sisygambis, who
supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexanders
death.[159]
Personal relationships
Hellenistic kingdoms
Hellenization
Main article: Hellenistic period
Main article: Hellenistic civilization
Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann
Alexanders most immediate legacy was the introduction
of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At
the time of his death, Alexanders empire covered some
5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi),[199] and was the largest
state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Mace-
donian hands or under Greek inuence for the next 200
300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at
least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are
often referred to as the Hellenistic period.[200]
NW NE
W E
SW SE
Alexanders empire was the largest state of its time, covering ap-
proximately 5.2 million square km.
Pharos
I. Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language,
culture, and population into the former Persian empire
after Alexanders conquest.[200] That this export took
place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hel-
lenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch[203]
and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad).[204] Alexander
}
sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and
attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This
culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the popula-
tions of Asia and Europe. However, his successors ex-
Plan of Alexandria c. 30 BC plicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Helleniza-
tion occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a
The eastern borders of Alexanders empire began to col- distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor
lapse even during his lifetime.[145] However, the power states.[205]
vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent
The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the
directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dy-
conquests was essentially Athenian.[206] The close asso-
nasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage
ciation of men from across Greece in Alexanders army
of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to
directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based
in Greek sources as Sandrokottos), of relatively hum-
"koine", or common Greek dialect.[207] Koine spread
ble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power
throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua
base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.[201]
franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor
of modern Greek.[207] Furthermore, town planning, ed-
Founding of cities ucation, local government, and art current in the Hel-
lenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals,
Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as
[203]
some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them Hellenistic. Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still
east of the Tigris. [85][202]
The rst, and greatest, was evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the
[208]
Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the mid-15th century.
leading Mediterranean cities.[85] The cities locations re- Some of the most pronounced eects of Helleniza-
ected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At tion can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the re-
rst, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more gion of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
than defensive garrisons.[85] Following Alexanders death, (250 BC-125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan,
many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC
Greece.[85][202] However, a century or so after Alexan- - 10 CE) in modern Afghanistan and India.[209] There
ders death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with on the newly formed Silk Road Greek culture appar-
5.1. ALEXANDER THE GREAT 173
Inuence on Rome
5.1.11 Historiography
Alexander the Great depicted in a 15th-century Persian miniature
Main article: Alexander the Great in historiography
painting
Diogenes and Alexander Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexan-
dria Eschate (furthest Alexandria) in 329 BCE.
Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great
Golden, Peter B. Central Asia in World History (Ox-
List of people known as The Great ford University Press, 2011), 25;"(...) his cam-
paigns in Central Asia brought Khwarazm, Sogdia
The Mahabharata Quest: The Alexander Secret and Bactria under Graeco-Macedonian rule. As
elsewhere, Alexander founded or renamed a num-
ber of cities, such as Alexandria Eschate (Outern-
5.1.14 Annotations most Alexandria,, near modern Khojent in Tajik-
istan).
1. ^ Macedon was an Ancient Greek polity. The
[2] Alexander the Great (356323 BC)". UK: BBC.
Macedonians were a Hellenic (Greek) tribe. Histo-
riography and scholarship agree that Alexander the [3] Yenne 2010, p. 159.
Great was Greek.[230]
[4] Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence A., eds. (2009).
2. ^ By the time of his death, he had conquered the en- The Corinthian League. Alexander the Great: A New
tire Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Mace- History. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 99. ISBN 1-4051-3082-2.
dons European territories; according to some mod-
[5] Burger, Michael (2008). The Shaping of Western Civiliza-
ern writers, this was most of the world then known tion: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. University of
to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[231][232] An Toronto Press. p. 76. ISBN 1-55111-432-1.
approximate view of the world known to Alexan-
der can be seen in Hecataeus of Miletus's map; see [6] Yenne 2010, p. viii.
Hecataeus world map.
[7] Guardian on Time Magazines 100 personalities of all
3. ^ For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexan- time.
der as the greatest general;[233] Julius Caesar wept
[8] The birth of Alexander the Great. Livius. Retrieved
on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had 16 December 2011. Alexander was born the sixth of
achieved so little by the same age;[234] Pompey con- Hekatombaion.
sciously posed as the 'new Alexander';[235] the young
Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons [9] Green, Peter (1970), Alexander of Macedon, 356323
with Alexander.[236] B.C.: a historical biography, Hellenistic culture and so-
ciety (illustrated, revised reprint ed.), University of Cali-
4. ^ The name derives from the fornia Press, p. xxxiii, ISBN 978-0-520-07165-0, 356
Greek verb (alex) ward o, avert, Alexander born in Pella. The exact date is not known, but
defend[237][238] and - (andr-), the stem of probably either 20 or 26 July.
(anr) man,[239][238] and means protector
[10] McCarty 2004, p. 10, Renault 2001, p. 28, Durant 1966,
of men.[240] p. 538
5. ^ There have been, since the time, many suspicions [11] Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 171.
that Pausanias was actually hired to murder Philip.
Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and [12] Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 188.
even the newly crowned Persian Emperor, Darius
[13] Plutarch 1919, III, 2
III. All three of these people had motive to have
Philip murdered.[241] [14] Renault 2001, p. 28, Bose 2003, p. 21
6. ^ However, Arrian, who used Ptolemy as a source, [15] Renault 2001, pp. 3334.
said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000
horse and 30,000 foot; Diodorus quoted the same [16] Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 186.
totals, but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot. [17] Plutarch 1919, VI, 5
Diodorus also referred to an advance force already
present in Asia, which Polyaenus, in his Stratagems [18] Durant 1966, p. 538, Fox 1980, p. 64, Renault 2001, p.
of War (5.44.4), said numbered 10,000 men. 39
[20] Fox 1980, pp. 6566, Renault 2001, pp. 4547, McCarty
[1] Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009) The
2004, p. 16
Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architec-
ture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. (Oxford University [21] Fox 1980, p. 68, Renault 2001, p. 47, Bose 2003, p. 43
Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajik-
istan]; As the easternmost outpost of the empire of [22] Renault 2001, pp. 4749.
5.1. ALEXANDER THE GREAT 177
[23] Renault 2001, pp. 5051, Bose 2003, pp. 4445, [57] Green 2007, p. 351
McCarty 2004, p. 23
[58] Arrian 1976, I, 1112
[24] Renault 2001, pp. 51, Bose 2003, p. 47, McCarty 2004,
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[64] Ring et al. 1994, pp. 49, 320
[29] Roisman & Worthington 2010, p. 179.
[65] Bosworth 1988, pp. 7174.
[30] McCarty 2004, p. 27.
[66] Dahmen 2007, pp. 1011
[31] Plutarch 1919, IX, 1
[67] Arrian 1976, III, 1
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[33] Bose 2003, p. 75, Renault 2001, p. 56 account of the battle of Gaugamela
[34] McCarty 2004, p. 27, Renault 2001, p. 59, Fox 1980, p. [69] Arrian 1976, III, 16
71
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Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times India. ISBN 978-81-208-0018-2.
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(2009). Alexander the Great: A New History. Wiley-
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berwell, Victoria: Penguin. ISBN 0-670-04268-4.
Wood, Michael (2001). In the Footsteps of Alexan-
McKechnie, Paul (1989). Outsiders in the Greek der the Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia.
cities in the fourth century BC. Taylor & Francis. p. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-
54. ISBN 0-415-00340-7. Retrieved 28 December 23192-4.
2010.
Worthington, Ian (2003). Alexander the Great: A
Morkot, Robert (1996). The Penguin Historical At- Reader. Routledge. p. 332. ISBN 0-415-29187-9.
las of Ancient Greece. Penguin.
Yenne, Bill (2010). Alexander the Great: Lessons
Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece From Historys Undefeated General. Palmgrave
and Rome12. McMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61915-9.
Ogden, Daniel (2009). Alexanders Sex Life. In
Heckel, Alice; Heckel, Waldemar; Tritle, Lawrence 5.1.17 Further reading
A. Alexander the Great: A New History. Wiley-
Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-3082-2. Badian, Ernst (1958). Alexander the Great and the
Unity of Mankind. Historia. 7: 425444.
Pingree, D. (1978). History of Mathematical As-
tronomy in India. Dictionary of Scientic Biogra- Beazley, JD; Ashmole, B (1932). Greek Sculpture
phy. 15. pp. 533633. and Painting. Cambridge University Press.
Pratt, James Bissett (1996). The Pilgrimage of Bud- Bowra, Maurice (1994). The Greek Experience.
dhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage. Laurier Books. Phoenix. ISBN 1-85799-122-2.
ISBN 81-206-1196-9.
Burn, AR (1951). Alexander the Great and the Hel-
Renault, Mary (2001). The Nature of Alexander the lenistic Empire (2 ed.). London: English Universities
Great. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-139076-X. Press.
Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M; Berney, KA; Rufus, Quintus Curtius. Quintus Curtius Rufus,
Schellinger, Paul E, eds. (1994). International dic- History of Alexander the Great (in Latin). U
tionary of historic places. Chicago: Fitzroy Dear- Chicago. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
born, 19941996. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6.
Cartledge, Paul (2004). Alexander the Great.
Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Com- Overlook.
panion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 1-4051-7936-8. Doherty, Paul (2004). The Death of Alexander the
Great. Carroll & Graf.
Sabin, P; van Wees, H; Whitby, M (2007). The
Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Engels, Donald W (1978). Alexander the Great and
Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome. the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78273-2. University of California Press.
Sacks, David (1995). Encyclopedia of the Ancient Fawcett, Bill, ed. (2006). How To Lose A Battle:
Greek World. Constable & Co. ISBN 0-09-475270- Foolish Plans and Great Military Blunders. Harper.
2. ISBN 0-06-076024-9.
Stoneman, Richard (2004). Alexander the Great. Fuller, JFC (1958). The Generalship of Alexander
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31932-3. the Great. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. ISBN
9780306803710.
Stoneman, Richard (1996). The Metamorphoses
of Alexander Romance. In Schmeling, Gareth L. Green, Peter (1992). Alexander of Macedon: 356
The Novel in the Ancient World. Brill. pp. 60112. 323 BC. A Historical Biography. University of Cal-
ISBN 90-04-09630-2. ifornia Press. ISBN 0-520-07166-2.
Studniczka, Franz (1894). Achologische Jahrbook Greene, Robert (2000). The 48 Laws of Power.
9. Penguin. p. 351. ISBN 0-14-028019-7.
5.2. PHILIP III 183
Hammond, NGL (1989). The Macedonian State: Wilcken, Ulrich (1997) [1932]. Alexander the
Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Great. New York: WW Norton & Co. ISBN 0-
Press. ISBN 0-19-814883-6. 393-00381-7.
Hammond, NGL (1994). Alexander the Great: Worthington, Ian (2004). Alexander the Great: Man
King, Commander, and Statesman (3 ed.). London: And God. Pearson. ISBN 978-1-4058-0162-1.
Bristol Classical Press.
Hammond, NGL (1997). The Genius of Alexander
the Great. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina 5.1.18 External links
Press.
Delamarche, Flix (1833), The Empire and Expedi-
Mercer, Charles (1962). The Way of Alexander the tions of Alexander the Great.
Great (1 ed.). Boston: American Heritage Inc.
Romm, James; Cartledge, Paul, Two Great Histo-
McCrindle, J. W. (1893). The Invasion of India by
rians On Alexander the Great, Forbes (conversa-
Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q Cur-
tions) Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6.
tius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Justin. Westminster:
Archibald Constable & Co.
Alexander the Great at DMOZ
Murphy, James Jerome; Katula, Richard A; Hill,
Forbes I; Ochs, Donovan J (2003). A Synoptic His- Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary
tory of Classical Rhetoric. Lawrence Erlbaum Asso- sources, Livius.
ciates. p. 17. ISBN 1-880393-35-2.
The Elusive Tomb of Alexander the Great, Archol-
Nandan, Y; Bhavan, BV (2003). British Death ogy.
March Under Asiatic Impulse: Epic of Anglo-Indian
Tragedy in Afghanistan. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Alexander the Great and Sherlock Holmes, Sherlock-
Bhavan. ISBN 81-7276-301-8. ian Sherlock.
O'Brien, John Maxwell (1992). Alexander the In Our Time: Alexander the Great BBC discus-
Great: The Invisible Enemy. London: Routledge. sion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel
Pomeroy, S; Burstein, S; Dolan, W; Roberts, J Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, rst broadcast 1 Oc-
(1998). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cul- tober 2015.
tural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
509742-4.
Prevas, John (2004). Envy of the Gods: Alexander 5.2 Philip III
the Greats Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia (3 ed.). Da
Capo. Philip III Arrhidaeus (Ancient Greek:
; c. 359 BC 25 December, 317 BC) reigned
Roisman, Joseph, ed. (1995). Alexander the Great as king of Macedonia from after 11 June 323 BC until
Ancient and Modern Perspectives. Problems in Eu- his death. He was a son of King Philip II of Macedo-
ropean Civilization. Lexington, MA: DC Heath. nia by Philinna of Larissa, and thus an elder half-brother
Savill, Agnes (1959). Alexander the Great and His of Alexander the Great. Named Arrhidaeus at birth, he
Time (3 ed.). London: Barrie & Rockli. assumed the name Philip when he ascended to the throne.
As Arrhidaeus grew older it became apparent that he had
Stewart, Andrew (1993). Faces of Power: Alexan-
mild learning diculties. Plutarch was of the view that
ders Image and Hellenistic Politics. Hellenistic Cul-
he became disabled by means of an attempt on his life by
ture and Society. 11. Berkeley: University of Cali-
Philip IIs wife, Queen Olympias, who wanted to elimi-
fornia Press.
nate a possible rival to her son, Alexander, through the
Stoneman, Richard (2008). Alexander the Great: A employment of pharmaka (drugs/spells); however, most
[1]
Life in Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0- modern authorities doubt the truth of this claim.
300-11203-0. Alexander was fond of Arrhidaeus and took him on his
Tarn, WW (1948). Alexander the Great. Cam- campaigns, both to protect his life and to prevent his use
bridge: Cambridge University Press. as a pawn in any prospective challenge for the throne. Af-
ter Alexanders death in Babylon in 323 BC, the Macedo-
Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (1900). Alexander the nian army in Asia proclaimed Arrhidaeus as king; how-
Great; the merging of East and West in universal his- ever, he served merely as a gurehead and as the pawn of
tory. New York: GP Putnams sons. a series of powerful generals.
184 CHAPTER 5. MACEDONIAN KINGS
Main article: Philip II of Macedon Archaeological nd- Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and
ings Roman Biography and Mythology, Arrhidaeus (1)",
In 1977, important excavations were made near Vergina Eurydice (3)", Boston, (1867)
Golden Larnax (Chrysi Larnaka) (with the Sun of Vergina on An archaeological report about his grave and re-
the lid) that contains the remains (bones) from the burial of mains
King Philip II of Macedonia and the royal golden wreath. For-
merly located at the Thessaloniki Archaeological Museum, since A National Geographic article about the group of
1997) displayed in the underground museum of Vergina, inside tombs, one of which is now said to be his (April
the Great Tumulus.[2] 2008)
5.3.1 Birth
5.2.3 Arrhidaeus in ction Alexander IV was the son of a Macedonian father,
Alexander the Great and a Sogdian Persian mother,
He appears as one of the main characters in the novel Roxana.[2][3][4] He was Philip II of Macedon's grandson.
Funeral Games by Mary Renault. In Renaults ver- Because Roxana was pregnant when her husband died and
sion, the villainous Cassander slows down his advance on the sex of the baby was unknown, there was dissension in
Macedonia to give Olympias enough time to kill Arrhi- the Macedonian army regarding the order of succession.
daeus and Eurydice. While the infantry supported the babys uncle, Philip III
(who was feeble-minded), the chiliarch Perdiccas, com-
Arrhidaeus is also a main character in Annabel Lyon's
mander of the elite Companion cavalry, persuaded them
novel The Golden Mean. In it, the young Arrhidaeus is
to wait in the hope that Roxanas unborn child would be
tutored by Aristotle while he also mentors his younger
male. The factions compromised, deciding that Perdic-
half-brother, the future Alexander the Great. Alexander,
cas would rule the Empire as regent while Philip would
who is initially disgusted with his brothers inferior intel-
reign, but only as a gurehead with no real power. If the
lect, learns to love him before he sets out to conquer the
child was male, then he would be king. Alexander IV was
world.
born in August, 323 BC.
In the Japanese ction manga Historie, he was shown as
an intellectually disabled young child that became happy
when Eumenes made him a toy chariot and became sad 5.3.2 Regents
when Alexander the Great destroyed his toy. Eumenes
later replaced it with a new one, telling him to bury the After a severe regency, military failure in Egypt, and
chariot. mutiny in the army, Perdiccas was assassinated by his
186 CHAPTER 5. MACEDONIAN KINGS
6.1 Ptolemy I Soter mand during the campaign against the rebel Bessus whom
Ptolemy captured and handed over to Alexander for
For the medieval count, see Ptolemy I of Tusculum. execution.[8] During Alexanders campaign in the Indian
subcontinent Ptolemy was in command of the advance
guard at the siege of Aornos and fought at the Battle of
Ptolemy I Soter I (Ancient Greek: , the Hydaspes River.
Ptolemaos Str, i.e. Ptolemy (pronounced /tlmi/) the
Savior), also known as Ptolemy Lagides[1] (c. 367 BC
283/2 BC), was a Macedonian Greek[2][3][4][5][6] gen- 6.1.2 Successor of Alexander
eral under Alexander the Great, one of the three Diadochi
who succeeded to his empire. Ptolemy became ruler When Alexander died in 323 BC, Ptolemy is said to
of Egypt (323283/2 BC) and founded a dynasty which have instigated the resettlement of the empire made at
ruled it for the next three centuries, turning Egypt into Babylon. Through the Partition of Babylon, he was ap-
a Hellenistic kingdom and Alexandria into a center of pointed satrap of Egypt, under the nominal kings Philip
Greek culture. He assimilated some aspects of Egyptian III Arrhidaeus and the infant Alexander IV; the former
culture, however, assuming the traditional title pharaoh in satrap, the Greek Cleomenes, stayed on as his deputy.
305/4 BC. The use of the title of pharaoh was often situ- Ptolemy quickly moved, without authorization, to subju-
ational: pharaoh was used for an Egyptian audience, and gate Cyrenaica.
Basileus for a Greek audience, as exemplied by Egyp-
By custom, kings in Macedonia asserted their right to the
tian coinage.
throne by burying their predecessor. Probably because he
Like all Macedonian nobles, Ptolemy I Soter claimed de- wanted to pre-empt Perdiccas, the imperial regent, from
scent from Heracles, the mythical founder of the Argead staking his claim in this way, Ptolemy took great pains in
dynasty that ruled Macedon. Ptolemys mother was acquiring the body of Alexander the Great, placing it tem-
Arsinoe of Macedon, and, while his father is unknown, porarily in Memphis, Egypt. Ptolemy then openly joined
ancient sources variously describe him either as the son the coalition against Perdiccas.[9]
of Lagus, a Macedonian nobleman, or as an illegitimate
Perdiccas appears to have suspected Ptolemy of aim-
son of Philip II of Macedon (which, if true, would have
ing for the throne himself, and may have decided that
made Ptolemy the half-brother of Alexander), but it is
Ptolemy was his most dangerous rival. Ptolemy exe-
possible that this is a later myth fabricated to glorify
cuted Cleomenes for spying on behalf of Perdiccas
the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ptolemy was one of Alexan-
this removed the chief check on his authority, and al-
ders most trusted generals, and was among the seven
lowed Ptolemy to obtain the huge sum that Cleomenes
somatophylakes (bodyguards) attached to his person. He
had accumulated.[9]
was a few years older than Alexander and had been his
intimate friend since childhood.
He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus. 6.1.3 Rivalry and wars
In 321 BC, Perdiccas attempted to invade Egypt only to
6.1.1 Early career fall at the hands of his own men.[10] Ptolemys decision
to defend the Nile against Perdiccass attempt to force it
Ptolemy served with Alexander from his rst campaigns, ended in asco for Perdiccas, with the loss of 2000 men.
and played a principal part in the later campaigns in This failure was a fatal blow to Perdiccas reputation, and
Afghanistan and India. He participated in the Battle of he was murdered in his tent by two of his subordinates.
Issus and accompanied Alexander during his journey to Ptolemy immediately crossed the Nile, to provide sup-
the Oracle in the Siwa Oasis where he was proclaimed plies to what had the day before been an enemy army.
a son of Zeus.[7] Ptolemy had his rst independent com- Ptolemy was oered the regency in place of Perdiccas;
188
6.1. PTOLEMY I SOTER 189
6.1.4 Successor
[2] Jones, Prudence J. (2006). Cleopatra: A Sourcebook. Uni- [18] Roisman, Joseph (1984-01-01). Ptolemy and His Rivals
versity of Oklahoma Press. p. 14. They were mem- in His History of Alexander. The Classical Quarterly. 34
bers of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who (2): 373385. JSTOR 638295.
ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the
Great.
[19] Robinson, Victor (2005). The Story of Medicine.
[3] Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1990). Women in Hellenistic Egypt. Kessinger Publishing. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-4191-5431-7.
Wayne State University Press. p. 16. while Ptolemaic
Egypt was a monarchy with a Greek ruling class.
This article incorporates text from a publication now
[4] Redford, Donald B., ed. (2000). The Oxford Encyclope- in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
dia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. Cleopatra "article name needed ". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th
VII was born to Ptolemy XII Auletes (8057 BCE, ruled ed.). Cambridge University Press.
192 CHAPTER 6. (GREEK) PTOLEMIES OF EGYPT
6.1.11 Bibliography He was the son of the founder of the Ptolemaic king-
dom Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice, and was educated
Walter M. Ellis: Ptolemy of Egypt, London 1993. by Philitas of Cos. He had two half-brothers, Ptolemy
Keraunos and Meleager, who both became kings of
Christian A. Caroli: Ptolemaios I. Soter - Herrscher Macedonia (in 281 BCE and 279 BCE respectively),
zweier Kulturen, Konstanz 2007. and who both died in the Gallic invasion of 280279
BCE. Ptolemy was rst married to Arsino I, daughter
Watereld, Robin (2011). Dividing the Spoils - The
of Lysimachus, who was the mother of his legitimate
War for Alexander the Greats Empire (hardback).
children; after her repudiation he married his full sister
New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 273 pages.
Arsino II, the widow of Lysimachus.[2]
ISBN 978-0-19-957392-9.
During Ptolemys reign, the material and literary splen-
dour of the Alexandrian court was at its height. He pro-
6.1.12 External links moted the Museum and Library of Alexandria, and he
erected a commemorative stele, the Great Mendes Stela.
Ptolemy Soter I at LacusCurtius (Chapter II of
E. R Bevans House of Ptolemy, 1923)
Ptolemy I Soter entry in historical sourcebook by Ptolemy II began his reign as co-regent with his father
Mahlon H. Smith Ptolemy I from c. 285 BCE to c. 283 BCE, and main-
tained a splendid court in Alexandria.
A genealogical tree of Ptolemy, though not neces-
sarily reliable Alexander the Great Egypt was involved in several wars during his reign.
Magas of Cyrene opened war on his half-brother (274
BCE), and the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter, desiring
6.2 Ptolemy II Philadelphus Coele-Syria with Judea, attacked soon after in the First
Syrian War. Two or three years of war followed. Egypts
victories solidied the kingdoms position as the undis-
This article is about the Egyptian ruler. For the son of puted naval power of the eastern Mediterranean; his eet
Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony, see Ptolemy Philadel- of 112 ships bore the most powerful naval siege units of
phus (Cleopatra). For the medieval Italian count, see the time, guaranteeing the king access to the coastal cities
Ptolemy II of Tusculum. of his empire. The Ptolemaic sphere of power extended
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Greek: - over the Cyclades to Samothrace, and the harbours and
coast towns of Cilicia Trachea, Pamphylia, Lycia and
Caria. In 275/4 BC, Ptolemaic forces invaded Nubia and
annexed the Triakontaschoinos.
In 270 BCE Ptolemy hired 4,000 Gallic mercenaries
(who in 279 BCE under Bolgios killed his half-brother
Ptolemy Keraunos). According to Pausanias, soon af-
ter arrival the Gauls plotted to seize Egypt, and so
Ptolemy marooned them on a deserted island in the Nile
River where they perished at one anothers hands or by
famine.[3]
The victory won by Antigonus II Gonatas, king of Mace-
donia, over the Egyptian eet at Cos (between 258 BCE
and 256 BCE) did not long interrupt Ptolemys command
of the Aegean Sea. In a Second Syrian War with the
Seleucid kingdom, under Antiochus II Theos (after 260
BCE), Ptolemy sustained losses on the seaboard of Asia
Minor and agreed to a peace by which Antiochus married
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (front), and his sister/wife Arsinoe II
his daughter Berenice (c. 250 BCE).
Ptolemy was of a delicate constitution. Elias Joseph Bick-
, Ptolemaos Phildelphos, 309246 BCE) was ermann (Chronology of the Ancient World, 2nd ed. 1980)
the king of Ptolemaic Egypt from 283 to 246 BCE. gives the date of his death as January 29.
6.2. PTOLEMY II PHILADELPHUS 193
Family
Court
6.2.2 Relations with India
The material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian
court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Pomp and splen- Ptolemy is recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent
dor ourished. He had exotic animals of far o lands an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court
194 CHAPTER 6. (GREEK) PTOLEMIES OF EGYPT
6.3.2 Reign
and Euripides from Athens, but decided to forfeit the con- Bibliography
siderable deposit he paid for them, keeping them for the
Library rather than returning them. Clayton, Peter A. (2006). Chronicles of the
He was even more liberal towards Egyptian religion than Pharaohs: the reign-by-reign record of the rulers
his predecessors. He supported, promoted, and con- and dynasties of ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson.
tributed towards various cults, particularly those of the ISBN 0-500-28628-0.
Apis and Mnevis Bulls, as is stated in the Canopus De-
cree of 238 BC, in which the Egyptian priesthood praise
him and his wife as Benefactor Gods for this religious
6.3.7 External links
support, as well as for maintaining peace by strong na-
Ptolemy Euergetes I at LacusCurtius (Chapter VI
tional security, and for good governance, including when
of E. R Bevans House of Ptolemy, 1923)
he imported, at his own expense, a vast amount of grain
to compensate for a weak inundation. Ptolemy III (Royal Egyptian Genealogy)
Ptolemy IIIs reign was also marked by trade with other Bust of Ptolemy III from Herculaneum - now in the
contemporaneous polities. In the 1930s, excavations by Museo Nazionale, Naples.
Mattingly at a fortress close to Port Dunford (the likely
Nikon of antiquity) in present-day southern Somalia
yielded a number of Ptolemaic coins. Among these 6.4 Ptolemy IV Philopator
pieces were 17 copper mints from the reigns of Ptolemy
III to Ptolemy V, as well as late Imperial Rome and
Mamluk Sultanate coins.[8] Ptolemy IV Philopator (Greek: -
, Ptolemaos Philoptr; reigned 221204 BC), son
of Ptolemy III and Berenice II, was the fourth Pharaoh of
6.3.4 Ancestry Ptolemaic Egypt. The decline of the Ptolemaic dynasty
began under the reign of Ptolemy IV.
6.3.5 See also
6.4.1 Family
History of Ptolemaic Egypt-
Among the children of Ptolemy IV Philopator and
Ptolemais - towns and cities named after members
his sister-wife Arsinoe III of Egypt was Ptolemy V
of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Epiphanes, who married Cleopatra I Syra, daughter of
Decree of Canopus Antiochus III the Great and Laodice III.
[1] Clayton (2006) p. 208 Ptolemy IVs reign was inaugurated by the murder of
his mother,[2] and he was always under the dominion of
[2] Lysimachus by Chris Bennett favourites, male and female, who indulged his vices and
conducted the government as they pleased. Self-interest
[3] ALexander by Chriss Bennett led his ministers to make serious preparations to meet the
attacks of Antiochus III the Great on Coele-Syria includ-
[4] Magas by Chris Bennett ing Judea, and Ptolemy himself was present at the great
[5] Berenice by Chris Bennett
Egyptian victory of Raphia (217 BC) which secured the
northern borders of the kingdom for the remainder of his
[6] Bevan reign.
The arming of Egyptians in this campaign had a disturb-
[7] See the Ptolemy III chronicle
ing eect upon the native population of Egypt, leading
[8] Hildegard Temporini (ed.) (1978). Politische Geschichte: to the secession of Upper Egypt under pharaohs Harma-
(Provinzien und Randvlker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, chis (also known as Hugronaphor) and Ankmachis (also
Iran, Sdarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten)], Part 2, Vol- known as Chaonnophris), thus creating a kingdom that
ume 9. Walter de Gruyter. p. 977. ISBN 3110071754. occupied much of the country and lasted nearly twenty
Retrieved 1 November 2014. years.
6.5. PTOLEMY V EPIPHANES 197
Celtic
tribes Slavic tribes [3] Bevan, Edwyn (1927). The House of Ptolemy: a History
The Mediterranean, 218 BC
Antigonids Germanic tribes of Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. London: Methuen.
Seleucids
Ptolemies
Carthage p. 233.
Rome & allies by 218 Bosporus
Attalids
Iberia
Other states Albania
Major battles Gallic tribes
Massilia
Trasimenus
Ancona Illyrians Thracians Pontus [4] Deipnosophistae V 37.
Byzantion
Iberian Rome
Nicomedia
Armenia
Cannae Thessalonica
tribes Capua Galatians Mazaka
Taras
Saguntum
Kynoskephalai
Athens
Pergamon
Antioch
[5] Demetrius 43.4-5.
Carthago Nova
Rhodes
Hippo Carthage Syracuse
Tingis
Zama
Numidians
[6] Hildegard Temporini (ed.) (1978). Politische Geschichte:
Jerusalem
NW
N
NE
Leptis
Cyrene Alexandria
(Provinzien und Randvlker: Mesopotamien, Armenien,
Memphis
SW
SE 0 (km) 500
S 0 (mi) 300
Great cruelty and treachery were displayed in the suppres- [6] Hildegard Temporini (ed.) (1978). Politische Geschichte:
sion of the native rebellion, and some accounts represent (Provinzien und Randvlker: Mesopotamien, Armenien,
6.6. PTOLEMY VI PHILOMETOR 199
6.5.5 Bibliography
wished to have her younger son, Alexander, reign with 6.9 Ptolemy IX Lathyros
her; but the people of Alexandria wanted her older son,
Philometer Soter, the governor of Cyprus, to be her
choice. She reluctantly complied, with Philometer Soter Ptolemy IX Soter II[note 1] or Lathyros ("grass pea")
taking the name Ptolemy IX and ruling for a time at her (Greek: , Ptolemaos Str
side. Lthuros) was king of Egypt three times, from 116 BC
to 110 BC, 109 BC to 107 BC and 88 BC to 81 BC,
with intervening periods ruled by his brother, Ptolemy X
6.8.8 Ancestry Alexander.
At rst he was chosen by his mother Cleopatra III to be
6.8.9 In media her co-regent (his father Ptolemy VIII wished that she
would rule with one of her sons), though she was more
In the 1983 TV mini-series The Cleopatras, Ptolemy
forced to choose him by the Alexandrians. He married
is portrayed by Richard Griths.
his sister Cleopatra IV, but his mother pushed her out
and replaced her with his younger sister Cleopatra Se-
6.8.10 Notes lene. Later, she claimed that he tried to kill her, and suc-
cessfully deposed him, putting her favorite son Alexan-
[1] Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern invention; the der on the throne as co-regent with her. However, she
Greeks distinguished them by epithet (nickname). The later grew tired of the now Ptolemy X and deposed him,
number given here is the present consensus, but there has putting Ptolemy IX back on the throne. She was soon
been some disagreement in the nineteenth century about murdered by Ptolemy X, who took the throne again. He
which of the later Ptolemies should be counted as reign- was then killed in battle, and Ptolemy IX reigned until his
ing. Since older sources may give a number one higher or own death.
lower, epithets are the most reliable way of determining
which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case.
6.8.11 References
[1] Note: an inscription records that Physcon had bequeathed
Cyrenaica to Rome if he died childless, an act not men-
tioned by any literary source.
6.10.1 Life
6.10.2 Notes
Ptolemy I lineage were the illegitimate sons of Ptolemy guarantee his permanence on the throne, thus Ptolemy
IX by an unknown Greek concubine.[9] The boys were XII soon afterwards travelled to Rome to negotiate a
living in exile in Sinope, at the court of Mithridates VI, bribe for an ocial recognition of his kingship. After
King of Pontus. As the eldest of the boys Ptolemy XII paying a bribe of six thousand talents to Julius Caesar and
was proclaimed king as Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos and Pompey, a formal alliance was formed (a foedus) and his
married his sister, Tryphaena. Ptolemy XII was coregent name was inscribed into the list of friends and allies of
with his daughter Cleopatra VI Tryphaena and his wife the people of Rome (amici et socii populi Romani).[12]
Cleopatra V Tryphaena.
However, Ptolemy XI had left the throne to Rome in his
will, therefore Ptolemy XII was not the legitimate succes- 6.12.4 Exile in Rome (5855 BC)
sor. Nevertheless, Rome did not challenge Ptolemy XIIs
succession because the Senate was unwilling to acquire In 58 BC, Ptolemy XII failed to comment on the Ro-
an Egyptian expansion.[8] man conquest of Cyprus, a territory ruled by his brother,
thereby inciting the Egyptian population to start a rebel-
Ptolemy XIIs personal cult name (Neos Dionysos) earned lion. Egyptians were already aggravated by heavy taxes
him the ridiculing sobriquet Auletes (ute player) as we (to pay for the Roman tribute) and a substantial increase
learn from Strabo's writing (Strabo XVII, 1, 11): in the cost of living. Ptolemy XII ed to Rome, possibly
with his daughter Cleopatra VII, in search of safety.[13]
Now all at kings after the third Ptolemy, His daughter Berenice IV became his successor. She
being corrupted by luxurious living, have ad- ruled as coregent with her sister (or possibly mother)
ministered the aairs of government badly, but Cleopatra VI Tryphaena. A year after Ptolemy XIIs
worst of all the fourth, seventh, and the last, exile, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena died and Berenice ruled
Auletes, who, apart from his general licentious- alone over Alexandria from 57 to 56BC.[14]
ness, practiced the accompaniment of choruses
From Rome, Ptolemy XII prosecuted his restitution but
with the ute, and upon this he prided himself
met opposition with certain members of the Senate.
so much that he would not hesitate to celebrate
Ptolemy XIIs old ally Pompey housed the exiled king and
contests in the royal palace, and at these con-
his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemys restora-
tests would come forward to vie with the op-
tion in the Senate. During this time, Roman creditors
posing contestants.
realized that they would not get the return on their loans
to the Egyptian king without his restoration.[15] Thus in
57 BC, pressure from the Roman public forced the Sen-
ates decision to restore Ptolemy.[16] However, Rome did
not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king since the
Sibylline books stated that if an Egyptian king asked
for help and Rome proceeded with military intervention,
great dangers and diculties would occur.[17]
Egyptians heard rumors of Romes possible intervention
and disliked the idea of their exiled kings return. Cassius
Dio reported that a group of one hundred men were sent
as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans
against Ptolemy XIIs restoration, but Ptolemy had their
leader (a philosopher named Dion) poisoned and most of
the other protesters killed before they reached Rome to
The rst pylon at Edfu Temple was decorated by Ptolemy XII in plead their desires.[18]
57 BC with gures of himself smiting the enemy.
[1] Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern invention; the [21] Compare Cicero, Pro C. Rabirio Postumo; Werner Hu,
Greeks distinguished them by epithet (nickname). The gypten in hellenistischer Zeit 33230 v. Chr. (Egypt in
number given here is the present consensus, but there has Hellenistic times 33230 BC), Munich 2001, pp. 6967
been some disagreement in the nineteenth century about [22] Siani-Davies, Mary. Ptolemy and the Romans Historia
which of the later Ptolemies should be counted as reign- 46:3 (1997), pp. 3324.
ing. Since older sources may give a number one higher or
lower, epithets are the most reliable way of determining [23] Siani-Davies, Mary. Ptolemy and the Romans, Historia
which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case. 46:3 (1997), p. 339.
6.13. PTOLEMY XIII THEOS PHILOPATOR 207
Ptolemy XIII and Pothinus managed to force Cleopatra [1] Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern invention; the
to ee to Syria, but she soon organized her own army and Greeks distinguished them by epithet (nickname). The
a civil war began in Egypt. Soon their other sister started number given here is the present consensus, but there has
to claim the throne as Arsinoe IV of Egypt (r. 48-47 BC), been some disagreement in the nineteenth century about
further complicating the situation. which of the later Ptolemies should be counted as reign-
ing. Since older sources may give a number one higher or
At this point, defeated Roman general Pompey the Great lower, epithets are the most reliable way of determining
came to Egypt seeking refuge from his pursuing rival which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case.
208 CHAPTER 6. (GREEK) PTOLEMIES OF EGYPT
only, with Cleopatra keeping actual authority all to her- Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopa-
self. Cleopatra compared her relationship to her son with tras son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his
the Egyptian goddess Isis and her divine child Horus.[1] mother, with much treasure, into India, by way
During the tense period leading up to the nal con- of Ethiopia. There Rhodon, another tutor like
ict between Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius) and Oc- Theodorus, persuaded him to go back, on the
tavian (future Emperor Augustus), the two of them ini- ground that [Octavian] Caesar invited him to
tially shared control of the Republic in a triumvirate with take the kingdom.[5]
Lepidus. Lepidus was forced into retirement by Octa-
vian in 36 BC. Octavian and Mark Antony were then left Octavian captured the city of Alexandria on August 1,
in control of the Western and Eastern provinces respec- 30 BC, the date that marks the ocial annexation of
tively. Egypt to the Roman Republic. Around this time Mark
There is no historical record of Caesarion between 44 BC Antony and Cleopatra died, traditionally said to be by
suicide though murder has been suggested.[6] Details of
until the Donations of Antioch in 36 BC. Two years later
he also appears at the Donations of Alexandria. Cleopa- the narratives in Plutarch are generally challenged and
not taken literally.[7] Caesarions guardians, including his
tra and Antony staged both Donations to donate lands
dominated by Rome and Parthia to Cleopatras children: tutor, either were themselves lured by false promises of
the 11-year-old Caesarion (fathered by Julius Caesar) and mercy into returning him to Alexandria or perhaps even
the four year-old twins Alexander Helios and Cleopatra betrayed him; the records are unclear.
Selene II initially in 36 BC, and in 34 BC including the Octavian is supposed to have had Pharaoh Caesarion exe-
two year-old Ptolemy Philadelphus (all three fathered by cuted in Alexandria, following the advice of Arius Didy-
Marc Antony). Octavian gave public approval to the Do- mus, who said Too many Caesars is not good (a pun
nations of Antioch in 36 BC, which have been described on a line in Homer).[8] It is popularly thought that he was
as an Antonian strategy to rule the East making use of strangled, but the exact circumstances of his death (or
Cleopatras unique royal Seleucid lineage in the regions even whether he lived to old age in hiding under a rein-
donated.[2] vented identity) have not been documented.
In 34 BC, Antony granted further eastern lands and ti- Octavian then assumed absolute control of Egypt. The
tles to Caesarion and to his own three children with year 30 BC was considered the rst year of the new rulers
Cleopatra in the Donations of Alexandria. Caesarion was reign according to the traditional chronological system of
proclaimed to be a god, a son of [a] god, and "King Egypt.
210 CHAPTER 6. (GREEK) PTOLEMIES OF EGYPT
Ancestors of Caesarion
Setepenptah
6.15.6 See also
Irmaatenre
Gens Julia
Sekhemankhamun
Heir of the God who saves [1] Numbering the Ptolemies is a modern invention; the
Greeks distinguished them by epithet (nickname). The
Chosen of Ptah" number given here is the present consensus, but there has
been some disagreement in the nineteenth century about
Carrying out the rule of Ra" or Sun of Righteous- which of the later Ptolemies should be counted as reign-
ness ing. Since older sources may give a number one higher or
lower, epithets are the most reliable way of determining
Living Image of Amun"[10] which Ptolemy is being referred to in any given case.
6.15. PTOLEMY XV CAESARION 211
6.15.8 References
[1] Duane W. Roller, Cleopatra: A Biography, Oxford Uni-
versity Press US, 2010, pp.70-3
Roman emperors
212
7.1. AUGUSTUS 213
of monetary gain.[40][41][42] In the face of Octavians large Instead, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to
and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in aid any further oensive against Antony.[49] In July, an
Rome and, to the relief of the Senate, he ed to Cisalpine embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome
Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January.[42] and demanded that he receive the consulship left vacant
by Hirtius and Pansa.[50]
Octavian also demanded that the decree should be re-
First conict with Antony
scinded which declared Antony a public enemy.[49] When
this was refused, he marched on the city with eight
legions.[49] He encountered no military opposition in
Rome, and on 19 August 43 BC was elected consul with
his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul.[51][52] Mean-
while, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius
Lepidus, another leading Caesarian.[53]
Second Triumvirate
Decimus Brutus refused to give up Cisalpine Gaul, so Proscriptions In a meeting near Bologna in October
Antony besieged him at Mutina.[43] Antony rejected the 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed a junta
resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the violence, as called the Second Triumvirate.[55] This explicit arroga-
the Senate had no army of its own to challenge him. This tion of special powers lasting ve years was then sup-
provided an opportunity for Octavian, who already was ported by law passed by the plebs, unlike the unocial
known to have armed forces.[41] Cicero also defended Oc- First Triumvirate formed by Pompey, Julius Caesar, and
tavian against Antonys taunts about Octavians lack of Marcus Licinius Crassus.[55][56] The triumvirs then set in
noble lineage and aping of Julius Caesars name, stating motion proscriptions in which 300 senators and 2,000
we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety equites allegedly were branded as outlaws and deprived
among our youth.[44] of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their
lives.[57]
At the urging of Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian
as senator on 1 January 43 BC, yet he also was given The estimation that 300 senators were proscribed was
the power to vote alongside the former consuls.[41][42] presented by Appian, although his earlier contempo-
In addition, Octavian was granted propraetor imperium rary Livy asserted that only 130 senators had been
(commanding power) which legalized his command of proscribed.[58] This decree issued by the triumvirate was
troops, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius
motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay the
and Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC).[41][45] In April 43 salaries of their troops for the upcoming conict against
BC, Antonys forces were defeated at the battles of Caesars assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cas-
Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat sius Longinus.[59] Rewards for their arrest gave incentive
to Transalpine Gaul. Both consuls were killed, however, for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the as-
leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies.[46][47]
sets and properties of those arrested were seized by the
[57]
The senate heaped many more rewards on Decimus Bru- triumvirs.
tus than on Octavian for defeating Antony, then at- Contemporary Roman historians provide conicting re-
tempted to give command of the consular legions to Dec- ports as to which triumvir was more responsible for the
imus Brutusyet Octavian decided not to cooperate.[48] proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that
216 CHAPTER 7. ROMAN EMPERORS
enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three fac- lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesars infant son
tions to eliminate political enemies.[60] Marcus Velleius Caesarion. Lepidus was left with the province of Africa,
Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscrib- stymied by Antony, who conceded Hispania to Octavian
ing ocials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame instead.[66]
for initiating them.[61] Cassius Dio defended Octavian as Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens
trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign,
Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens
many more enemies to deal with.[61] of thousands who had fought on the republican side with
This claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained Brutus and Cassius could easily ally with a political oppo-
that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and nent of Octavian if not appeased, and they also required
Antony in eradicating his enemies.[62] Suetonius pre- land.[66] There was no more government-controlled land
sented the case that Octavian, although reluctant at rst to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had
to proscribe ocials, nonetheless pursued his enemies to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman
with more rigor than the other triumvirs.[60] Plutarch de- citizens by conscating their land, or alienating many Ro-
scribed the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swap- man soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition
ping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and against him in the Roman heartland. Octavian chose the
Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed the proscrip- former.[67] There were as many as eighteen Roman towns
tion of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his ma- aected by the new settlements, with entire populations
ternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar (the consul of 64 BC), driven out or at least given partial evictions.[68]
and Lepidus his brother Paullus.[61]
immunity, or sacrosanctitas, in order to ensure his own and seized Antonys secret will, which he promptly publi-
safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to cized. The will would have given away Roman-conquered
Rome.[82] territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule, and desig-
nated Alexandria as the site for a tomb for him and his
queen.[90][91] In late 32 BC, the Senate ocially revoked
War with Antony Main article: Final War of the Ro- Antonys powers as consul and declared war on Cleopa-
man Republic tras regime in Egypt.[92][93]
Meanwhile, Antonys campaign turned disastrous against
Parthia, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere In early 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporar-
2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly ily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a prelimi-
enough to replenish his forces.[83] On the other hand, nary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across
Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength; he al- the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa.[94]
ready was engaged in a romantic aair with her, so he Agrippa cut o Antony and Cleopatras main force from
decided to send Octavia back to Rome.[84] Octavian used their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the
this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was be- mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu)
coming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate and marched south.[94] Trapped on land and sea, de-
Roman spouse for an Oriental paramour".[85] In 36 BC, serters of Antonys army ed to Octavians side daily
Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less while Octavians forces were comfortable enough to make
autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming preparations.[94]
that the civil wars were coming to an end, and that he
would step down as triumvirif only Antony would do Antonys eet sailed through the bay of Actium on the
the same. Antony refused.[86] western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break
free of the naval blockade. It was there that Antonys
Roman troops captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 34
eet faced the much larger eet of smaller, more maneu-
BC, and Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler verable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius So-
of Armenia. He also awarded the title Queen of Kings
sius in the battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC.[95]
to Cleopatra, acts that Octavian used to convince the Ro- Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to
man Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the
a last-ditch eort by Cleopatras eet that had been wait-
preeminence of Rome.[85] Octavian became consul once ing nearby.[96]
again on 1 January 33 BC, and he opened the following
session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antonys Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in
grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his Alexandria on 1 August 30 BCafter which Antony and
queen.[87] Cleopatra committed suicide. Antony fell on his own
sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria
The breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a where he died in Cleopatras arms. Cleopatra died soon
large portion of the Senators, as well as both of that after, reputedly by the venomous bite of an asp or by
years consuls, to leave Rome and defect to Antony. How- poison.[97] Octavian had exploited his position as Cae-
ever, Octavian received two key deserters from Antony sars heir to further his own political career, and he was
in the autumn of 32 BC: Munatius Plancus and Marcus well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do
Titius.[88] These defectors gave Octavian the information so the same. He, therefore, followed the advice of Arius
that he needed to conrm with the Senate all the accusa- Didymus that two Caesars are one too many, ordering
tions that he made against Antony.[89] Caesarion to be killed (Julius Caesars son by Cleopatra),
Octavian forcibly entered the temple of the Vestal Virgins while sparing Cleopatras children by Antony, with the
7.1. AUGUSTUS 219
Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic un- Augustus as a magistrate. The statues marble head was made
der an unocial principate[101] but he had to achieve c. 3020 BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD (Louvre,
this through incremental power gains. He did so by court- Paris).
ing the Senate and the people while upholding the re-
publican traditions of Rome, appearing that he was not
aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy.[102][103] Marching In 27 BC, Octavian made a show of returning full power
into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the
as dual consuls by the Senate.[104] Roman provinces and their armies.[104] Under his consul-
ship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating leg-
Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near law- islation by introducing bills for senatorial debate.[104] Oc-
lessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the tavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and
control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octa- their armies, but he retained the loyalty of active duty sol-
vian could not simply give up his authority without risking diers and veterans alike.[104] The careers of many clients
further civil wars among the Roman generals and, even if and adherents depended on his patronage, as his nancial
he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his posi- power was unrivaled in the Roman Republic.[104] Histo-
tion demanded that he look to the well-being of the city rian Werner Eck states:
of Rome and the Roman provinces. Octavians aims from
this point forward were to return Rome to a state of sta-
bility, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt The sum of his power derived rst of all
political pressure imposed on the courts of law and en- from various powers of oce delegated to
suring free electionsin name at least.[105] him by the Senate and people, secondly from
his immense private fortune, and thirdly from
numerous patron-client relationships he estab-
First settlement lished with individuals and groups throughout
the Empire. All of them taken together formed
Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire and the basis of his auctoritas, which he himself
History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire emphasized as the foundation of his political
220 CHAPTER 7. ROMAN EMPERORS
actions.[106]
lowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and as part of his tribunician authority but his constitutional
lay business before them, to veto the actions of either the imperium within the Pomerium would be less than that
Assembly or the Senate, to preside over elections, and of a serving consul. That would mean that, when he was
to speak rst at any meeting.[129][141] Also included in in the city, he might not be the constitutional magistrate
Augustus tribunician authority were powers usually re- with the most authority. Thanks to his prestige or auctori-
served for the Roman censor; these included the right tas, his wishes would usually be obeyed, but there might
to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure be some diculty. To ll this power vacuum, the Sen-
that they were in the public interest, as well as the abil- ate voted that Augustuss imperium proconsulare maius
ity to hold a census and determine the membership of the (superior proconsular power) should not lapse when he
Senate.[142] was inside the city walls. All armed forces in the city had
formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and
With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to
virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all attire but the consuls, but this situation now placed them under the sole
[143] authority of Augustus.[146]
classic toga while entering the Forum. There was no
precedent within the Roman system for combining the In addition, the credit was given to Augustus for each sub-
powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, sequent Roman military victory after this time, because
nor was Augustus ever elected to the oce of censor.[144] the majority of Romes armies were stationed in imperial
Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein provinces commanded by Augustus through the legatus
he was charged with supervising the morals of the state. who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces.[147]
However, this position did not extend to the censors abil- Moreover, if a battle was fought in a Senatorial province,
ity to hold a census and determine the Senates roster. The Augustus proconsular imperium maius allowed him to
oce of the tribunus plebis began to lose its prestige due take command of (or credit for) any major military vic-
to Augustus amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived tory. This meant that Augustus was the only individual
its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for able to receive a triumph, a tradition that began with Ro-
any plebeian desiring the praetorship.[145] mulus, Romes rst King and rst triumphant general.[147]
Lucius Cornelius Balbus was the last man outside Augus-
tus family to receive this award in 19 BC.[147] (Balbus
was the nephew of Julius Caesars great agent, who was
governor of Africa and conqueror of the Garamantes.)
Tiberius, Augustus eldest son by marriage to Livia, was
the only other general to receive a triumph for victories
in Germania in 7 BC.[148]
Conspiracy
Coin of Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the style of Roman 7.1.6 Death and succession
emperor Augustus. British Museum.
The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem
of succession to the forefront of political issues and the
of morale for Rome.[170][171][172] Werner Eck claims that public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an
this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to heir to his unique position in Roman society and gov-
avenge Crassus defeat by military means.[173] However, ernment. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic,
Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears
the standards as propaganda symbolizing the submission of monarchy.[179] If someone was to succeed Augustus
of Parthia to Rome. The event was celebrated in art such unocial position of power, he would have to earn it
as the breastplate design on the statue Augustus of Prima through his own publicly proven merits.[179]
Porta and in monuments such as the Temple of Mars Ul- Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed
tor ('Mars the Avenger') built to house the standards.[174] toward his sisters son Marcellus, who had been quickly
Parthia had always posed a threat to Rome in the east, married to Augustus daughter Julia the Elder.[180] Other
but the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube historians dispute this due to Augustus will read aloud to
rivers.[171] Before the nal ght with Antony, Octavians the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC,[181] instead
campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia were the rst indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Au-
step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube.[175] gustus second in charge and arguably the only one of his
Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as associates who could have controlled the legions and held
newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by the Empire together.[182]
7.1. AUGUSTUS 227
After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus mar- parent favouring of his young grandchildren-turned-sons
ried his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced ve Gaius and Lucius. (Gaius and Lucius joined the college
children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in
Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army
Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after in Gaul.)[189][190]
Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settle- After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD
ment, Agrippa was granted a ve-year term of adminis- 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother
tering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD
of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted
4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition
to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus authority), that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus.[191] This
his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the eastern
continued the tradition of presenting at least two genera-
Aegean.[182][183] This granting of power showed Augus- tions of heirs.[187] In that year, Tiberius was also granted
tus favor for Agrippa, but it was also a measure to please
the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from
members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by AD
members to share a considerable amount of power with
13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level
him.[183] of imperium with that of Augustus.[192]
dred years through the ultimate decline of the Western ties, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also
Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in allowed Romes armies to march swiftly and at an un-
1453. Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his ti- precedented pace across the country.[212] In the year 6
tle Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers Augustus established the aerarium militare, donating 170
of the Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his million sesterces to the new military treasury that pro-
death, in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome. In vided for both active and retired soldiers.[213]
many languages, Caesar became the word for Emperor, One of the most enduring institutions of Augustus was
as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subse- the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC,
quently Russian Tsar. The cult of Divus Augustus contin-
originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battleeld
ued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an im-
Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there
portant political force in Rome.[214] They had the power
are many excellent statues and busts of the rst emperor. to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and de-
He had composed an account of his achievements, the
pose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was
Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front Maxentius, as it was Constantine I who disbanded them
of his mausoleum.[202] Copies of the text were inscribed in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the
throughout the Empire upon his death.[203] The inscrip- Castra Praetoria.[215]
tions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it,
and were inscribed on many public edices, such as the
temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum,
called the queen of inscriptions by historian Theodor
Mommsen.[204]
There are a few known written works by Augustus that
have survived such as his poems Sicily, Epiphanus, and
Ajax, an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical
treatise, and his written rebuttal to Brutus Eulogy of
Cato.[205] Historians are able to analyze existing letters
penned by Augustus to others for additional facts or clues
about his personal life.[201][206]
Many consider Augustus to be Romes greatest emperor;
his policies certainly extended the Empires life span and
initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta. The
Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to "be more
fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan". Augus-
tus was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but
he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar, and
was inuenced on occasion by his third wife, Livia (some-
times for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved
more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly trans-
formed under Augustus, with Romes rst institutional-
ized police force, re ghting force, and the establishment
of the municipal prefect as a permanent oce.[207] The
police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each,
while the units of remen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men
each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.[207]
A praefectus vigilum, or Prefect of the Watch was put in
charge of the vigiles, Romes re brigade and police.[208]
With Romes civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able
to create a standing army for the Roman Empire, xed at
a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers.[209] This Augustus in an Egyptian-style depiction, a stone carving of the
was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 soldiers Kalabsha Temple in Nubia.
each, often recruited from recently conquered areas.[210]
With his nances securing the maintenance of roads Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Em-
throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an ocial pire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican
courier system of relay stations overseen by a military virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and con-
ocer known as the praefectus vehiculorum.[211] Besides nect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He
the advent of swifter communication among Italian poli- achieved this through various means of generosity and a
cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augus-
230 CHAPTER 7. ROMAN EMPERORS
or the other. The story of his career shows that Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's vir-
Augustus was indeed ruthless, cruel, and ambi- tuous constitutional monarchy to Romes moral Repub-
tious for himself. This was only in part a per- lic of the 2nd century BC.[224] In his criticism of Au-
sonal trait, for upper-class Romans were edu- gustus, the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon (1658
cated to compete with one another and to excel. 1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver
However, he combined an overriding concern Cromwell (15991658).[224] Thomas Gordon and the
for his personal interests with a deep-seated pa- French political philosopher Montesquieu (16891755)
triotism, based on a nostalgia of Romes an- both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle.[225]
tique virtues. In his capacity as princeps, self- In his Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, the Scottish
ishness and selessness coexisted in his mind. scholar Thomas Blackwell (17011757) deemed Au-
While ghting for dominance, he paid little at- gustus a Machiavellian ruler, a bloodthirsty vindicative
tention to legality or to the normal civilities usurper, wicked and worthless, a mean spirit, and a
of political life. He was devious, untrustwor- tyrant.[225]
thy, and bloodthirsty. But once he had estab-
lished his authority, he governed eciently and
justly, generally allowed freedom of speech, Revenue reforms
and promoted the rule of law. He was im-
mensely hardworking and tried as hard as any
democratic parliamentarian to treat his senato-
rial colleagues with respect and sensitivity. He
suered from no delusions of grandeur.[222]
100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of During his reign the circus games resulted in the killing
kin.[227] of 3,500 elephants.[231]
An equally important reform was the abolition of pri-
vate tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil ser-
vice tax collectors. Private contractors that raised taxes Month of August
had been the norm in the Republican era, and some had
grown powerful enough to inuence the amount of votes The month of August (Latin: Augustus) is named after
for politicians in Rome.[226] The tax farmers had gained Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so
great infamy for their depredations, as well as great pri- because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman
vate wealth, by winning the right to tax local areas.[226] calendar and the Latin word for six is sex). Commonly
repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Au-
Romes revenue was the amount of the successful bids, gustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius
and the tax farmers prots consisted of any additional Caesars July, but this is an invention of the 13th cen-
amounts they could forcibly wring from the populace with tury scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had
Romes blessing. Lack of eective supervision, com- 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for
bined with tax farmers desire to maximize their prof- its length (see Julian calendar). According to a senatus
its, had produced a system of arbitrary exactions that was consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed
often barbarously cruel to taxpayers, widely (and accu- to honor Augustus because several of the most signi-
rately) perceived as unfair, and very harmful to invest- cant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of
ment and the economy. Alexandria, fell in that month.[232]
Building projects
depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians, the The Corinthian order of architectural style originating
Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome.[236] from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural
He also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, style in[234]
the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of
and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ul- Rome. Suetonius once commented that Rome was
tor.[237]
Other projects were either encouraged by him, unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augus-
such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippas construction tus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by
of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of oth- transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical
[234]
ers, often relations (e.g. Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Greek model.
Marcellus). Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built
before his death to house members of his family.[238]
7.1.8 Physical appearance and ocial im-
To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the Arch ages
of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the
Temple of Castor and Pollux, and widened in 19 BC
to include a triple-arch design.[234] There are also many
buildings outside of the city of Rome that bear Augustus
name and legacy, such as the Theatre of Mrida in mod-
ern Spain, the Maison Carre built at Nmes in todays
southern France, as well as the Trophy of Augustus at La
Turbie, located near Monaco.
1.75 meter, in height), but this was concealed by the ne Unnamed illegitimate son by Dec-
proportion and symmetry of his gure, and was notice- imus Junius Silanus (d. AD 8), or-
able only by comparison with some taller person standing dered to be exposed by Augustus
beside him. ... "[239] Lucius Julius Caesar (17 BC AD 2), no
His ocial images were very tightly controlled and ide- issue
alized, drawing from a tradition of Hellenistic royal por- Vipsania Agrippina II (Agrippina Major)
traiture rather than the tradition of realism in Roman por- (14 BC AD 33)
traiture. He rst appeared on coins at the age of 19, and Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus (6
from about 29 BC the explosion in the number of Au- 30), no issue
gustan portraits attests a concerted propaganda campaign Drusus Julius Caesar Germanicus
aimed at dominating all aspects of civil, religious, eco- (733), no issue
nomic and military life with Augustus person.[240] The Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus Ma-
early images did indeed depict a young man, but although jor (died before AD 12)[242]
there were gradual changes his images remained youth-
Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus
ful until he died in his seventies, by which time they had
Minor (Caligula) (1241)
a distanced air of ageless majesty.[241] Among the best
known of many surviving portraits are the Augustus of Julia Drusilla (3941), died young
Prima Porta, the image on the Ara Pacis, and the Via Julia Agrippina (Agrippina Minor)
Labicana Augustus, which shows him as a priest. Several (1559)
cameo portraits include the Blacas Cameo and Gemma Nero Claudius Caesar German-
Augustea. icus (Lucius Domitius Ahenobar-
bus) (3768)
Claudia Augusta (Jan. 63 April
7.1.9 Ancestry 63), died young
Julia Drusilla (1638), no issue
See also: Julio-Claudian family tree and Family tree of Julia Livilla (1842), no issue
the Octavii Ru Tiberius Julius Caesar (? ?), ei-
ther born before Nero Julius Caesar,
between Drusus Caesar and Gaius
Caesar Minor (Caligula) or between
7.1.10 Descendants Gaius Caesar Minor (Caligula) and
Julia Agrippina[243]
Augustus only biological (non-adopted) child was his Son (? ?), referenced as Ignotus[244]
daughter.
Marcus Julius Caesar Agrippa Postumus
(12 BC AD 14), no issue
Augustus Tiberillus (born and died almost immedi-
ately 11 BC), son by Tiberius
Julia (Julia Major) (39 BC AD 14)
Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC AD 4), no 7.1.11 See also
issue
Vipsania Julia (Julia Minor) (19 BC AD Augustan literature (ancient Rome)
28)
Augustan poetry
Aemilia Lepida (ancee of Claudius)
(4 BC AD 53) Bierzo Edict
Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus Caesars Comet
(14 54)
Gaius Maecenas
Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus
the younger (5066), died young Gaius Octavian (Rome character)
Junia Calvina (1579), no issue Indo-Roman trade and relations
Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus
(d. 64), no issue Julio-Claudian family tree
Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the Octavia (gens)
elder (d. 49), no issue
Family tree of the Octavii Ru
Junia Lepida (ca 1865), issue un-
known Temple of Augustus
7.1. AUGUSTUS 235
[4] As part of the Triumvirate, Octavian ruled the Western [23] Eck (2003), 10.
provinces, Antony ruled the Eastern provinces, and Lep-
[24] Southern, Augustus pp. 2021
idus ruled Africa.
[25] Southern, Augustus pp. 21
[5] Suetonius, Augustus The Marcus Octavius vetoing the
agrarian law suggested by Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC [26] Eck (2003), 910.
may have been his ancestor. 14.
[27] Rowell (1962), 19.
[6] His daughter Julia had died in 54 BC.; his son Caesarion
by Cleopatra was not recognized by Roman law and was [28] Rowell (1962), 18.
not mentioned in his will.[16]
[29] Eder (2005), 18.
[7] If the testimony of Marcus Primus can be believed, where
during his trial for illegally launching a war in Thrace, he [30] Appian, Civil Wars 3.1112.
asserted that he acted on the orders of Marcellus and Au-
[31] Chisholm (1981), 24.
gustus see Southern, p. 108 and Eck (2003), p. 55
[32] Chisholm (1981), 27.
[3] Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 2.9394 [38] Eck (2003), 1112.
[4] (Suetonius 2013, 5, footnote a) Roman calendar. [39] Rowell (1962), 21.
[54] Sear, David R. Common Legend Abbreviations On Ro- [90] Eck (2003), 3435
man Coins. Archived from the original on 30 July 2007.
[91] Eder (2005), 2122.
Retrieved 24 August 2007.
[92] Eck (2003), 35.
[55] Eck (2003), 15.
[93] Eder (2005), 22.
[56] Scullard (1982), 163.
[94] Eck (2003), 37.
[57] Eck (2003), 16.
[95] Eck (2003), 38.
[58] Southern (1998), 5253.
[96] Eck (2003), 3839.
[59] Scullard (1982), 164.
[97] Eck (2003), 39.
[60] Scott (1933), 1920.
[98] Green (1990), 697.
[61] Scott (1933), 19.
[99] Scullard (1982), 171.
[62] Scott (1933), 20.
[100] Eck (2003), 49.
[63] Syme (1939), 202.
[101] Gruen (2005), 3435.
[64] Eck (2003), 17.
[102] CCAA, 2425.
[65] Eck (2003), 1718.
[103] Gruen (2005), 3839.
[66] Eck (2003), 18.
[104] Eck (2003), 45.
[67] Eck (2003), 1819.
[105] Eck (2003), 4445.
[68] Eck (2003), 19.
[106] Eck (2003), 113.
[69] Rowell (1962), 32.
[107] Eck (2003), 80.
[70] Eck (2003), 20.
[108] Scullard (1982), 211.
[71] Scullard (1982), 162
[109] Eck (2003), 46.
[72] Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy
Philadelphus [110] Scullard (1982), 210.
[73] Eck (2003) 21. [111] Gruen (2005), 34.
[120] Holland, p. 294 [156] Bowersock (1990), p. 380. The date is provided by in-
scribed calendars; see also Augustus, Res Gestae 10.2.
[121] Davies, p. 259 Dio 27.2 reports this under 13 BC, probably as the year in
which Lepidus died (Bowersock (1990), p. 383).
[122] Ando, p. 140; Raaaub, p. 426; Wells, p. 53
[157] Eder (2005), 28.
[123] Southern, p. 108; Holland, p. 295
[158] Mackay (2004), 186.
[124] Eder (2005), 25.
[159] Eck (2003), 129.
[125] Eck (2003), 56.
[160] Suetonius, Augustus 81.
[126] Gruen (2005), 38.
[161] Syme (1939), 337338.
[127] Stern, Gaius, Women, children, and senators on the Ara
Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus vision of a new world [162] Everett (2006), 217.
order in 13 BC, p. 23
[163] Eck (2003), 93.
[128] Holland, pp. 294295; Southern, p. 108
[164] Eck (2003), 95.
[129] Eder (2005), 26.
[165] Eck (2003), 94.
[130] Gruen (2005), 36.
[166] Eck (2003), 97.
[131] Eck (2003), 57.
[167] Eck (2003), 98.
[132] Gruen (2005), 37.
[168] Eck (2003), 9899.
[133] Eck (2003), 5657.
[169] Eck (2003), 99.
[134] Southern, p. 109; Holland, p. 299
[170] Bunson (1994), 416.
[135] Wells, p. 53
[171] Eck (2003), 96.
[136] Southern, p. 108
[172] Brosius (2006), 9697, 136138.
[137] Holland, p. 300
[173] Eck (2003), 9596.
[138] Syme, p. 333
[174] Brosius (2006), 97; see also Bivar (1983), 6667.
[139] Syme, p. 333; Holland, p. 300; Southern, pg, 108 [175] Rowell (1962), 13.
[140] Wells, p. 53; Raaaub, p. 426 [176] Eck (2003), 101102.
[141] Eck (2003), 5758. [177] Bunson (1994), 417.
[142] Eck (2003), 59. [178] Bunson (1994), 31.
[143] Eder (2005), 30. [179] Gruen (2005), 50.
[144] Bunson (1994), 80. [180] Eck (2003), 114115.
[145] Bunson (1994), 427. [181] Eck (2003), 115.
[146] Eck (2003), 60. [182] Gruen (2005), 44.
[147] Eck (2003), 61. [183] Eck (2003), 58.
[148] Eck (2003), 117. [184] Syme (1939), 416417.
[149] Dio 54.1, 6, 10. [185] Scullard (1982), 217.
[150] Eck (2003), 78. [186] Syme (1939), 417.
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[217] Tacitus, Annals I.3 Bivar, A. D. H. (1983). The Political History of
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240 CHAPTER 7. ROMAN EMPERORS
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in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 translation
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Chapter 8
8.1 Text
Canon of Kings Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_of_Kings?oldid=740067325 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Llywrch, John
K, Pmanderson, Dbachmann, Bender235, PaulHanson, Geraldshields11, Str1977, Wavelength, Yamara, Aaron Schulz, Tuckerresearch,
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STBot, Zakuragi, Thanatos666, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Gilo1969, RibotBOT, Recognizance, Discographer, Zoeperkoe,
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el, Sam Blacketer, VolkovBot, SieBot, Til Eulenspiegel, ChandlerMapBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Historicpastime, AnomieBOT,
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domlyEdits, KasparBot, Philip Mexico and Anonymous: 6
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icapierce, Gabr-el, Sam Blacketer, VolkovBot, Kanesue, Joe Baker, MystBot, Addbot, Yobot, MassimoAr, Xqbot, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot,
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der235, Bennylin, Summer Song, FeanorStar7, Tabletop, Ground Zero, Str1977, Roboto de Ajvol, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Smack-
Bot, Aelfthrytha, Cloj, Egsan Bacon, Chaldean, Ewulp, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Ryan, Doug Weller, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Picus viridis, Tower-
man, JAnDbot, Djaser, Aziz1005, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Gabr-el, Jcwf, Jevansen, arukinu, TXiKiBoT, Steven J. Anderson, Zasimon,
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Pixie Bot, BattyBot, JYBot, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, Permanganese, Janes123098 and Anonymous: 27
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Ground Zero, Str1977, Roboto de Ajvol, Theelf29, Caerwine, Egsan Bacon, Kukini, Chaldean, Naphureya, Hectorian, Cydebot, Lugnuts,
JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Waacstats, SieBot, Joe Baker, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Shmayo, ArthurBot, Totalserg, Lamashtu2006, ZroBot, Delu-
sion23, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, KasparBot and Anonymous: 3
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Roboto de Ajvol, Theelf29, Caerwine, Chaldean, Naphureya, Hectorian, JAnDbot, Waacstats, Gabr-el, VolkovBot, SieBot, Addbot, Ian-
sAwesomePizza, ArthurBot, Erik9bot, Lamashtu2006, Justincheng12345-bot, SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits, KasparBot and Anonymous:
1
241
242 CHAPTER 8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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Nimetapoeg, ArmbrustBot, Amir Eftekhari Milani, Rhona Dalley, Limewiththat, Khaston1, Onuphriate, Mugsalot, Tigercompanion25,
Entropyandvodka, E.M.Gregory, KDETT, Ashurbanippal, Christianwriter.thomas, KasparBot, DustinRStewart, ISavedPvtRyan, She'al
Avicha V'Yageidcha, SapraAshuraya, Bender the Bot, Wikishovel, Smmm7, Joseph Halevi, DylanJames I and Anonymous: 195
Esarhaddon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esarhaddon?oldid=770249674 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Llywrch, Dope-
shJustin, Ellywa, Jeandr du Toit, John K, Dysprosia, Zoicon5, AnonMoos, Francs2000, Robbot, Yak, Pashute, Gadum, Gdr, Robert
Brockway, Avandormolen, Dryazan, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Summer Song, Ogress, Sherurcij, Ricky81682, Stillnotelf,
Dominic, Guthrie, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, BD2412, FlaBot, Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, YurikBot, Slug-
goOne, Douglasfrankfort~enwiki, Badagnani, Richar4034, Mmcannis, Neier, SmackBot, Commander Keane bot, Chris the speller, Bluebot,
Egsan Bacon, Dreadstar, SashatoBot, Chaldean, Amizzoni~enwiki, Dirk math, Aristophanes68, Lugnuts, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Phoe,
Widefox, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, Waacstats, Jona Lendering~enwiki, R'n'B, A Nobody, LordAnubisBOT, Jcwf, STBotD, Ariobarzan,
MenasimBot, arukinu, TXiKiBoT, Dionisio(CMH), SieBot, StAnselm, Accounting4Taste, BotMultichill, VVVBot, Gerakibot, ImageRe-
movalBot, Pequeniosaltamontes, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Drmies, Vitilsky, Auntof6, Ploversegg, Addbot, Lindert, Twostedcoeedrinker,
Debresser, Doniago, IansAwesomePizza, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, LlywelynII, Khruner, Omnipaedista,
Adlerbot, MastiBot, DixonDBot, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, Assyrio, EmausBot, Paul Bedson, , Italia2006, Bollyje, Oncenawhile,
Sailsbystars, Chewings72, Adoughnut12345, ANE.Scholar, Helpful Pixie Bot, Vagobot, JohnThorne, Arminden, Suryoye85, Husky54,
Neuroforever, BenjaminBarrett12, LightandDark2000, Obaid Raza, Nimetapoeg, ArmbrustBot, Recordstraight83, Jacobjska, Tigercom-
panion25, KasparBot, Dr. Lurk, GreenC bot, SapraAshuraya and Anonymous: 39
Ashurbanipal Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashurbanipal?oldid=769876269 Contributors: Danny, Olivier, Paul Barlow, Menchi,
Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Angela, Aarchiba, John K, AWhiteC, Wetman, Pakaran, Dimadick, Brand-
dobbe, Robbot, Yak, Everyking, Robert Bruce Livingston, Proslaes, Gadum, DragonySixtyseven, Ellsworth, Gimmick Account,
4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, EliasAlucard, Bender235, Brian0918, El C, Summer Song, John Vandenberg, Mareino, Kuratowskis Ghost,
Ricky81682, Binabik80, SteinbDJ, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Sburke, Isnow, SDC, Pictureuploader,
Palica, Aarghdvaark, Ilya, BD2412, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus, Dj Capricorn, YurikBot,
RobotE, Splash, Fluorhydric, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Moe Epsilon, Kareda, BOT-Superzerocool, Teiladnam, Closedmouth, Leonar-
doRob0t, Marcodeo, That Guy, From That Show!, Attilios, SmackBot, Pgk, Jfgrcar, Kintetsubualo, Hmains, Bluebot, MK8, Robindch,
Roscelese, Egsan Bacon, John Hyams, Smallbones, Castanea dentata, Zvar, Fuhghettaboutit, Clean Copy, Maelnuneb, Nhprman, Ustun,
Chaldean, Nishkid64, Amizzoni~enwiki, Khazar, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, The Man in Question, Bendzh, Neddyseagoon, Dr.K., Cour-
celles, IronChris, N2e, Xylyx, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Imladjov, Doug Weller, DBaba, Sweetmoose6, Thijs!bot, James086, Nick
Number, Deeplogic, Julia Rossi, Fayenatic london, Expert12, Bahar, SalmonPChase, Magioladitis, Djaser, Nyttend, KConWiki, JoergenB,
JaGa, Hbent, Patstuart, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Artaxiad, Adavidb, Johnbod, Mgunst, LordAnubisBOT, Skier Dude, Davy p, Plasticup,
GrahamHardy, DemonicInuence, Ottershrew, VolkovBot, arukinu, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, EunseokLee, SieBot, LKNUTZ, MagnusF,
Maelkoch, OKBot, Segregold, StaticGull, Prof saxx, ClueBot, Bacon914, The Thing That Should Not Be, Pakaraki, Nnemo, Unbuttered
Parsnip, Niceguyedc, CharlieRCD, Arunsingh16, Alexbot, SchreiberBike, Another Believer, Kikos, Versus22, Larno Man, Dthomsen8,
Ploversegg, Hosnnan38, Addbot, Dubsar, Atethnekos, Philosopher-kng, Wikiantoinette, Jncraton, MrOllie, Bassbonerocks, Debresser, 5 al-
bert square, Tide rolls, IansAwesomePizza, Luckas-bot, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Dorieo, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, AlotToLearn,
Piano non troppo, Citation bot, Xqbot, Wperdue, Mooonunit, FiguresInMotion, GrouchoBot, Nicoleoz, Pavlor, Omnipaedista, Le Deluge,
JMCC1, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Edgars2007, Arlen22, D'ohBot, Izzedine, U213, TonyLoco23, DrilBot, DefaultsortBot, RedBot,
, Vrenator, DracoRex90, RjwilmsiBot, Salvatore Talia, Kerblotto, Assyrio, Mukogodo, EmausBot, Italia2006, John Cline, SporkBot,
Donner60, Chewings72, Mlang.Finn, Spicemix, Joyiam1, Adoughnut12345, ClueBot NG, ANE.Scholar, Je Song, Catlemur, Rtucker913,
Anthony Radio5, O.Koslowski, EauLibrarian, Oddbodz, BG19bot, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, JohnThorne, Suryoye85, Anbu121, BattyBot,
704k, Khazar2, LightandDark2000, Napoleon 100, VIAFbot, Jamesx12345, Nimetapoeg, NZouri, HistoryofIran, ArmbrustBot, Kimber-
lyQualters, Amir Eftekhari Milani, JohnTD2, Xenxax, PolkaMIS, Monkbot, Theartofthemuses, FourViolas, Bubbagarcia, Yousif.shabilla,
Fusionem, KasparBot, Gabolbalouch, Volvlogia, MTZ123, Jaredlynn, GreenC bot, Chickadee46, SapraAshuraya, Kingstoken, Laughfor-
ever111, AcademicEm and Anonymous: 171
Ashur-etil-ilani Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani?oldid=766201203 Contributors: The Anome, Llywrch, John K,
Drstuey, Summer Song, Cmdrjameson, Ricky81682, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, Codex Sinaiticus, YurikBot, Poppy, Marcodeo,
GoodDay, Egsan Bacon, Proofreader, Tomekpe, Djaser, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, Flyer22 Reborn, Addbot, NjardarBot, Laaknor-
Bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, KamikazeBot, XZeroBot, GrouchoBot, Shades97, DefaultsortBot, RedBot, TobeBot, Dinamik-bot, EmausBot,
Italia2006, Chewings72, ClueBot NG, Pratyya Ghosh, Lugia2453, Charliethorne, Nimetapoeg, Ira Leviton and Anonymous: 10
Sin-shumu-lishir Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir?oldid=734630572 Contributors: Summer Song, BD2412,
Valentinian, YurikBot, Theelf29, Marcodeo, Egsan Bacon, Proofreader, Tomekpe, Umedard, Djaser, Gabr-el, TXiKiBoT, Wizago, Pix-
elBot, Addbot, Eall n le, SpBot, SamatBot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, FrescoBot, MastiBot, Martin Be, EmausBot,
John of Reading, Finn Bjrklid, Fireshadow10, Italia2006, ZroBot, Chewings72, Nimetapoeg, InatableSupertrooper, Mmassyrian and
Anonymous: 2
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ing, Gadum, Jayjg, Rich Farmbrough, Kwamikagami, Ricky81682, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, FlaBot, Str1977, Codex Sinaiticus,
Zotel, Valentinian, T.woelk, Gaius Cornelius, Mathae, Marcodeo, SmackBot, Alsandro, Egsan Bacon, Proofreader, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot,
Picus viridis, Fayenatic london, Djaser, Waacstats, Gabr-el, TomasBat, Dierk Lange~enwiki, Konsulromanum, Aciram, arukinu, TXiK-
iBoT, SieBot, WRK, Wizago, PixelBot, SchreiberBike, DumZiBoT, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Hohenloh, ArthurBot,
Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Voxii, LucienBOT, Martin Be, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Finn Bjrklid, Italia2006, ZroBot,
EddieDrood, Dexbot, LightandDark2000, Charliethorne, Nimetapoeg, ArmbrustBot, Ack! Ack! Pasta bomb!, KasparBot, InatableSu-
pertrooper and Anonymous: 15
248 CHAPTER 8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
ChanochGruenman, Eyrian, EliasAlucard, Summer Song, Supine, Binabik80, Japanese Searobin, Dejvid, Nuno Tavares, Briangotts, Neko-
Daemon, RobyWayne, Valentinian, YurikBot, RussBot, Pylambert, Mike Selinker, Carabinieri, Curpsbot-unicodify, NeilN, SmackBot,
Aelfthrytha, Hmains, Jero77, MalafayaBot, Tomekpe, Eliyak, Dirk math, Agathoclea, Lugnuts, Doug Weller, Picus viridis, Escarbot,
Fayenatic london, DrKay, Gr8white, Grumpycraig, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Ericlpearl, AMbot, Amazonien, PipepBot, Alexbot, RogDel, Ad-
dbot, LaaknorBot, Debresser, Lightbot, Ben Ben, Yobot, Matanya, AnakngAraw, Hghelp, ArthurBot, Xqbot, DefaultsortBot, AmphBot,
Lotje, EmausBot, ,, Ccp2000, Labiblia, JohnThorne, Fedil, Willietell, ChrisGualtieri, Makecat-bot, VIAFbot, Nimetapoeg,
Jnichole, Hashima20, ArmbrustBot, KasparBot and Anonymous: 19
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K, RedWolf, Rich Farmbrough, Summer Song, Spearhead, TheParanoidOne, Binabik80, Japanese Searobin, Nuno Tavares, Briangotts,
FlaBot, Valentinian, YurikBot, Wavelength, Pylambert, Mike Selinker, Aelfthrytha, MalafayaBot, Dirk math, Agathoclea, Lugnuts, Doug
Weller, Picus viridis, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, Waacstats, R'n'B, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, A Georgian, Amazonien, DumZi-
BoT, Addbot, Lightbot, Legobot, Xqbot, Jayarathina, XZeroBot, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, K6ka, Labiblia, JohnThorne, Fedil, YFdyh-bot,
Nimetapoeg, ArmbrustBot, KasparBot and Anonymous: 13
Labashi-Marduk Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labashi-Marduk?oldid=770086275 Contributors: John K, EliasAlucard, Summer
Song, TheParanoidOne, Supine, Japanese Searobin, Nuno Tavares, Briangotts, FlaBot, Valentinian, YurikBot, Pylambert, Deville, Smack-
Bot, Iacobus, Aelfthrytha, MalafayaBot, Chaldean, Dirk math, Agathoclea, Smommss, Woodshed, Lugnuts, Doug Weller, Fayenatic london,
JAnDbot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Hadrianheugh, DumZiBoT, Ploversegg, Addbot, Lightbot, Unara, BobKilcoyne,
ArthurBot, Xqbot, Erik9bot, EmausBot, TuHan-Bot, Chewings72, Titodutta, Fedil, LightandDark2000, Hmainsbot1, Nimetapoeg, Arm-
brustBot, Xenxax, Mevagiss, KasparBot and Anonymous: 9
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lywa, Docu, John K, AnonMoos, Wetman, ChrisO~enwiki, Altenmann, Catbar, Roozbeh, Yak, Jastrow, Jayjg, EliasAlucard, Xezbeth,
Dbachmann, One-dimensional Tangent, Boris iv, JW1805, Oop, Nk, Binabik80, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, Troels.jensen~enwiki,
Sburke, Briangotts, Funhistory, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, FlaBot, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, YurikBot, RussBot, Eupator, Nicke L, Pylambert,
Drboisclair, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Wittylama, Khoikhoi, Nepaheshgar, Amizzoni~enwiki, Dirk math, The Man in Question, Agathoclea,
Mewaqua, Lugnuts, Doug Weller, Gnfnrf, Cheimoon, Nineveh 209, Gioto, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, Deective, MER-C, KonstableBot,
.anacondabot, Doug Coldwell, Waacstats, David Eppstein, Gwern, Jona Lendering~enwiki, R'n'B, DrKay, Johnbod, Plasticup, Davecrosby
uk, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, SieBot, StAnselm, Filos96, Ericlpearl, Sphilbrick, Amazonien, Gr8opinionater, ClueBot, Mild Bill
Hiccup, ChandlerMapBot, Ploversegg, Addbot, Colibri37, Raayen, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Tundrabuggy, , Mhotchkiss, AnomieBOT,
Shmayo, Hhcaas, ArthurBot, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, J04n, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Bel Pirishti, Orijentolog, Izzedine, Jack Bornholm, Cita-
tion bot 1, Kobrabones, AstaBOTh15, Adlerbot, Trappist the monk, RjwilmsiBot, Matthewcock, EmausBot, Sinharib99, , H3llBot,
Chewings72, ClueBot NG, GoetheFromm, Chester Markel, Peaceingalaxy, BG19bot, JohnThorne, Neuroforever, Dexbot, Lightand-
Dark2000, , Nimetapoeg, Jodosma, Hashima20, ArmbrustBot, Johny6667, Takearealhistorycourse, Mevagiss, Jononmac46,
Hypnopompus, Norgbeyj, JudeccaXIII, Senharib, KasparBot, History of Persia, Rrghhmehearties and Anonymous: 57
Belshazzar Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belshazzar?oldid=767768132 Contributors: RK, Paul Barlow, Nat32, Kalki, IZAK,
Nikai, John K, Ed g2s, Warofdreams, AnonMoos, Wetman, Dimadick, Larry Andreassen, UtherSRG, JackofOz, Jyril, Broux, Bovlb, James
Crippen, Andycjp, DavidBrooks, R. end, Neutrality, Rgrg, Mennonot, Jayjg, Rich Farmbrough, LindsayH, Bender235, Kwamikagami, Ha-
ham hanuka, Kuratowskis Ghost, Supine, CheeseDreams, AtonX, Gpvos, Lemmie~enwiki, Zawersh, Hq3473, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7,
Briangotts, Muarae, AndrewWatt, Funhistory, Rachack, Pfalstad, Qwertyus, Jclemens, Lairor, FlaBot, Ground Zero, NekoDaemon,
Str1977, YurikBot, RobotE, Charles Gaudette, RussBot, Ytcracker, Twin Bird, Pylambert, Closedmouth, Hearth, KnightRider~enwiki,
SmackBot, PiCo, Hydrogen Iodide, Alksub, Alan McBeth, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Jero77, Pieter Kuiper, Jprg1966, Rrburke, Wiz-
ardman, Hannaphrael, Eliyak, Thanatosimii, Tennis Dynamite, The Man in Question, Shamrox, Agathoclea, DabMachine, Ziusudra, Mag-
natron1995, Mewaqua, HTUK, Chicheley, Doug Weller, Splgn, Sweetmoose6, Thijs!bot, PloniAlmoni, Deective, Dereckson, Geniac,
Adavies42, Philg88, Olmeque, Valerius Tygart, Nev1, Jasonasosa, Biglovinb, Sarregouset, Steel1943, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Dougie
monty, TXiKiBoT, Testbed, IronMaidenRocks, JimJJewett, SieBot, StAnselm, Work permit, Goustien, Benea, AMbot, Calatayudboy,
Amazonien, Wikievil666, Mild Bill Hiccup, Hafspajen, Niceguyedc, Sineaste, Cash55, Excirial, Elizium23, Phso2, DoctorEric, Smarkea,
Editor2020, Boleyn, Sumerophile, Mauvent, Addbot, Iperboreo, Metagraph, Someonexthis, Debresser, Tassedethe, OlEnglish, Yobot,
Ptbotgourou, Angel ivanov angelov, Matanya, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Chronic2, BobKilcoyne, Pkravchenko, Xqbot, Almabot, Fres-
coBot, AesculusGlabra47, Orijentolog, Loup meraude, Dragul7, Cannolis, Timosa75, Dutchmonkey9000, Lotje, HoworHow, Rjwilmsi-
Bot, TjBot, EmausBot, Mike Elston, GoingBatty, Sinharib99, Dcirovic, Amyalewis, AvicBot, HammerFilmFan, ChuispastonBot, EdoBot,
DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, MizzRFrost, Beltshazar, Helpful Pixie Bot, MusikAnimal, JohnThorne, DreamViewer, Mirjam Amalthea,
YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Dizzzer, Taanathshiloh, Jtuohini, JustBerry, Mdouraghi, Jkculley, Bouake123, JudeccaXIII, Redbeta, KasparBot,
Bigblue1UK, FrederickII and Anonymous: 103
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Kchishol1970, Llywrch, Cherkash, Norwikian, Rednblu, Tpbradbury, Nv8200pa, Lord Emsworth, Geraki, Audock, ChrisO~enwiki, May-
ooranathan, Flauto Dolce, Sunray, Roozbeh, Lysy, Dave6, NeoJustin, Michael Devore, Alensha, Mboverload, Alexf, Slowking Man,
Junuxx, Antandrus, Beland, Kaldari, Pmanderson, JohnArmagh, Lacrimosus, Shotwell, Shipmaster, Indosauros, Discospinster, Brutan-
nica, Vsmith, EliasAlucard, Ivan Bajlo, Mjpieters, Mani1, Bender235, ESkog, Kaisershatner, Furius, Kwamikagami, Dansab, Bobo192,
Smalljim, JW1805, Russ3Z, Ziggurat, AppleJuggler, IonNerd, Alansohn, Pinar, Juicifer, Dark Shikari, Plange, Isaac, Deacon of Pndapet-
zim, Zereshk, LukeSurl, Galaxiaad, Adrian.benko, TShilo12, Natalya, Martiniano, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, PatGallacher, Chochopk,
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heshgar, Manojlo~enwiki, Adrigon, DMacks, Yom, Tankred, Kukini, ThurnerRupert, SashatoBot, Vriullop, Amizzoni~enwiki, Rklawton,
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Bot, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Sly2y, 4twenty42o, Jerey Mall, Sodacan, Marios.agathangelou, Zam94, Oohy21, Ellipi, Khruner,
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nian Survivor, Watplease, Spindocter123, Oghuz turkish, ArdeshirBozorg, Citation bot 1, Javert, Wandering-teacher, 19alyblue, Haaqfun,
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emies, Phil200011555, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, ChanDMan2010, Aristotle79, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Alph Bot, Ti2008, Kamran the Great,
Pinkbeast, EmausBot, Gimmemoretime, Orphan Wiki, Eirione, , Marco Roy, Armaiti, Nnnnn333k, RA0808, Iranianson,
, Bahramm 2, ZxxZxxZ, The Mysterious El Willstro, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Attafei, Italia2006, WittyMan1986, Jaxxx188,
ZroBot, Jack-ONeill55, , Wayne Slam, Arman Cagle, Robshort, Alborzagros, Patrick Beshkovfe, Donner60, Chewings72,
ChuispastonBot, The Dark Peria, TRAJAN 117, Truth Seeker (fawiki), X Zach FTW X, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, ANE.Scholar, Goethe-
Fromm, Dr. Persi, MelbourneStar, Satellizer, Joefromrandb, Bped1985, Zerfox~enwiki, L69, Frietjes, Amir.ramirez, Lcyrusl, EauLibrar-
ian, Lysozym, Mirajbibi, Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Fantoo, ChenMcGen, Gob Lofa, BG19bot, Abbotone, Moradmandali, Keivan.f,
Bismaydash, Mazandar, Bolatbek, ElphiBot, Darafsh, Marcocapelle, Newyork3, Tdchbru, Maahmaah, JohnThorne, Verdantprince, Yere-
vantsi, Shaztekk, Assasinstewie17, Espiral, Xooon, Fotoriety, Roozitaa, Winter Gaze, Wannabemodel, Jaqeli, Moses.heteld, BattyBot,
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boj, Cpt.a.haddock, Dexbot, Class Avesta, Tigerwood1, Mogism, Naderbami, Shayanelhami, KWiki, VIAFbot, Pahlevun, Frosty, SFK2,
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onkelon, HistoryofIran, , ArmbrustBot, Pi3.124, LouisAragon, Monochrome Monitor, Damin A. Fernndez Beanato, Kind Tennis
Fan, TCMemoire, GTVM92, OccultZone, TheStrayDog, JaconaFrere, Bitafarhadi, Nightlock1244, PolkaMIS, Archeologic, Rahangam-
ing, Averagejoe2013, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, 32, Thadow, Estib, BrightonC, LibertyOrDeath1776, Mohammad amin shari,
MRD2014, Asdklf;, JudeccaXIII, Narky Blert, 0xF8E8, Alinematzadeh, Chrits44, SaltyforJesus316, Kouroshr66, KikyoC, Joan5060,
ToonLucas22, Shaybelaen, TajikIran, Wikiuser86u4e, GeneralizationsAreBad, I enjoy sandwiches, KasparBot, Artin Mehraban, Tyler-
heald21, Barimaotu, Turkoglang, Adam9007, Srednuas Lenoroc, Persia10101, Marshk98, History of Persia, Bahawik, Sepehr.sargolzaei,
Mmccurdy2000, Boruch Baum, Clark Harper, Poop2142365, Hddty., The Copper Miner, Sddk101, YoCuzwaasup777, GreenC bot,
, Seaborn7, BedrockPerson, Bender the Bot, , Jmju, Zeinanyc, IMONLYHUMAN, DylanJames I, Preston Kavanagh and
Anonymous: 884
Cambyses II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambyses_II?oldid=768139280 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Slrubenstein, -- April,
Andre Engels, XJaM, Enchanter, Ktsquare, MrH, Llywrch, DopeshJustin, SGBailey, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, John K, Timwi, RickK, JCar-
riker, Justin Bacon, Itai, Topbanana, Lord Emsworth, Wetman, Dimadick, Robbot, Sunray, Jpbrenna, Roozbeh, DocWatson42, Kbahey,
Zuytdorp Survivor, Varlaam, Fishal, Chepry, Lacrimosus, Rich Farmbrough, Kdammers, Bender235, Violetriga, CanisRufus, Moilleadir,
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sius Soter, KyraVixen, Cydebot, Lugnuts, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Fayenatic london, RuED~enwiki, KonstableBot, .anacond-
abot, Je Dahl, Edward321, Jona Lendering~enwiki, R'n'B, Zack Holly Venturi, Fconaway, DrKay, Hans Dunkelberg, Yonidebot, A No-
body, AdamBMorgan, DesertMoh, STBotD, Lsburton, Deor, VolkovBot, Egyptzo, Alborz Fallah, Gavla, EunseokLee, PericlesofAthens,
Gradus ad Parnassum, SieBot, Nihil novi, DavisGL, Flyer22 Reborn, Prof .Woodru, Elcobbola, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83, Futtbut123,
Svick, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Sitush, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Niceguyedc, Keysanger, Warrior4321,
SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Egmontaz, Davelogiudice, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, DumZiBoT, RogDel, Good Olfactory, Matthew-
Vanitas, Addbot, Karybut, AkhtaBot, Blueberrybuttermilkpancakes, Debresser, Peti610botH, AgadaUrbanit, Mattiyo~enwiki, Lightbot,
Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, MSClaudiu, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Khruner, GrouchoBot, Xashaiar,
CrazyGolf, Orijentolog, LucienBOT, Nojan, HRoestBot, DefaultsortBot, LittleWink, MastiBot, FoxBot, Lotje, ki2bucuk, Matsuzaki-
8.1. TEXT 251
Koudou, Sideways713, Johnhagen, Ripchip Bot, High Hat Giver, EmausBot, Look2See1, Bahramm 2, ZxxZxxZ, Dcirovic, Daisyiseult,
PBS-AWB, Dastealthghter, Steamwyck, Chewings72, TRAJAN 117, Dr. Persi, MelbourneStar, Niemin2, Helpful Pixie Bot, Am.entrekin,
Marcocapelle, Chugiak, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Iry-Hor, JYBot, Dexbot, ISoham, Mogism, Makecat-bot, Naderbami, Histo-
ryofIran, ArmbrustBot, CensoredScribe, Damin A. Fernndez Beanato, Amomum, Mevagiss, TheStrayDog, Library Guy, Monkbot,
JudeccaXIII, HavelockWilltravel, Jonathan Marko, Setareh1990, I enjoy sandwiches, KasparBot, Artin Mehraban, History of Persia,
Malignant Cheddar, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 105
Bardiya Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bardiya?oldid=767273908 Contributors: XJaM, William Avery, Llywrch, Gabbe, Menchi,
Ams80, John K, Charles Matthews, JCarriker, Justin Bacon, Itai, Lord Emsworth, Dimadick, Jpbrenna, Roozbeh, Andromeda~enwiki,
Alensha, Fishal, Lacrimosus, Dbachmann, Mani1, Sundberg, CanisRufus, Robotje, HasharBot~enwiki, Thomas Ihle~enwiki, Mr Ade-
quate, Binabik80, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Ghirlandajo, FeanorStar7, PatGallacher, BD2412, Plourdm, FlaBot, Str1977, Mehrshad123,
Markh, Shauni, YurikBot, RussBot, Spondoolicks, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, KocjoBot~enwiki, Bluebot, Greenshed, Vri-
ullop, Amizzoni~enwiki, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Iridescent, Clarityend, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Kingstowngalway,
N5iln, Escarbot, Hajji Piruz, Fayenatic london, Wayiran, Diznynut, KonstableBot, Mejda, Albmont, Waacstats, Jona Lendering~enwiki,
Genghiskhanviet, DrKay, Bonadea, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Steven J. Anderson, Alborz Fallah, InternetHero, Peterfwhyte, Avanduyn,
Moonriddengirl, Mimihitam, Kumioko (renamed), G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, ClueBot,
Hoj12, Auntof6, Zhxy 519, Warrior4321, Acabashi, Caoanroad4800, Addbot, Karybut, NjardarBot, Blueberrybuttermilkpancakes, Light-
bot, WikiDreamer Bot, Yobot, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Sly2y, Khruner, Xashaiar, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Orijentolog, Poliocretes,
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ings72, ClueBot NG, Twillisjr, PhnomPencil, Marcocapelle, Bardia90, BattyBot, LightandDark2000, Naderbami, Nimetapoeg, Histo-
ryofIran, ArmbrustBot, LouisAragon, Mevagiss, TheStrayDog, JudeccaXIII, HavelockWilltravel, Setareh1990, Good1010, KasparBot,
History of Persia and Anonymous: 44
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stein, Andre Engels, XJaM, Deb, Panairjdde~enwiki, MrH, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, DopeshJustin, Gabbe, Axeloide, Ixfd64,
Sannse, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Brettz9, K1, John K, Ghewgill, Marknen, Adam Bishop, Dcoetzee, RickK,
JCarriker, Justin Bacon, Itai, Topbanana, Lord Emsworth, Dimadick, Baldhur, Arkuat, Hippietrail, Sunray, GerardM, Jpbrenna, Roozbeh,
Dominick, Everyking, Michael Devore, Joconnor, Fishal, Chowbok, Utcursch, Andycjp, Knutux, Antandrus, Mustafaa, Lesgles, Joyous!,
Jcw69, Subsume, Fanghong~enwiki, Lacrimosus, Jkiang, Freakofnurture, CALR, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Florian
Blaschke, Dbachmann, Mani1, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Djordjes, Egalitus, Furius, CanisRufus, Livajo, Gilgamesh he, Arthureisele,
Kaveh, Bobo192, Flxmghvgvk, Cmdrjameson, TheProject, Polylerus, Alansohn, Mcferran, Wtmitchell, Binabik80, BanyanTree, Garzo,
Evil Monkey, Zopwx2, Jguk, Richard Weil, Adrian.benko, Japanese Searobin, Fdewaele, Nuno Tavares, Angr, Richard Arthur Nor-
ton (1958- ), Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, PatGallacher, Nefertum17, Grika, Isnow, SDC, Noetica, Palica, BD2412, SouthernComfort,
Phasmatis, Koavf, Srs, Dewrad, FlaBot, Gurch, Str1977, Mehrshad123, Markh, Chobot, Shauni, Banaticus, YurikBot, Maziargh, Pat-
man2648, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Kauner, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, Deemo, The Thadman, Ejdzej, RazorICE, Scotty
Mate, Larsinio, Yellow Element, Bota47, Dernhelm~enwiki, Botteville, Stainless steel, Sandstein, Heptazane, Orioane, SMcCandlish,
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PiCo, RevSpitz, Unschool, KnowledgeOfSelf, Shervink, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Ceredwynn, Jab843, Kintetsubualo, Flamarande,
Srnec, Aksi great, Gilliam, Hmains, Bluebot, Dr bab, ViolinGirl, MalafayaBot, Hashshashin, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg,
Bazonka, Ted87, DHN-bot~enwiki, Roy Al Blue, Kuldip D. Gandhi, Egsan Bacon, Skoglund, Ioscius, JonHarder, Yidisheryid, Greenshed,
Edivorce, Huon, Downwards, Cosmos1745, Metebelis, Nepaheshgar, Wizardman, Bidabadi~enwiki, Birdman1, CIS, Amizzoni~enwiki,
Kashk, Kuru, BurnDownBabylon, Arvand, RoboDick~enwiki, LancasterII, RandomCritic, ImanZaineb, Mr Stephen, Don Alessandro,
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celles, Geeman, Xcentaur, JForget, Joey80, Darkred, ChaosAkita, Robotsintrouble, CWY2190, NickW557, Moreschi, Smitdl00, Richard
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Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Mejda, Rivertorch, Krpors, Indon, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Jacobko, Bobanny, Nikolaj Christensen, JaGa, Pat-
stuart, Gun Powder Ma, MartinBot, Bissinger, DerRichter, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Creol, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, DrKay,
Qwanqwa, Peter Chastain, Yonidebot, Athaenara, Being blunt, Bot-Schafter, Manu kian maheri93, Pejuang bahasa~enwiki, Skier Dude,
Ajcfreak, Britishmuseum, Jasonasosa, RHBridges, Rosenknospe, Kansas Bear, Biglovinb, Juliancolton, Coolperson1, WJBscribe, Intothe-
re, DorganBot, Souravroy31, Ja 62, Redtigerxyz, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Firstorm, QuackGuru, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Zidonuke,
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RaseaC, Entirelybs, EunseokLee, Authoritative, Cyrus777, Vahagn Petrosyan, SieBot, Nihil novi, Euryalus, Malcolmxl5, Gerakibot, Dawn
Bard, Yintan, Tataryn, Flyer22 Reborn, A357, Futtbut123, OKBot, Calatayudboy, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Alefbe, Denisarona, KingFanel, TheRazaman, Troy 07, Muhends, ImageRemovalBot, RegentsPark, Elassint, ClueBot, Kafka Liz, EoGuy,
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DaughterofSun, Skidner001, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, G0T0, Skyezx, Glane23, Geo Bonanno, AndersBot, Debresser, Favo-
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SatLum, Tight1, Haymouse, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Medo9, Melenc, Fatbuu, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Kmzayeem, 4nn1l2, Luckimg2,
Fraby9, Hmainsbot1, Spirit of Eagle, Mogism, Shantanu Chakraborty, Delljvc, VIAFbot, Readmanthepaper, IndianBio, Wario-Man, Zzic-
cardi, Thinker21, Teacher83, Hillbillyholiday, Lgfcd, Animus93, Cam04, Theodore.medling, HellenicLiverpudlianCR7, Nikostrd, Bodha2,
BreakfastJr, DoubleDoubleDouble, HistoryofIran, Thornsie, Robinlarson, King Philip V of Spain, Aclany, ArmbrustBot, LouisAragon,
Keted6, Ugog Nizdast, Armenavag, Nawabmalhi, Newalbin, KierraF, Dimth, DrRC, Rishabh Agarwal, Luxure, Sayu101, Stamptrader,
Owain Knight, Gts-tg, Doctor Papa Jones, Warren bradford, Monkbot, AkiiraGhioni, Marcosoldfox, Filedelinkerbot, Trackteur, Ali mjr,
Tiger Haz, Piledhighandeep, Kruttlesh, DangerousJXD, AleksanderDonski, HavelockWilltravel, Vivek Sarje, 19999o, Isambard King-
dom, Jason.nlw, Whalestate, KasparBot, Artin Mehraban, VinzHu, Turkoglang, Capankajsmilyo, JohnTMa, ., King muh, Per-
sia10101, Dilidor, History of Persia, Stremafutk, X7C3, , Zenedits, Ermahgerd9, Alcibiades979, Kasif the great,
Muntele, Judist, Usuiko, Cavadxangence1992, Freakiejason, Farang Rak Tham, GreenC bot, NickTheRipper, Betsyhaas73, DavidThom-
son1997, Geopolitixx, OAbot, Anagram16, Bender the Bot, GabrielCruz, EngvarO consistency, 3brothers1sister, , Wienerbund,
1a16 and Anonymous: 2219
dler, Lotje, EmausBot, John of Reading, Finn Bjrklid, ZroBot, Sinuhe20, Chewings72, V8fan, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, PGPaulson,
Davidiad, Tech77, Corinne, Jovoburne, ArmbrustBot, Vergiotisa, Bodhisattwa, 19999o, KasparBot and Anonymous: 57
Alexander IV of Macedon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon?oldid=769444764 Contributors: SimonP,
Youandme, Leandrod, JohnOwens, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Menchi, Ellywa, Stan Shebs, Angela, John K, Leanne, Pedant17, Justin Ba-
con, Itai, Lord Emsworth, Dimadick, Robbot, ChrisO~enwiki, Flauto Dolce, Wikibot, Michael Snow, Varlaam, Per Honor et Gloria,
Jason Quinn, Spooky, Eregli bob, Kuralyov, Pmanderson, Lacrimosus, Lectiodicilior, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235,
CanisRufus, Markussep, Robotje, RussBlau, Jumbuck, Gary, Ricky81682, Ninio, Chochopk, Cuchullain, MauriceJFox3, Filipvr, FlaBot,
Str1977, Choess, Snailwalker, Shauni, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Matia.gr, Aldux, Emersoni, BOT-Superzerocool, Emanspeaks,
GrinBot~enwiki, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Iacobus, 127, MalafayaBot, DHN-bot~enwiki, William Allen Simp-
son, Cplakidas, Zvar, Das Baz, Rory096, Vriullop, Demicx, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, A. Parrot, Isgrimnur, Hectorian, EyOne,
Myasuda, Cydebot, Guitardemon666, Doug Weller, Telex, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Chaleyer61, Fayenatic london, Crispus, Sluzzelin, Defen-
estrating Monday, Gun Powder Ma, Skumarla, Kostisl, DrKay, Artacoana, Hans Dunkelberg, Flclovesun, Thismightbezach, Idioma-bot,
Gardener of Geda, VolkovBot, Macedonian, Oshwah, Rei-bot, Anna512, Thanatos666, Bigbaseballs1125, PericlesofAthens, Cosprings,
SieBot, OKBot, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, RafaAzevedo, Auntof6, Grandpallama, Dimitar2007, Arjayay,
BOTarate, Catalographer, Torahjerus14, Ernesth84, Addbot, GK1973, Zero no Kamen, Omnipedian, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Kiril Sime-
onovski, Luckas-bot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Againme, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Citation bot, Quebec99, Xqbot, Erud, Gilo1969,
Tyrol5, Khruner, Omnipaedista, 13alexander, Dilic, Paine Ellsworth, D'ohBot, Citation bot 1, HRoestBot, DefaultsortBot, Serols, Tobe-
Bot, Mean as custard, AtTheNecropolis, EmausBot, HammerFilmFan, Staszek Lem, Donner60, BabbaQ, ClueBot NG, Alexcoldcasefan,
DBigXray, Evilemperorzorg, Iamthecheese44, Sialkot.sidak, Wario-Man, SonOfJupiter, DoubleDoubleDouble, Tentinator, ArmbrustBot,
King Rk, GeneralizationsAreBad, StormExpert, InternetArchiveBot, ElementBroccoli, Accurate editor, 19dixonj, Vilelove and Anony-
mous: 84
Ptolemy I Soter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter?oldid=769070664 Contributors: Eclecticology, Zoe, Youandme,
Hephaestos, Olivier, Llywrch, Looxix~enwiki, John K, Denny, Lfh, JCarriker, Tpbradbury, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Shafei, JorgeGG,
Dimadick, Louis-H. Campagna, Academic Challenger, Auric, GerardM, VanishedUser kjdfjsg33k, Everyking, Per Honor et Gloria, Char-
lesS, Manuel Anastcio, Gdr, Vina, Esnible, RetiredUser2, Pmanderson, Xezbeth, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Technomad,
Kaisershatner, Nickco3, Markussep, Bill Thayer, Boris iv, Viriditas, Cohesion, Slugguitar, Jguk 2, Binabik80, Sleigh, Oleg Alexandrov,
Dejvid, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Fred26, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Carcharoth, Chochopk, -Ril-, Nakos2208~enwiki, Twth-
moses, NatusRoma, Captmondo, FlaBot, Chris Bennett, Banazir, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, Shauni, YurikBot, Ajaypp, TexasAndroid,
JJLeahy, RobotE, Kafziel, Phantomsteve, Aftermath, Petrouchka, RazorICE, Aldux, Morgan Leigh, A&D~enwiki, Botteville, Igin,
Lt-wiki-bot, Barbatus, Evangeline Alexander, GrinBot~enwiki, Scottie~enwiki, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, Wai Hong, Myra-
bella, SmackBot, Zerida, Kimon, JimPettis, Srnec, Seann, Skizzik, Elagatis, William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, MParshall, Yidisheryid,
Greenshed, Kukini, SashatoBot, Michael.passman, A. Parrot, Neddyseagoon, MTSbot~enwiki, Hectorian, Rpab, Sweet byrd, Mellery,
Makedonia, Myasuda, Cydebot, Blackmissionary, Doug Weller, Chrislk02, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Jobber, Eddygazilion, Captain Crawdad,
Mentisto, Chaleyer61, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, Deective, KonstableBot, Magioladitis, Doug Coldwell, Gabe1972, Michele Konrad,
Waacstats, Fabrictramp, Animum, Belgrade18, Anaxial, LordAnubisBOT, DadaNeem, DH85868993, Nat682, WLRoss, Deor, VolkovBot,
Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Egyptzo, Maksdo, Yk Yk Yk, Cantiorix, AnnekeBart, Thanatos666, EunseokLee, EmxBot, SieBot,
JerrySteal, Amcfadgen, Maelgwnbot, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, ClueBot, Italiotis, Place Clichy, Jusdafax, Es-
tirabot, SchreiberBike, Muro Bot, Cjarbo2, Catalographer, Kyslyi, Lx 121, DumZiBoT, Budelberger, Oskar71, Chronicler~enwiki, John
Prattley, Felix Folio Secundus, Pavasta, Addbot, Fieldday-sunday, MinisterForBadTimes, Ironzealot, GK1973, Favonian, AgadaUrbanit,
Tide rolls, Lightbot, Reading mom, Margin1522, Yobot, Fraggle81, Againme, Peter Flass, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Jim1138, LlywelynII,
Jo3sampl, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Khruner, Comm. makatau, J04n, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Pyraechmes,
GhalyBot, Blackguard SF, LucienBOT, Linneasr, AnwarSadatFan, BenzolBot, RedBot, Serols, Fixer88, Tjmoel, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip
Bot, EmausBot, Look2See1, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, Oncenawhile, Donner60, Chewings72, Aholymost, TYelliot, ClueBot
NG, Pompeymagnus, SilentResident, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Dutchldy, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, CitationCleanerBot, Haymouse,
DoubleDoubleDouble, Tentinator, ArmbrustBot, Ninetales22, Hyphantes, Noyster, Skr15081997, Monkbot, Understat, Seshata, Have-
lockWilltravel, Cartakes, KasparBot, Mrzo1975, Alcibiades979, Peter Thonemann, NickTheRipper and Anonymous: 171
Ptolemy II Philadelphus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus?oldid=766858700 Contributors: Youandme,
Llywrch, Looxix~enwiki, Jniemenmaa, Bogdangiusca, Adam Bishop, Jallan, JCarriker, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Kristof vt, Academic
Challenger, Auric, Per Honor et Gloria, CharlesS, Macrakis, Vina, Pmanderson, Venu62, Narsil, Bender235, Bill Thayer, Sam Korn, Jum-
buck, MatthiasKabel, Carbon Caryatid, Ghirlandajo, Japanese Searobin, Dejvid, FeanorStar7, PoccilScript, Carcharoth, Hippalus, Cho-
chopk, Twthmoses, Chris Weimer, Cuchullain, Captmondo, Matjlav, FlaBot, Talessman, Sponsianus, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, Shauni,
YurikBot, JJLeahy, RobotE, Petrouchka, Dialectric, Nascigl, Aldux, Deucalionite, Igin, NYArtsnWords, JoanneB, Bluezy, Mmcannis,
That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Flamarande, Srnec, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, William Allen Simpson, Zhinz,
Cplakidas, Greenshed, Stevenmitchell, Ceoil, Anriz, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Heliogabulus, A. Parrot, Neddyseagoon, Cerealkiller13,
Hectorian, ThreeBlindMice, Richard Keatinge, TheRegicider, Doug Weller, JCO312, Btball, Sacca, JustAGal, Escarbot, Chaleyer61,
Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, JimCubb, Doug Coldwell, DrKay, Hans Dunkelberg, Bebop123, M-le-mot-dit, DorganBot, Thismightbezach,
VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Eubulides, AnnekeBart, Thanatos666, Gerakibot, Shakko, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Jereylicht, Parkjunwung, Niceguyedc, Alexbot, Coinmanj, SchreiberBike, Catalographer, Budelberger, RogDel, Addbot, The Sage of
Stamford, GK1973, AgadaUrbanit, Lightbot, VP-bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Specious, Peters01, Againme, Peter Flass, Jim1138, Arthur-
Bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Davshul, Khruner, Yiftach T, 13alexander, LSG1-Bot, Lisaw98, LordofDestiny, TobeBot, Jaba1977, MrArifna-
jafov, EmausBot, Look2See1, Ory Amitay, Italia2006, ClueBot NG, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, A.Samot, Krakkos, Zmavius, Armbrust-
Bot, Steven Rogers, Finnusertop, KierraF, Napalatt, Tyrannosaurus rex, Understat, HavelockWilltravel, KasparBot, Capankajsmilyo and
Anonymous: 44
Ptolemy III Euergetes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes?oldid=766857800 Contributors: Eclecticology,
XJaM, William Avery, Zoe, Imran, MrH, Youandme, Olivier, JCarriker, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Wetman, Kristof vt, Academic
Challenger, Auric, Varlaam, Per Honor et Gloria, CharlesS, Jastrow, Vina, Esnible, Pmanderson, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Haruo,
Bender235, Nysalor, Bill Thayer, Dejvid, FeanorStar7, PoccilScript, Carcharoth, Twthmoses, Mississippienne, Graham87, Josh Parris,
Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, FlaBot, Chris Bennett, Str1977, Chobot, Shauni, YurikBot, RobotE, Petrouchka, Dppowell, Aldux, Igin, Mm-
cannis, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, EncycloPetey, Flamarande, Linguiste, Jero77, Bluebot, William Allen Simp-
son, Cplakidas, Greenshed, John D. Croft, Aolanaonwaswronglyaccused, Ohconfucius, Harryboyles, Anriz, Hectorian, Joseph Solis in
Australia, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Commonlaw504, Chaleyer61, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, KonstableBot, Waacstats, Jona
Lendering~enwiki, TheEgyptian, Flembles, DrKay, Being blunt, Coinman62, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Mahsmith3,
8.1. TEXT 259
AnnekeBart, StAnselm, Gerakibot, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Peace2youAll, Mym-uk, RafaAzevedo, Ex-
cirial, SchreiberBike, Palindromedairy, Budelberger, RogDel, Addbot, GK1973, Lightbot, Legobot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Ptbotgourou, Againme, Peter Flass, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, Soulfare, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, GhalyBot, WibWobble, HRoestBot, Poliocretes,
B-Machine, TobeBot, MrArifnajafov, Weijiya, EmausBot, Look2See1, Chewings72, , Marcocapelle, Hmainsbot1, ArmbrustBot, Na-
palatt, Tyrannosaurus rex, HavelockWilltravel, KasparBot, Takatsuki, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 26
Ptolemy IV Philopator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator?oldid=766858543 Contributors: Andre Engels,
Rcingham, Llywrch, JCarriker, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Dimadick, Kristof vt, Auric, JamesMLane, Per Honor et Gloria, Char-
lesS, Jastrow, LiDaobing, Pmanderson, Solitude, Aecis, Bill Thayer, Polylerus, Iustinus, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Captmondo, FlaBot,
Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, Shauni, YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, Megistias, Petrouchka, Aldux, Igin, That Guy, From That Show!,
BomBom, Zerida, Alsandro, Chris the speller, Bluebot, William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, Greenshed, Anriz, A. Parrot, Agath-
oclea, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Cydebot, Evil berry, Thijs!bot, Chaleyer61, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, KonstableBot, JimCubb,
Waacstats, TheEgyptian, DrKay, Robertgreer, VolkovBot, Rei-bot, Mahsmith3, Freeman501, Mimihitam, Bsherr, Vanished user ew-
sn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Budelberger, RogDel, Addbot, LaaknorBot, GK1973, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Legobot, Middayex-
press, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Avidus, ArthurBot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, GhalyBot, Bromley86, HRoestBot, RedBot,
Merlion444, TobeBot, Menetys, MrArifnajafov, EmausBot, Look2See1, Pompeymagnus, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Chuntuk, Armbrust-
Bot, LordCarisbrooke, Napalatt, ArcticXerxes, Epimachos, KasparBot, Dilidor, TalkingToTurtles, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 28
Ptolemy V Epiphanes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes?oldid=769448614 Contributors: Andre Engels, Rc-
ingham, Gabbe, Looxix~enwiki, Emperorbma, JCarriker, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Premeditated Chaos, Auric, Per Honor et Gloria,
CharlesS, Jastrow, Pmanderson, Rich Farmbrough, Bill Thayer, Jguk, Iustinus, Dejvid, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo,
FlaBot, Talessman, ElfQrin, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, Shauni, YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, JP Watrin, Petrouchka, Dialectric, Aldux,
Igin, JoanneB, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Iacobus, Eskimbot, Dyslexic agnostic, Ingsoc, Bluebot, William
Allen Simpson, Babur~enwiki, Cplakidas, JRPG, Chlewbot, Ericl, A. Parrot, Hectorian, Joseph Solis in Australia, Lugnuts, Thijs!bot,
Goldenrowley, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, KonstableBot, Edwardspec TalkBot, Waacstats, TheEgyptian, DrKay, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT,
Charbroil, WRK, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Der Golem, Budelberger, RogDel, TecmoBo, Addbot, Samat-
Bot, Lightbot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Yngvadottir, Againme, Avidus, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Khruner, GhalyBot,
D'ohBot, HRoestBot, Tbhotch, MrArifnajafov, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Look2See1, Chewings72, CAAP AH1, ClueBot NG, Freperon,
Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Unfriend12, Hmainsbot1, Lequenne Gwendoline, ArmbrustBot, Napalatt, Saadisworld, Epimachos, KasparBot,
Ermahgerd9, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 28
Ptolemy VI Philometor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor?oldid=760699344 Contributors: Andre Engels,
Panairjdde~enwiki, Menchi, Looxix~enwiki, Vargenau, JCarriker, Jerey Smith, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Auric, GreatWhiteNorth-
erner, Per Honor et Gloria, CharlesS, Pmanderson, Haiduc, Furius, Bill Thayer, Iustinus, FeanorStar7, Carcharoth, Twthmoses, Kbdank71,
The wub, Matjlav, FlaBot, Chris Bennett, Shauni, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, RobotE, Petrouchka, Aldux, Igin, NeilN, That Guy, From That
Show!, BomBom, Iacobus, Hmains, Bluebot, William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, Ericl, A. Parrot, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Joseph Solis
in Australia, Courcelles, JLCA, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Ludde23, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, KonstableBot, Cynwolfe, Italus, Waacstats,
TheEgyptian, DrKay, Thismightbezach, Ariobarzan, TXiKiBoT, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Coinmanj, Budel-
berger, MystBot, Addbot, Bkmays, Favonian, SamatBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Je Muscato, Polaire~enwiki, Xqbot, Jayarathina, GhalyBot,
FrescoBot, Louperibot, HRoestBot, Fixer88, Hanay, MrArifnajafov, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, FeatherPluma, Afolkestad, Ellaivarios,
Marcocapelle, ArmbrustBot, Tyrannosaurus rex, KasparBot, Bethydg and Anonymous: 18
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator?oldid=765527897 Contributors:
Mav, Panairjdde~enwiki, Rcingham, Llywrch, Looxix~enwiki, John K, Vargenau, JCarriker, Lord Emsworth, Auric, Per Honor et Gloria,
Pmanderson, HasharBot~enwiki, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Rjwilmsi, Matjlav, Margosbot~enwiki, Sponsianus, Shauni, Wingchi, Gaius
Cornelius, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Petrouchka, Aldux, Igin, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Linguiste,
William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, Greenshed, Hectorian, JLCA, Lugnuts, PamD, Thijs!bot, Fayenatic london, Waacstats, TheEgyp-
tian, DorganBot, Mahsmith3, Synthebot, SieBot, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Budelberger, MystBot, Addbot,
Lightbot, Otrfan, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Rubinbot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, GhalyBot, HRoestBot, Zanhe, EmausBot, Marcocapelle,
ArmbrustBot, 1234qwer1234qwer4, Understat, KasparBot and Anonymous: 11
Ptolemy VIII Physcon Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon?oldid=749131854 Contributors: Panair-
jdde~enwiki, Rcingham, Stan Shebs, Vargenau, Adam Bishop, JCarriker, Lord Emsworth, Auric, Everyking, Per Honor et Gloria, Gugganij,
Pmanderson, Willhsmit, Wareh, Bill Thayer, HasharBot~enwiki, BDD, FeanorStar7, Chochopk, Twthmoses, Isnow, Rjwilmsi, Matjlav,
Master Thief Garrett, Margosbot~enwiki, Shauni, Bgwhite, Petrouchka, Aldux, Igin, Curpsbot-unicodify, That Guy, From That Show!,
BomBom, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Iacobus, Zaqarbal, Linguiste, William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, Polkium, Mathiasrex, A. Parrot, Hec-
torian, JLCA, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Fayenatic london, IantheLibrarian, Waacstats, TheEgyptian, DrKay, DorganBot,
Idioma-bot, Egyptzo, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, ClueBot, Amovrvs, Alexbot, Estirabot,
Zamzummim, Budelberger, Oskar71, Erin0027, SilvonenBot, Johnkatz1972, Addbot, Download, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, KamikazeBot,
MauritsBot, Xqbot, GenQuest, Khruner, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, GhalyBot, FrescoBot, Louperibot, HRoestBot, Zanhe, RjwilmsiBot,
EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ZroBot, Donner60, Chewings72, Birkyle23, Hannibalianus, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Iry-Hor, ArmbrustBot,
ColRad85, Tyrannosaurus rex, KasparBot and Anonymous: 30
Ptolemy IX Lathyros Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros?oldid=760010782 Contributors: Zundark, Panair-
jdde~enwiki, Rcingham, Vargenau, JCarriker, Itai, Lord Emsworth, Ausir, Per Honor et Gloria, Manuel Anastcio, RetiredUser2, Pmander-
son, Grm wnr, Discospinster, CamLewis, Furius, Bill Thayer, HasharBot~enwiki, RJFJR, BDD, Iustinus, Deror avi, FeanorStar7, Twth-
moses, Rjwilmsi, Tony619, Matjlav, Margosbot~enwiki, Chobot, Shauni, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Petrouchka, Aldux, Igin, That Guy,
From That Show!, BomBom, Eskimbot, Paxse, Bluebot, William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, Leoboudv, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, Cyde-
bot, Thijs!bot, Escarbot, WinBot, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, Txomin, Waacstats, TheEgyptian, DrKay, Largoplazo, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot,
Egyptzo, AnnekeBart, SieBot, Allmightyduck, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Budelberger, Chronicler~enwiki,
Addbot, AndersBot, Lightbot, Abjiklam, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Againme, Rubinbot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, GhalyBot, JMCC1, Louperibot,
HRoestBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ZroBot, Chewings72, ClueBot NG, KLBot2, Marcocapelle, SupernovaExplosion, Tamarack ve-
locity, ArmbrustBot, Altojells, Tyrannosaurus rex, KasparBot, Cristianjf and Anonymous: 18
Ptolemy X Alexander I Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I?oldid=749116720 Contributors: Panair-
jdde~enwiki, Vargenau, Auric, Per Honor et Gloria, Jastrow, Manuel Anastcio, RetiredUser2, Pmanderson, Grm wnr, Supercoop, Hashar-
Bot~enwiki, RJFJR, BDD, Deror avi, Dejvid, FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Cuchullain, Rjwilmsi, Captmondo, Matjlav, Master Thief Garrett,
Margosbot~enwiki, Str1977, Shauni, YurikBot, Petrouchka, Igin, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, Eskimbot, William Allen
260 CHAPTER 8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Simpson, Cplakidas, Andrew Dalby, Hectorian, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Fayenatic london, Txomin, Waacstats, Philg88, TheEgyptian, DrKay,
Idioma-bot, A4bot, Egyptzo, Wpktsfs, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Budelberger, Chronicler~enwiki, Good Ol-
factory, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, GhalyBot, HRoestBot, RedBot, Lotje, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, KLBot2, AvocatoBot, Marco-
capelle, ArmbrustBot, Tyrannosaurus rex, KasparBot, Nineve6 and Anonymous: 11
Ptolemy XI Alexander II Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II?oldid=760015180 Contributors: Stan Shebs,
Vargenau, JCarriker, Lord Emsworth, RedWolf, Geogre, Per Honor et Gloria, Pmanderson, Laurascudder, HasharBot~enwiki, BDD,
FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Isnow, Kbdank71, Matjlav, Margosbot~enwiki, Chobot, Shauni, YurikBot, Petrouchka, That Guy, From That
Show!, BomBom, SmackBot, Hmains, Linguiste, William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, Andrew Dalby, Michael David, A. Parrot, Hectorian,
JLCA, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, TheEgyptian, CommonsDelinker, Hans Dunkelberg, DorganBot,
Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Egyptzo, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, The Thing That Should Not Be, DragonBot, Pix-
elBot, Budelberger, Chronicler~enwiki, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, GhalyBot, HRoest-
Bot, EmausBot, Marcocapelle, ArmbrustBot, Tyrannosaurus rex and Anonymous: 11
Ptolemy XII Auletes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes?oldid=765481070 Contributors: Leandrod, Jketola,
Looxix~enwiki, Vargenau, Dcw~enwiki, Adam Bishop, JCarriker, Wik, Lord Emsworth, RedWolf, Donreed, GreatWhiteNortherner,
David Gerard, Jastrow, Kuralyov, Pmanderson, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Bill Thayer, HasharBot~enwiki, Gary, Ricky81682, BDD,
FeanorStar7, Twthmoses, Kbdank71, Captmondo, Black Sword, Margosbot~enwiki, Mark J, Brendan Moody, Chobot, Shauni, YurikBot,
Petrouchka, Igin, StuRat, Nolanus, That Guy, From That Show!, BomBom, AndreasJS, Eskimbot, Paxse, Dyslexic agnostic, Bluebot,
William Allen Simpson, Cplakidas, Bssc, Ericl, Andrew Dalby, Jazriel, A. Parrot, Neddyseagoon, Hectorian, JLCA, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot,
Fayenatic london, Walid Osama, Txomin, KonstableBot, Ericoides, Wumbo, Je Dahl, Waacstats, Catgut, TheEgyptian, DrKay, Hans
Dunkelberg, Ufsark~enwiki, DorganBot, VolkovBot, Margacst, Egyptzo, Cantiorix, AnnekeBart, LpztheHVY, Freecyprus, Shakesomeac-
tion, Yintan, Althena, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Natyrox, ClueBot, Excirial, Daniel Musto, Budelberger, Os-
kar71, Erin0027, Chronicler~enwiki, Nicki82a, Addbot, 84user, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnakngAraw, Xqbot, Nfr-Maat, Khruner,
RibotBOT, Kcohenp, KendallKDown, GhalyBot, DGRJI, Cubs197, HRoestBot, Rach Kelly, Angrendal, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Cjcol-
lom, ClueBot NG, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Hispaniensis, Lugia2453, ArmbrustBot, Jr JL, PieCatLady, Tyrannosaurus rex, Epimachos,
LL221W, KasparBot, Smelly bagle and Anonymous: 80
Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator?oldid=764956257 Contribu-
tors: Christian List, Imran, Leandrod, Llywrch, Jketola, Ahoerstemeier, Vargenau, JCarriker, FireyAngel, Lord Emsworth, Naddy,
Michael Snow, GreatWhiteNortherner, PFHLai, Pmanderson, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Alexander Ploner, Jnestorius, BDD, Japanese
Searobin, Dejvid, Thryduulf, FeanorStar7, Chochopk, Drongo, Twthmoses, GraemeLeggett, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Margos-
bot~enwiki, Chobot, Shauni, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Petrouchka, Mikeblas, Morgan Leigh, Igin, Nolanus, RG2, That Guy, From That Show!,
BomBom, SmackBot, Iacobus, Sinerma, Srnec, William Allen Simpson, Muboshgu, Cplakidas, Greenshed, Andrew Dalby, A. Parrot, Ned-
dyseagoon, Hectorian, JLCA, WeggeBot, The Real Jean-Luc, Thijs!bot, AntiVandalBot, Lonestar662p3, Txomin, Wumbo, RR, Waacstats,
TheEgyptian, Thismightbezach, Idioma-bot, TXiKiBoT, BertSen, Andres rojas22, Mahsmith3, Egyptzo, Cantiorix, EunseokLee, SieBot,
Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, ClueBot, Soonerzbt, Silas Maxeld, Budelberger, Oskar71, Chronicler~enwiki, Sil-
vonenBot, Addbot, Sussmanbern, SteveLaino, Exor674, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Cresix,
GhalyBot, JMCC1, DReifGalaxyM31, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZroBot, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Wiki13, Marcocapelle, Yshiye,
RJHSLatinteacher, CimonT, Jerodlycett, KasparBot and Anonymous: 59
Ptolemy XIV of Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_of_Egypt?oldid=749110419 Contributors: Hephaestos,
Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Vargenau, Lord Emsworth, GreatWhiteNortherner, Per Honor et Gloria, Plato, Pmanderson, Grm wnr, Rich
Farmbrough, Hurricane111, Jguk 2, Grutness, Ricky81682, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Jersyko, Chochopk, Twthmoses, Daniel Lawrence,
Stevey7788, Kbdank71, Grammarbot, Rjwilmsi, BerndGehrmann~enwiki, Valentinian, Shauni, YurikBot, NTBot~enwiki, Pigman,
Petrouchka, Douglasfrankfort~enwiki, Igin, Nolanus, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Iacobus, William Allen Simpson, Cplaki-
das, Ericl, Neddyseagoon, Tyhopho, Hectorian, Cydebot, Txomin, Wumbo, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Nyttend, AliaGemma, TheEgyptian,
28bytes, VolkovBot, Mahsmith3, Egyptzo, Falcon8765, SieBot, Flyer22 Reborn, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Budelberger, Direct action, Chronicler~enwiki, Addbot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, RibotBOT, GhalyBot, LucienBOT,
AtTheNecropolis, EmausBot, Italia2006, Chewings72, ClueBot NG, Marcocapelle, Falkirks, Orange909, ArmbrustBot, Thng L..Q.,
KasparBot, CAPTAIN RAJU and Anonymous: 27
Caesarion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarion?oldid=769250745 Contributors: Mav, Christian List, Panairjdde~enwiki,
Isis~enwiki, Olivier, Frecklefoot, Patrick, JohnOwens, Paul Barlow, Jketola, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Andres, Vargenau, Lord Emsworth,
Mackensen, Wetman, Hajor, Dimadick, Naddy, David Edgar, Ruakh, GreatWhiteNortherner, Christopher Parham, Varlaam, J. 'mach'
wust, MacGyverMagic, Pmanderson, Neutrality, Florian Blaschke, Kwamikagami, Art LaPella, 54mp0 X 70rg0, Jvano~enwiki, Dhar-
tung, Binabik80, Green slash, Hattrem, Nicknack009, Kusma, Jguk, BDD, Fdewaele, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), FeanorStar7,
Hippalus, Chochopk, Twthmoses, Mandarax, Kbdank71, Mlewan, Bubuka, CyberGhostface, UriBudnik, FlaBot, Black Sword, Mar-
gosbot~enwiki, Kyriakos, Sponsianus, Chris Bennett, Valentinian, Shauni, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, GusF, Petrouchka,
AppaAliApsa, Welsh, Piratesswoop, Aldux, Tim Thomason (usurped), TheMadBaron, Arthur Rubin, Nolanus, Philip Stevens, That Guy,
From That Show!, robot, BomBom, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, DannyBoy7783, Iacobus, David Kernow, Kimon, Unyoyega,
Bwithh, Evanreyes, Ingsoc, The monkeyhate, Chris the speller, PrimeHunter, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colonies Chris,
William Allen Simpson, Beowulf314159, Cplakidas, Kindall, Pookster11, Greenshed, RobBorer, Das Baz, Cranston lamont, SashatoBot,
Rory096, John, Anriz, The Man in Question, A. Parrot, Neddyseagoon, Jam01, Hectorian, Norm mit, Iridescent, Dawi~enwiki, Twas
Now, LadyofShalott, Eluchil404, Lahiru k, John5Russell3Finley, Bobo Fernandez, Irwangatot, Richard Keatinge, Treybien, Hebrides,
Doug Weller, Rsheridan6, Gaijin42, Escarbot, Chaleyer61, Blue Tie, Fayenatic london, Mikenorton, JAnDbot, Deective, Gcm, Nthep,
Wumbo, TAnthony, JimCubb, WolfmanSF, Simon Peter Hughes, TheEgyptian, Kostisl, DrKay, Hans Dunkelberg, Pajfarmor, Tathunen,
NewEnglandYankee, DogcatcherDrew, DorganBot, Hugo999, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Jarvoll, Johnred32, Jeeny, Inspiron User XX, Eu-
nseokLee, AlleborgoBot, Eric555gould, DrewSears, YonaBot, BotMultichill, Gerakibot, JSpung, G.-M. Cupertino, Vanished user ew-
sn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Romit3, ClueBot, Rumping, Dant84, Xav71176, Nnemo, Niceguyedc, Boneyard90, Panyd, Chovin,
Antediluvian67, Gik, Goateeki, Budelberger, Oskar71, Chronicler~enwiki, RogDel, Paranoid Android1208, Good Olfactory, Paperfaye,
Addbot, LaaknorBot, FiriBot, Favonian, Favrem, Lightbot, Kiril Simeonovski, Swarm, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
Xqbot, Nfr-Maat, Tad Lincoln, RibotBOT, Madein89, GhalyBot, FrescoBot, Uakari, Estudyante, HRoestBot, Abductive, Sdwelch1031,
Weijiya, P Aculeius, AtTheNecropolis, EmausBot, Pugnaciousignatius, WillBildUnion, Brandmeister, Zeta1127,89thLegion, ClueBot NG,
NapoleonX, Caute AF, Twillisjr, Gradboat, Keivan.f, Smileguy91, Smasongarrison, Neuroforever, Packer1028, Furrycat66, That guy we
all love, Jakejamesjackson, OccupyAmendments, ArmbrustBot, Pietro13, TropicAces, Tyrannosaurus rex, Te99, MRD2014, Dukon,
Crystallizedcarbon, Epimachos, KasparBot, *Treker, Pak wai ll, 123marmalade and Anonymous: 161
8.1. TEXT 261
Augustus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus?oldid=769867646 Contributors: AxelBoldt, JHK, Derek Ross, Mav, Bryan
Derksen, The Anome, Skeeter451, Alex.tan, Andre Engels, Josh Grosse, Rmhermen, Oliverkroll, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Ktsquare, Zoe, Panair-
jdde~enwiki, B4hand, Isis~enwiki, Tbarron, Olivier, Leandrod, Stevertigo, Frecklefoot, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Zocky,
Llywrch, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Cyde, Delirium, Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Arwel
Parry, Docu, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Notheruser, Ijon, Ugen64, Djnjwd, Kwekubo, Sonja~enwiki, Andres, Evercat, JamesReyes, John K,
Raven in Orbit, Ylpow, Schneelocke, Edmilne, Hike395, Dwo, Adam Bishop, Spino~enwiki, Davidzuccaro, EmphasisMine, Dysprosia,
Zenzee, Fuzheado, Haukurth, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Abhishek, Quoth-22, Lord Emsworth, Joy, Wetman, Bcorr, Flockmeal, Adam
Carr, Finlay McWalter, Pollinator, Jeq, Dimadick, Jason Potter, Robbot, Sander123, Pigsonthewing, ChrisO~enwiki, Jredmond, Simonf,
Goethean, Stephan Schulz, Romanm, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Mirv, Postdlf, Academic Challenger, Timrollpickering, Caknuck, Sunray,
Hadal, Wikibot, Wereon, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina, Argasp~enwiki, Jsan, TOO, DocWatson42, Philwelch, Peruvianllama, Everyking,
Anville, Kabulykos, Michael Devore, Aoi, Joe Kress, Niteowlneils, Fjarlq, Beardo, Yekrats, Ddama, Per Honor et Gloria, Siroxo, Matt
Crypto, Deus Ex, Dainamo, Jrdioko, Golbez, Tristanreid, Gugganij, Utcursch, Aside, Geni, Gdr, Zeimusu, GeneralPatton, Antandrus, Pae-
dia, V M 1974, Cb6, Rlquall, Tothebarricades.tk, Kuralyov, Pmanderson, Icairns, Micahbales, Willhsmit, Joyous!, Michael L. Kaufman,
Ukexpat, Hardouin, Vsb, Klemen Kocjancic, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Jakro64, Lacrimosus, D6, DanielCD, SoM, Discospinster, Rich
Farmbrough, Brutannica, Wrp103, Silence, Narsil, Warpyght, Francis Schonken, LindsayH, Maksym Ye., Alistair1978, Pavel Vozenilek,
Paul August, SpookyMulder, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, S.R. Heller, Kaisershatner, Steerpike, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Aecis, El C, Ly-
curgus, Kwamikagami, Mjk2357, Lswartz, QuartierLatin1968, Cafzal, Kross, Laurascudder, Lima, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Femto, Scrutch-
eld, AladdinSE, Bill Thayer, Causa sui, Thuresson, Iralith, Alxndr, Sole Soul, Circeus, Krikkert, Func, Adraeus, JW1805, Rajah, The-
Project, Pangloss, John Fader, RussBlau, Jonathunder, Nsaa, Supersexyspacemonkey, Stephen Bain, Ogress, HasharBot~enwiki, Roman
Emperor, Danski14, Alansohn, Gary, Prometheus7Unbound, Chino, ChristopherWillis, Arthena, Supine, Jonegn, Ricky81682, Fornadan,
Lightdarkness, DLJessup, Sligocki, Cdc, Snowolf, Zsero, Sir Joseph, Wtmitchell, Klavier mann, Binabik80, King Bowser 64, Nicknack009,
Jguk, GabrielF, Romana03, Avram Fawcett, Kitch, Fdewaele, Ron Ritzman, Dejvid, Siafu, Megan1967, Gmaxwell, Richard Arthur Norton
(1958- ), Pekinensis, Simetrical, Jag164, FeanorStar7, Timo Laine, Vikramkr, Carcharoth, Jacobolus, Bones2005, Robert K S, TheoClarke,
Veratien, Chochopk, MONGO, Sdgjake, Tabletop, Tomlillis, NormanEinstein, Mangojuice, Pictureuploader, EvilOverlordX, Ryan Reich,
Wayward, Dodo78, Daniel Lawrence, Essjay, G.W., Zooks527, Palica, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, Graham87, Jcomp489, Magister Math-
ematicae, Cuchullain, Xxpor, Tokle, GingerM, RxS, Jclemens, Reisio, Xorkl000, Ketiltrout, Awhansen, Rjwilmsi, Eoghanacht, Koavf,
CyberGhostface, Syndicate, Gryndor, MordredKLB, Linuxbeak, JHMM13, Sdornan, MZMcBride, Viktor~enwiki, BCV, Vegaswikian,
Oblivious, Bubba73, Brighterorange, The wub, Bhadani, Matt Deres, Yamamoto Ichiro, Fish and karate, Algebra, FlaBot, Rysz, RobertG,
Black Sword, Doc glasgow, Winhunter, Nihiltres, Nivix, Celestianpower, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Mark J, Str1977, ElfQrin, Math-
rick, Codex Sinaiticus, Ben Babcock, Alphachimp, Malhonen, JM.Beaubourg, Chobot, Jaraalbe, Karch, DVdm, 334a, Digitalme, Gwernol,
YurikBot, Wavelength, Reverendgraham, Oldwindybear, TSO1D, Brandmeister (old), Phantomsteve, RussBot, TheMoot, Hornplease,
Conscious, Joeyspqr, Chuck Carroll, Kurt Leyman, SpuriousQ, Scott5834, CanadianCaesar, Kirill Lokshin, Okedem, Rintrah, Gaius Cor-
nelius, Wimt, Anomalocaris, Shanel, Wiki alf, Eduardo Cuellar, Veledan, The Ogre, Demandrius, Jaxl, TheLH, Mathae, Twin Bird, Intro-
gressive, RazorICE, Taco325i, Shaun F, Daanschr, Irishguy, Nick, Shinmawa, Andersonblog, Dmoss, Ramses II, Rajnr, Mlouns, Rockero,
Paul.h, Grakm fr, Killdevil, Semperf, R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine), Alex43223, Zwobot, Bucketsofg, Syrthiss, Timber Rattlesnake,
Roy Brumback, Gadget850, T-rex, Acetic Acid, Alpha 4615, L Hamm, Jock Claxton, Cjcaesar, Flexiblene, FF2010, Zzuuzz, Outside-
thewall, J. Van Meter, Silverhorse, Nikkimaria, Jwissick, Pb30, Chris Heaton, Modify, Ricrya, BorgQueen, JoanneB, Barbatus, Tomlib,
JLaTondre, Maxamegalon2000, Philip Stevens, GrinBot~enwiki, Zvika, DVD R W, WesleyDodds, AndyJones, Johnmarkh, SpLoT, At-
tilios, Otheus, Scolaire, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Teeroy, Hux, Politono, Jeppesn, Am, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Olorin28,
NaiPiak, Lagalag, Pgk, Jim62sch, Tone Deaf, Hu Gadarn, ArnoGourdol, Piccadilly, Closetoeuphoria, Delldot, Frymaster, CapitalSasha,
Devanampriya, Sinerma, TharkunColl, Flamarande, Galloglass, Srnec, Cynewulf~enwiki, Yamaguchi , Portillo, Finduilas 09, Ohnoit-
sjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Isaac Dupree, Faute De Mieux, Carl.bunderson, Aether8m, AIOS, Andy M. Wang, Transkar, Qtoktok,
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CIS, Esrever, Nishkid64, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Rklawton, Srikeit, Fanx, Anriz, Kipala, Gobonobo, Julianc, Pat Payne, Ekjon
Lok, CenozoicEra, Sophie-Lou, Spartanfox86, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Breno, Mgiganteus1, Peterlewis, DIEGO RICARDO
PEREIRA, The Man in Question, Comicist, JHunterJ, MarkSutton, Mr Stephen, Metaomni, Jon186, Bungeh, Moszczynski, Waggers,
Neddyseagoon, AdultSwim, Ryulong, Bhawks 2~enwiki, Dr.K., Jose77, Smommss, Dl2000, ShakingSpirit, DwightKingsbury, Norm mit,
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Eeekster, DrMalax, Mumia-w-18, Tyler, Gaius stern, NuclearWarfare, Cenarium, Peytonp92, Jotterbot, LarryMorseDCOhio, Matthew
Dillenburg, Mater99, Blain Toddi, Twig12, Yeoldbuddyboy, Antiquary, Rikitiki321, EraNavigator, Muro Bot, BOTarate, L.smitheld,
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imar and Anonymous: 1387
8.2 Images
File:20101229_Artaxerxes_II_tomb_Persepolis_Iran.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/20101229_
Artaxerxes_II_tomb_Persepolis_Iran.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Ggia
File:2persian_gate_wall.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/2persian_gate_wall.JPG License: Public
domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Innotata using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Jona Lendering at
English Wikipedia
File:ACHAEMENES_TREE.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/ACHAEMENES_TREE.png Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ekvcpa
File:Achaemenid_Empire-ArtaxerxesIII_conquest.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/
Achaemenid_Empire-ArtaxerxesIII_conquest.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. based on Image:Achaemenid
Empire-ArtaxerxesIII.png Original artist: User:Ardeshire babakan
File:Achaemenid_coin_daric_420BC_front.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Achaemenid_coin_
daric_420BC_front.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Deim
File:Adad-Nirari_stela.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Adad-Nirari_stela.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
8.2. IMAGES 263
File:Black_basalt_monument_of_king_Esarhaddon._It_narrates_Esarhaddon{}s_restoration_of_Babylon._Circa_670_BCE.
_From_Babylon,_Mesopotamia,_Iraq._The_British_Museum,_London.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/c0/Black_basalt_monument_of_king_Esarhaddon._It_narrates_Esarhaddon%27s_restoration_of_Babylon._Circa_670_
BCE._From_Babylon%2C_Mesopotamia%2C_Iraq._The_British_Museum%2C_London.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg)
File:Bluetank.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bluetank.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: LA2
File:British_Museum_Egypt_031.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/British_Museum_Egypt_031.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Einsamer Schtze
File:British_Museum_Room_10_lion_hunting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/British_Museum_
Room_10_lion_hunting.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: British Museum, Assyrian collections (Room 10, British Museum) Original
artist: Matt Neale from UK
File:Bust_of_augustus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Bust_of_augustus.jpg License: CC BY 2.0
Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rosemania/5371830337 Original artist: Rosemania
File:Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_(cropped).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/0/0e/Byzantine_Greek_Alexander_Manuscript_Cataphract_%28cropped%29.JPG License: Public domain Contributors:
derivative work: Tarwarmfare Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:CaesarAugustusPontiusMaximusCloseup.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/
CaesarAugustusPontiusMaximusCloseup.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.
Original artist: RyanFreisling at English Wikipedia
266 CHAPTER 8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES