HVDC

A Best Replacement for Complex AC Network

Presented by

K. Venkat
M. Vivek Email:

C/o Royal College of engineering munna141985@yahoo.co.in

Electrical and Electronics Dept.

Vivekanandanagar, Medak Town,
Medak Dist.

Biographical details:

We, K. Venkat and M. Vivek are the students of Royal college of Engineering pursuing Electrical and

Electronics Engineering, which is affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University (JNTU),

Hyderabad.
 Abstract:

Development of electrical power supplies began more than one hundred years ago. At the
beginning, there were only small DC networks within narrow local boundaries, which were able to
cover the direct needs of industrial plants by means of hydro energy. With an increasing demand on
energy and the construction of large generation units, typically built at remote locations from the load
centres, the technology changed from DC to AC. Power to be transmitted, voltage levels and
transmission distances increased.
The industrial growth of a nation requires increased consumption of energy, particularly
electrical energy. Remote generation and system interconnections lead to a search for efficient power
transmission at increasing power levels. The increase in voltage levels is not always feasible. The
problems of AC transmission, has led to the development of DC transmission. However, as generation
and utilisation of power remains at alternating current, the DC transmission requires conversion at two
ends, from AC to DC at the sending end and back to AC at the receiving end.
This conversion is done at converter stations rectifier station at the sending end and inverter
station at the receiving end. The converters are static using high power thyristor connected in series to
give the required voltage ratings. The physical process of conversion is such that the same station can
switch from rectifier to inverter by simple control action.
 High-voltage direct current

HVDC or High-Voltage, Direct Current electric power transmission systems contrast with the more
common alternating-current systems as a means for the bulk transmission of electrical power. The
modern form of HVDC transmission used technology developed extensively in the 1930s in Sweden at
ASEA. Early commercial installations included the USSR in 1951 between Moscow and Kashira, and a
10-20 MW system in Gotland, Sweden in 1954. [1]

The rise of AC transmission:

Early electric power distribution schemes used direct-current generators located near the customer's
loads. As electric power use became more widespread, the distances between loads and generating
plant increased. Since the flow of current through the distribution wires resulted in a voltage drop, it
became difficult to regulate the voltage at the extremities of distribution circuits. When transmitting a
given quantity of power, higher voltages reduce the resistive losses in the conductors in two ways:

Higher voltage leads to proportionally lower current, leading to I2R losses that are reduced (for
a given conductor size) by the square of the increase in working voltage, and
At higher voltages, the IR voltage loss that does occur (for a given current) represents a smaller
percentage of the working voltage of the line so for a given conductor size, the voltage
regulation on the line is improved in proportion to the increase in voltage.

An early method of high-voltage DC transmission was developed by the Swiss engineer Rene Thury.
This system used series-connected motor-generator sets to increase voltage. Each set was insulated
from ground and driven by insulated shafts from a prime mover. An early example of this system was
installed in 1889 in Italy by the Society Acquedotto de Ferrari-Gallieri.

This system transmitted 630 kW at 14,000 V dc over a distance of 120 km. Other Thury systems
operating at up to 100 kV dc operated up until the 1930s, but the rotating machinery required high
maintenance and had high energy loss. Various other electromechanical devices were tested during the
first half of the 20th century with little commercial success.
The grid controlled mercury arc valve became practical for power transmission during the period
1920-1940[9]. In 1941 a 60 MW, +/- 200 kV link was designed for the city of Berlin using mercury arc
valves (Elbe-Project), but owing to the collapse of the German government in 1945 the project was
never completed.

This system was to provide power over a 115 km buried cable, which during wartime would be less
conspicuous as a bombing target. The equipment was removed to the Soviet Union and was put into
service there.

Introduction of the fully-static mercury arc valve to commercial service in 1954 marked the beginning
of the modern era of HVDC transmission.

AC came to dominate as a means of interconnection between generation plants and machinery. The
principal advantage of AC is the use of transformers to change the voltage at which power is delivered.
A high voltage for transmission reduces energy wasted in heating the circuit conductors. Low voltage
is convenient for utilisation equipment such as lamps and motors. With the development of efficient AC
machines, such as the induction motor, AC transmission became the norm (see War of Currents).

No equivalent of the transformer exists for direct current, so the manipulation of DC voltages is
considerably more complex.

Advantages of HVDC over AC Transmission:

Despite alternating-current being the dominant mode for electric power transmission, in a number of
applications HVDC is often the preferred option.

Undersea cables. (eg. 250km Baltic Cable between Sweden and Germany ).
Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without intermediate 'taps', for
example, in remote areas.
Increasing the capacity of an existing power-grid in situations where additional wires are
difficult or expensive to install.
Allowing power transmission between unsynchronised AC distribution systems.
Reducing the profile of wiring and pylons for a given power transmission capacity.
Connection of certain remote generating plant to the distribution grid, for example Nelson
River Bipole.
Stabilising a predominantly AC power-grid.
Long undersea cables have a high capacitance. This causes AC power to be lost extremely quickly in
reactive and dielectric losses, even on cables of a modest length.

HVDC can carry more power per conductor, because for a given power rating the constant voltage in a
DC line is lower than the peak voltage in an AC line. This voltage determines the insulation thickness
and conductor spacing. This allows existing transmission line corridors to be used to carry more
power into an area of high power consumption, which can lower costs.

Possible health advantages of HVDC over AC Transmission

A high-voltage DC transmission line would not produce the same sort of extremely low
frequency (ELF) electromagnetic field as would an equivalent AC line. It is speculated by those who
believe that ELF radiation is harmful that such a reduction in EM fields would be beneficial in terms of
health. The benefits would extend only to those near the transmission lines, as the electric and
magnetic fields associated with high current AC transmission lines do not travel far beyond the actual
lines themselves. These fields are, however, also associated with electrical equipment and household
appliances. It should be noted that the current scientific consensus (http://www.greenfacts.org/power-
lines/index.htm) does not consider ELF sources and their associated fields to be particularly harmful.

AC networks interconnections

Using ac transmission lines, only synchronized AC networks can be interconnected: those which
oscillate at the same frequency and in phase. Many areas which wish to share power have
unsynchronized networks. The UK and continental Europe both operate at 50Hz but are not
synchronized. Japan has 50Hz and 60Hz networks. Continental North America, whilst operating at
60Hz throughout, is divided into regions which are unsynchronised, East, West, Texas and Quebec.
Brazil and Paraguay which share the massive Itaipu hydroelectric plant, operate on 60Hz and 50Hz
respectively. However, HVDC systems makes it possible to interconnect unsynchronized AC networks,
and also adds the possibility of controlling AC voltage and reactive power flow.

A generator connected to a long ac transmission line may become unstable and fall out of
synchronization with a distant ac power system. A HVDC transmission link may make it economically
feasible to use remote generation sites. Wind farms located off-shore may use HVDC systems to collect
power from multiple unsynchronized generators for transmission to the shore by an underwater cable.
In general, however, an HVDC power line will interconnect two AC regions of the power-distribution
grid. Machinery to convert between AC and DC power adds a considerable cost in power
transmission. The conversion from AC to DC is known as rectification, and from DC to AC as
inversion. Above a certain break-even distance (about 50 km for submarine cables, and perhaps 600-
800 km for overhead cables [3]), the lower cost of the HVDC cable outweighs the cost of the
electronics.

The conversion electronics also present an opportunity to effectively manage the power grid by means
of controlling the magnitude and direction of power flow. An additional advantage of the existence of
HVDC links, therefore, is potential increased stability in the transmission grid.

Rectifying and Inverting:

Rectifying and Inverting Components

Early static systems used mercury-arc rectifiers, which were unreliable. The thyristor valve was first
used in HVDC systems in the 1960s. The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device similar to the
diode, but with an extra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a particular instant
during the AC cycle. The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is now also used.

Because the voltages in HVDC systems, around 500 kV in some cases, exceed the breakdown voltages
of the semiconductor devices, HVDC converters are built using large numbers of semiconductors in
series.

The low-voltage control circuits used to switch the thyristors on and off need to be isolated from the
high voltages present on the transmission lines. This is usually done optically. In a hybrid control
system, the low-voltage control electronics sends light pulses along optical fibres to the high-side
control electronics. Another system, called direct light triggering, dispenses with the high-side
electronics, instead using light pulses from the control electronics to switch light-triggered thyristors
(LTTs).

A complete switching element is commonly referred to as a 'valve', irrespective of its construction.

Rectifying and Inverting Systems

A simple DC to AC converter using 2 solenoids, a capacitor and a triode

Rectification and inversion use essentially the same machinery. Many substations are set up in such a
way that they can act as both rectifiers and inverters. At the AC end a set of transformers, often three
physically separate single-phase transformers, isolate the station from the AC supply, to provide a
local earth, and to ensure the correct eventual DC voltage. The output of these transformers is then
connected to a bridge rectifier formed by a number of valves. The basic configuration uses six valves,
connecting each of the three phases to each of the DC rails. However, with a phase change only every
sixty degrees, considerable harmonics remain on the DC rails.

An enhancement of this configuration uses twelve valves (often known as a twelve-pulse system). The
AC is split into two separate three phase supplies before transformation. One of the sets of supplies is
then configured to have a star (wye) secondary, the other a delta secondary, establishing a thirty
degree phase difference between each of the sets of three phases. With twelve valves connecting each of
the two sets of three phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase change every thirty degrees, and
harmonics are considerably reduced.

In addition to the conversion transformers and valve-sets, various passive resistive and reactive
components help filter harmonics out of the DC rails.

Configurations:

(a) Monopole and Earth Return

In a common configuration,called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is connected

to earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above, or below, ground, is connected
to a transmission line.

The earthed terminal may or may not be connected to the corresponding connection at the
inverting station by means of a second transmission line conductor. This is a common source of
terminological confusion. A monopole transmission line is sometimes, confusingly, used to refer
to a transmission line without an accompanying earth conductor.
 Without an accompanying earth, the potential is equalised by current flowing in the earth
between the earth electrodes at the two stations. The issues surrounding earth-return current
include

Areas which contain extended metal objects, such as pipelines, may have a considerable current
induced, resulting in corrosion if the object is not effectively cathode protected, and sparking and shock
problems if the earthing is incomplete.

If either of the earth electrodes is near the sea, the current flowing through the body of water,
where concentrated, can cause toxic chlorine emission and alkalinisation of the water body
near the electrode.
The presence of a considerable earth current can generate a magnetic field, which can affect
magnetic navigational compasses.

These effects can be compensated for by laying a second conductor alongside the monopole, for
carrying the earth current. In 2000s the issues of a metallic return remained a controversial political
as well as technical issue, through the conflicting economic and environmental interests.

(b) Bipolar

In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to
ground, in opposite polarity. Bipolar transmission is a more expensive option than monopolar
transmission owing to the increased cost of line. Although monopolar transmission with an earth
return uses two conductors, the earth return is at a low potential with respect to its surroundings,
minimising additional insulation costs. Bipolar transmission, by contrast, requires two high-
potential lines. However, there are a number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can make
it the attractive option.

Under normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar

transmission with a metallic earth-return; minimising environmental impact.
When a fault develops in a line, if considerable electrodes have been installed at earth
potential at each end of the line, current can continue flow under these fault conditions
using the earth as a return path, operating in monopolar mode.
 Since for a given power rating bipolar lines carry only half the current of monopolar lines,
the cost of the second conductor is reduced compared to a monopolar line of the same
rating.

A bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor.

(c) Corona Discharge

Corona discharge is the creation of ions in a fluid (such as air) by the presence of a strong
electromagnetic field. Electrons are torn from unionised air, and either the positive ions or else
the electrons are attracted to the conductor, whilst the charged particles drift. This effect can
cause considerable power loss, create audible and radio-frequency interference, generate toxic
compounds such as oxides of nitrogen and ozone, and lead to arcing.

Both AC and DC transmission lines can generate coronas, in the former case in the form of
oscillating particles, in the latter a constant wind. Due to the space charge formed around the
conductors, an HVDC system may have about half the loss per unit length of a high voltage AC
system carrying the same amount of power. With monopolar transmission the choice of polarity
of the energised conductor leads to a degree of control over the corona discharge. In particular,
the polarity of the ions emitted can be controlled, which may have an environmental impact on
particulate condensation (particles of different polarities have a different mean-free path).
Negative coronas generate considerably more ozone than positive coronas, and generate it
further downwind of the power line, creating the potential for health effects. The use of a
positive voltage will reduce the ozone impacts of monopole HVDC power lines.

Applications:

Overview

The controllability of current-flow through HVDC rectifiers and inverters, their application in
connecting unsynchronized networks, and their applications in efficient submarine cables mean that
HVDC cables are often used at national boundaries for the exchange of power. Offshore windfarms
also require undersea cabling, and their turbines are unsynchronized. In very long-distance
connections between just two points, for example around the remote communities of Siberia, Canada,
and the Scandinavian North, the decreased line-costs of HVDC also makes it the usual choice. Other
applications have been noted throughout this article.

The choice of monopolar or bipolar link, and the presence or otherwise of a metallic return, is largely
an economic and environmental concern.

System Configurations

A HVDC link in which the two AC-to-DC converters are housed in the same building, the HVDC
transmission existing only within the building itself, is called a back-to-back HVDC link. This is the
common configuration for interconnecting two unsynchronised grids.

The most common configuration of an HVDC link is a station-to-station link, where two
inverter/rectifier stations are connected by means of a dedicated HVDC link. This is also a
configuration commonly used in connecting unsynchronised grids, in long-haul power transmission,
and in undersea cables.

Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points, are possible but rare. The configuration
of multiple terminals can be series, parallel, or hybrid (a mixture of series and parallel). Parallel
configuration tends to be used for large capacity stations, and series for lower capacity stations. and
the other at ground potential. An example is the 2000 MW Hydro Qubec system opened in 1992,
which is currently the largest multi-terminal HVDC system in the world. [3]

Monopolar systems carry typically 1500 MW. [2]

A bipolar link uses two wires, one at a high positive voltage and the other at a high negative voltage.
This system has two advantages over a monopolar link. First, it can carry twice as much power as a
monopolar link, typically 3000 MW (the current is the same, but the potential difference between the
wires is doubled). [2] Second, it can continue to operate despite a fault in one of the wires or in one
module of the converter equipment, by using the earth as a backup return path.

Realized HVDC Systems

Baltic-Cable
Kontek
 GKK Etzenricht
Konti-Skan
Elbe-Project (HVDC-project between Dessau and Berlin, incompleted)
HVDC Gotland
HVDC Wolgograd-Donbass
HVDC Cross-Channel (HVDC-link England-France)
HVDC Inter-Island (HVDC link between the Islands of New Zealand)
Sakuma
HVDC Italia-Corsica-Sardinia (SACOI)
HVDC Vancouver-Island
Pacific-Intertie
Nelson River Bipole
HVDC Kingsnorth
Cross-Skagerak
Cabora-Bassa link from Mozambique to South Africa
Inga-Shaba
HG-Kurzkupplung Drnrohr
GK Wien-Southeast
Cross Sound Cable, New Haven-Long Island USA
Hydro Quebec/James Bay to Sandy Pond, Ayer, Massachusetts

See also

Static inverter plant

Valve hall

Referencs

[1] Narain G. Hingorani in IEEE Spectrum

(http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/publicaccess/9604teaser/9604pow1.html) magazine, 1996.
[2] Siemens AG "HVDC Basics (http://www.siemens.com/page/1,3771,261226-1-12_2_261226-
0,00.html)" page.
[3] ABB HVDC (http://www.abb.com/hvdc) website
[4] Basslink (http://www.rpdc.tas.gov.au/projects_state_signif/Basslink) project
[5] Donald Beaty et al, "Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Ed.", McGraw Hill,
1978
[6] http://www.myinsulators.com/acw/bookref/histsyscable/
[7] Shaping the Tools of Competitive Power http://www.tema.liu.se/tema-t/sirp/PDF/322_5.pdf
[8] http://www.rmst.co.il/HVDC_Proven_Technology.pdf