Contents
1 RF Optimization............................................................................................................................................1
2 UMTS Antenna...........................................................................................................................................15
i
2.2.2 Directional Antenna................................................................................................................18
2.3.2 Relationship between CDMA Antenna Downtilt and Cell Coverage Radius........................22
2.5 Summary............................................................................................................................................26
3.3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................29
ii
1 RF Optimization
Work details:
1
Before network optimization is started, all sites should have been checked and should
be assuredly able to work normally. In an actual project, however, it is usual that some
base stations fail to work normally due to lax or absent single site check, affecting
startup of subsequent optimization work. To ensure orderly performance of network
optimization, spot check is necessary for single sites. Single site spot check needs to
implement the following tasks:
1) Select sites for spot check according to project size and network situation. Usually
about 20% of the sites should be included. Moreover, the selected sites must involve all
site types, including sites in each area.
2) Put forth items that need to be checked according to the contents indicated in the
Site Commissioning Report. Make a spot check plan.
3) Accompany customer service engineers to check the selected sites as planned, and
put forth information that needs correction for any site with problems.
4) When all the selected sites are spot-checked, and over 20% of them are found with
problems, it is necessary to recheck other sites not involved in this spot check. If no
problem is found, skip the recheck.
5) Complete a Single Site Spot Check Report based on the single site check results
for the purpose of troubleshooting.
1) Ascend the rooftop to check the site longitude and latitude, antenna mount height,
antenna downtilt, and directional angle for consistence with the planned values. For the
towers that are not mountable, complete the check on the ground.
2) Turn on the power amplifier of one sector, and turn off the others. If the power
amplifier gives no alarm, measure the pilot signal strength beneath this sector.
Typically the Ec value is about 55dBm.
3) This step is performed simultaneously with Step 2 to check whether the cell
scrambling code is consistent with the planned value.
1) Check whether the neighbor list configuration is consistent with the planned
value.
2) In the case of idling, the RTWP value (namely the uplink RSSI) of each cell on
2
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
4) Set parameters in the search window. There are settings in both LMT and OMC-
R, and the setting in LMT is valid.
Open all cells, and perform service tests for CS and PS domains respectively. Conduct
softer handoff test, and conduct soft handoff test again for the areas involved in soft
handoff.
Input: None
Work details:
The RF optimization phase needs no detailed special service test, and what should be
done is to have knowledge of the network coverage by the following means.
This coverage test uses Scanner plus test mobile phone to collect data simultaneously.
The test data collected by the mobile phone is helpful to judge the uplink coverage, and
know the change of signal in each section of the road if call hold is performed
simultaneously.
Different rates of services require different signal conditions. The table below lists the
pilot signal strength and quality reference values of border coverage corresponding to
common services.
3
UMTS RF Optimization
PS64K -100dBm/-11dB
PS128K -95dBm/-10dB
PS384K -85dBm/-8dB
The data in this table is provided only for general reference, and the object of RF
optimization performed after site commissioning is usually an idle network, where the
service border will shrink with increasing number of users.
Work details:
1) Cell cluster coverage test. Know the distribution of each cell in the context of
mutual signal inhibition in a cell cluster, and, in combination with site spacing and
network planning results, identify the cells that do not meet coverage requirement.
2) Whole network coverage test. Know the distribution of signal throughout the
whole network, the same as 1.
According to the result of single site coverage test, check whether the coverage signal
4
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
of each actual test area is consistent with that of the planned coverage cells. Analyze
whether there is incorrect feeder connection.
Cause:
Typically a directional site has three cells, each of which uses two feeders (one for both
receiving and transmitting and the other for only receiving) as its antenna. On the base
station side, the feeders are further connected to NODE B cabinet through a jumper.
This series of connections is prone to error during construction of the engineering
team. The two feeders connected to one antenna are likely to be connected to any one
or two cells, so the symptom of incorrect feeder connection is that a signal transmitted
by one antenna of three cells could come from any one or two of the three cells in this
site.
Analysis:
Solution:
According to the result of the whole network coverage test, check whether the coverage
signal of each actual test area contains any overshooting signal or any signal with
coverage obviously smaller than expected. For any problem area, ascend the site to
check whether the antenna directional angle, downtilt, and mount height are consistent
with the design. A further check can be conducted on whether there is any obstruction
in the main lobe direction, and whether the pole is vertical.
Cause:
The main cause of inconsistence of actual antenna directional angle and downtilt with
the design is that the engineering team fails to follow completely the workflow,
drawings, and planned data for construction. In addition, the precision of some devices
in use, such as a compass, may also cause some error. Generally, a five-degree
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UMTS RF Optimization
directional angle error is acceptable, while a downtilt error of over two degrees may
have an obvious effect on the coverage.
During optimization, sometimes obvious obstructions may be found in the main lobe
direction. Such a result may cause a certain coverage hole, but this problem can be
improved by proper adjustment of the antenna directional angle. The actual antenna
downtilt may sometimes deviate from the design. The possible cause is that the antenna
pole is not vertical to the ground or the measurement is not accurate.
Analysis:
An easy way to measure the downtilt is using the antenna-attached scale label provided
by the antenna manufacturer. This method needs first to paste a correct scale label to
the antenna and then make fine adjustment against the scale. A more accurate method
to measure the downtilt is to use a gradienter directly. The prerequisite of these two
methods is that the antenna pole or support is installed vertical to the ground, ensuring
that the measured antenna downtilt is actually its downtilt relative to the ground.
Therefore, for those antennas that are mounted on a tower or whose poles are mounted
on walls, it is a must to measure whether their poles are vertical to the ground.
Solution:
The problems above can be found by measurement with special tools. Upon finding
such a problem, notify the engineering team to correct it. If there is an obstruction or a
pole cannot be vertical to the ground, improvement is possible by adjusting the
directional angle and downtilt. Decrease of downtilt is liable to cause overshooting and
increase interference, while increase of downtilt tends to cause a coverage hole.
Moreover, excessive downtilt may also cause beam distortion, resulting in new
interference. Therefore, proper adjustment is very important to guarantee the whole
network performance.
In a new site during optimization phase after commissioning, the network load is light,
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
so there are large overlapped areas between sectors and the signal is complex. This may
result in pilot pollution.
High site overshooting. If the space link loss caused when an antenna pilot signal from
a remote high site reaches a test point is the same as the link loss caused when a pilot
signal from a near low site reaches the same test point, it is probable that several pilot
pollution areas with close Ec/Io values are caused at this test point. Furthermore,
presence of a high site may usually cause a large antenna downtilt, resulting in antenna
beam distortion. And the coverage waveform may squeeze against the side lobe,
resulting in pilot pollution in the side lobe coverage area.
R1
R2
Base station coverage area
Figure 1.4-2 Schematic diagram of pilot pollution due to high site overshooting
2) Ring layout of base stations. As the base stations are arranged into a ring, the ring
center can receive a few pilot signals from around, and the pilot Ec/Io values are close.
Figure 1.4-3 Schematic diagram of pilot pollution due to ring layout of base stations
7
UMTS RF Optimization
3) Signal distortion caused by street effect and strong reflectors. Due to the
propagation characteristics near the UMTS downlink 2000M frequency, the downlink
signal has strong reflection, and propagation of remote pilot signal along tubular streets
is likely to cause interference to coverage areas of other cells. Moreover, strong
reflection of signal by some buildings and walls may also cause pollution to nearby
pilot coverage.
3) Handoff failure. When mobile stations move in this area, as there are many strong
pilot signals and mutual change occurs rapidly, frequent handoff occurs to mobile
stations as a result. In such a state of soft handoff, the mobile stations need to
communicate with multiple base stations simultaneously. Although diversity gain can
improve the call quality of this mobile station, according to ZTE research, handoff gain
is negative at the instant of handoff, that is, not only there is no gain, but the possibility
of handoff failure is increased.
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
4) Capacity loss: frequent handoff may decrease system capacity, especially the
downlink capacity being limited, and one UE communicates with multiple cells,
increasing downlink load on the base station, but decreasing system capacity.
Solution: The key of pilot pollution optimization is to form a main pilot. In the RF
optimization phase, the adjustment means available include:
6) Add sources
Cause:
Handoff problems generally lie in length of the handoff area and strength change of
each signal in the handoff area. If the handoff area is too small, there may be no
sufficient time for completing handoff process in the case of driving too fast, and
handoff may fail as a result. A too large handoff area is likely to occupy excessive
system resources. Moreover, too frequent change (not a signal gradually weakening
and another gradually strengthening) of strength of each signal in the handoff area may
cause frequent handoff and ping-pong effect. This may occupy excessive system
resources, and increase probability of call drop.
Analysis:
For handoff problems, the key is to control the handoff area position and length, and
ensure the strength of signals involved in the handoff in the handoff area can change
smoothly. The handoff area position and length should be taken into preliminary
consideration in planning. During optimization, make adjustment based on actual
environment, and determine the handoff area length in consideration of the average
time needed for one time of handoff and the usual driving speed in this area. Try to
keep the handoff area away from a corner, as the obstruction of a corner itself may
cause extra propagation loss and quick signal attenuation, thus reducing the handoff
area length. If impossible to keep away, try to ensure the signal strength around the
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UMTS RF Optimization
corner has sufficient margin to offset the loss at the corner. Also try to keep the handoff
area away from any crossroad, high-traffic area, and VIP service area.
For the relationship between antenna downtilt and coverage distance, please refer to
section 2.3.
Solution:
Change the handoff area position and signal distribution by adjusting the antenna
directional angle and downtilt. If the handoff area is too small, reduce the downtilt or
adjust the antenna direction properly. If the signals in the handoff area change too
frequently, consider adjusting the downtilt and directional angle to ensure signal
strength in individual cells changes smoothly.
During RF optimization, it also should be noted to make sure the base station
transmitting power works normally from the base station RF end to the antenna side.
Meanwhile, the power output from each power amplifier port should be kept within a
stable range.
Work details:
1) Identify any area of poor coverage according to the analysis result of test data;
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
Currently, the antenna model used most in each network is an Andrew directional
antenna Andrew umwd_06516_2d.
Antenna parameter characteristics determine the fact that the maximum directional gain
17dbi can only be obtained in the main lobe direction of a directional antenna, and the
gain may decrease in the horizontal and vertical directions other than the main lobe, so
adjusting the antenna directional angle and downtilt will affect the quality of downlink
signals received in various areas. Similarly, adjusting the antenna position and mount
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UMTS RF Optimization
When the downlink coverage quality of some sites changes, the Ec/Io of corresponding
received signals will change as well. As network handoff is judged according to the
size of Ec/Io of received signals, the network handoff area will also change even if the
handoff algorithm is not changed practically.
Pilot pollution typically means there are many signals with close Ec/Io values or there
are strong signals alien to the planning design, so changing downlink coverage quality
by adjusting engineering parameters of antenna can also eliminate some pilot pollution
areas.
Feeder connection adjustment can solve the problem of abnormal receiving and
transmitting of base station signals resulting from inverse feeder connection, and
normal standing wave ratio is another prerequisite for a base station to work normally.
Adding power amplifiers can increase effective coverage distance of a base station.
Generally, the reason for base station uplink coverage limitation is that the uplink
transmitting power of a UMTS mobile phone is only 21dBm. A tower amplifier can
offset the loss of uplink signals along the feeder.
RF optimization has an obvious effect on the following KPIs. As each cell has different
engineering parameters and environments, their signal coverage states are also
different. Therefore, the strongest cells and handoff areas in different places of a
network have different signal coverage quality, so RF optimization influences not only
coverage, but also several indexes directly related to strength (quality) of received
signals.
1) Coverage ratio
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
Work details:
1) Contact the engineering team to determine the number of antennas that need
adjustment and the operation date;
Work details:
1) Test engineers collect post-optimization whole network drive test data. Note that
the test conditions must be the same as before optimization;
2) Optimization engineers analyze the test data and evaluate optimization result;
3) If the whole network coverage fails to meet the requirement, return to the steps in
section 1.4 to test and analyze specially the areas still with problems, and provide an
analysis report and adjustment scheme;
13
2 UMTS Antenna
Antenna input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current at the antenna
feeding end. The optimal result of antenna-feeder connection is that the antenna input
impedance is pure resistance and equal to characteristic impedance of the feeder. In this
case, there is neither power reflection on the feeder terminal nor standing wave on the
feeder, and the antenna input impedance changes mildly with frequency. Antenna
matching is to eliminate the reactive component from the antenna input impedance,
making the reactive component as close to the characteristics impedance of the feeder
as possible. Matching quality is usually measured with four parameters: reflection
coefficient, traveling wave coefficient, standing wave ratio, and echo loss. Between
these four parameters there are fixed value relationships, so use which one is a mere
issue of habit. In routine maintenance, the frequently used ones are standing wave ratio
and echo loss. Typically, the input impedance of mobile communication antenna is
50.
Standing wave ratio is reciprocal of traveling wave coefficient, and ranges from 1 to
infinity. When standing wave ratio is 1, it means perfect match; when it is infinity, it
means total reflection, that is, complete mismatch. In a mobile communications system,
standing wave ratio is usually required to be smaller than 1.5, but in practice, VSWR
(Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) should be smaller than 1.2.Overlarge standing wave
ratio may decrease base station coverage and increase intrasystem interference, thus
affecting base station service performance.
3. Echo loss
Echo loss is reciprocal of the absolute value of reflection coefficient and is represented
with a decibel value. Echo loss ranges from 0dB to infinity. The smaller the echo loss,
the worse the match. The larger the echo loss, the better the match. 0 means total
15
reflection, while infinity means perfect match. In a mobile communications system,
echo loss is usually required to be larger than 14dB.
4. Antenna polarization
Antenna polarization refers to the electric intensity direction resulting from antenna
radiation. When the electric intensity direction is vertical to the ground, this electric
wave is called vertically polarized wave; when the electric intensity direction is parallel
to the ground, this electric wave is called horizontally polarized wave. Due to electric
wave characteristics, the signal propagated in the horizontal polarization mode may
produce polarized current on the earth surface when it travels close to the ground. This
polarized current is affected by earth impedance to generate thermal energy, resulting
in quick attenuation of electric signal. By contrast, the vertical polarization mode rarely
produces polarized current, thus avoiding immense attenuation of energy and ensuring
effective propagation of signals.
5. Antenna gain
Antenna gain is used to measure ability of an antenna to receive and transmit signals in
a specific direction. It is one of the most important parameters for selecting a base
station antenna.
Generally speaking, gain is improved mainly by reducing the lobe width of radiation
on the vertical plane, but maintaining omni radiation on the horizontal plane. Antenna
gain is extremely important for operation of a mobile communications system, because
it determines signal level of the cell edge. Increasing gain can enlarge the coverage
range of a network in a specific direction, or increase gain margin in a specific range.
16
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
Any cellular system is a two-way process, and increasing antenna gain can decrease the
gain budget margin of a two-way system. In addition, the parameters that represent
antenna gain are dBd and dBi. dBi means the gain relative to an isotropic antenna, with
uniform radiation in all directions; dBd means the gain relative to a symmetric array
antenna. The relationship between these two parameters is: dBi = dBd + 2.15. Under
the same condition, the higher the gain, the further the electric wave can travel.
Typically, the antenna gain for a GSM directional base station is 18dBi, and 11dBi for
an omni base station.
Vertical lobe width of an antenna is usually related to the coverage radius in the
direction corresponding to this antenna. Therefore, cell coverage quality can be
improved by adjusting the antenna verticality (pitch angle) within a certain range. This
is also a method frequently used in network optimization. This method involves two
aspects: horizontal lobe width and vertical lobe width. The half-power angle on the
horizontal plane (H-Plane Half Power beamwidth): (45, 65, 90, etc.) defines the
beamwidth of the horizontal plane of an antenna. The larger the angle, the better the
coverage at the sector edge. However, increasing antenna downtilt is more likely to
cause beam distortion and overshooting. The smaller the angle, the worse the coverage
at the sector edge. Increasing antenna tilt can improve coverage at the sector edge in
terms of mobility, and relatively, is less likely to cause overshooting across other
cells.In an urban center, a base station should adopt an antenna with a small H-Plane
Half Power beamwidth as the site spacing is small and the antenna tilt is large. For a
suburb, an antenna with a large H-Plane Half Power beamwidth should be adopted. The
half-power angle on the vertical plane (V-Plane Half Power beamwidth): (48, 33,
15, and 8) defines the beamwidth of the vertical plane of an antenna. The smaller the
half-power angle on the vertical plane, the quicker the signals attenuate when deviated
from the main bean direction, the easier to control the coverage range precisely by
adjusting antenna tilt.
7. Front-to-back ratio
17
UMTS RF Optimization
This parameter indicates how well the antenna can suppress the back lobe. If an
antenna with a low front-to-back ratio is selected, its back lobe is likely to cause
overshooting, resulting in disorderly handoff relationships and call drop. This ratio
usually ranges from 25dB to 30dB. An antenna with a front-to-back ratio of 30dB
should be preferred.
An omni antenna can produce uniform radiation around 360 degrees in the horizontal
pattern, namely what is referred to as non-directivity, and also can produce a beam with
a certain width in the vertical pattern. Generally, the smaller the lobe width, the larger
the gain. In a mobile communications system, an omni antenna is typically applied to a
large-area site in a suburban county, for its coverage range is large.
A directional antenna can produce radiation within a certain angle in the horizontal
pattern, namely what is referred to as directivity, and also can produce a beam with a
certain width in the vertical pattern. Like an omni antenna, the smaller the lobe width,
the larger the gain. In a mobile communications system, a directional antenna is
typically applied to a small-area site in an urban, for its coverage range is small, but
with high user density.
According to networking requirement, build different types of base stations, for which
different types of antennas can be selected as needed. The basis of selection is the
technical parameters described above. For example, an omni station uses an omni
antenna with practically the same gain in all horizontal directions, while a directional
station uses a directional antenna whose horizontal gain changes obviously. Typically,
an antenna with horizontal beamwidth (B) of 65 is selected in an urban, while an
antenna with horizontal beamwidth (B) of 65, 90 or 120 can be selected in a suburb
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
The following facts have been proved in practice: the optimal downtilt of a mechanical
antenna ranges from 1 to 5; when its downtilt changes between 5 and 10, the
antenna pattern is distorted a bit but changes not much; when its downtilt changes
between 10 and 15, the antenna pattern changes much; when it tilts downwards by
15 or more, the antenna pattern changes a lot, from the pre-tilt pear shape to the post-
tilt spindle shape, and although the coverage distance of the main lobe direction is
shortened obviously, the antenna pattern does not completely fall into the sectors of this
base station, and the neighbor base station sectors can also receive the signals of this
base station, thus resulting in severe intrasystem interference.
The electrical downtilt principle is to tilt vertical antenna pattern by changing the phase
of antenna elements in the same array, changing the maximums of vertical component
and horizontal component, and changing the field strength of synthetic components. As
19
UMTS RF Optimization
Moreover, an electrical antenna allows the system, without closedown, to adjust the
downtilt in the vertical pattern and monitor adjustment result in a real-time manner.
The tilt can be adjusted by a finer step (0.1), so fine adjustment is possible for the
network. The three-order intermodulation index of an electrical antenna is -150dBc,
with a difference of 30dBc from that of a mechanical antenna, and this is helpful to
eliminate adjacent channel interference and spurious interference.
20
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
areas.
The electrical downtilt principle is to tilt vertical antenna pattern by changing the phase
of antenna elements in the same array, changing the maximums of vertical component
and horizontal component, and changing the field strength of synthetic components. As
the field strength in all directions of an antenna increases or decreases simultaneously,
this can ensure the antenna pattern varies not much after the tilt is changed, and the
coverage distance of the main lobe direction is shortened. At the same time, the
coverage area of the whole antenna pattern is reduced in the sectors of the service cell,
but without causing interference.
Although electrical downtilt is relatively expensive, its downtilt angle has a wider
range (larger than 10), its antenna pattern has no obvious distortion, and the rear lobe
is also tilted simultaneously, without causing interference to near-end high-rise users.
2.3.2 Relationship between CDMA Antenna Downtilt and Cell Coverage Radius
An overlarge mechanical downtilt angle may result in severe distortion of the antenna
pattern, thus bringing about many uncertain factors to network coverage and
interference, so antenna downtilt angle is recommended not larger than 25 degrees, and
mechanical downtilt angle should not exceed 15 degrees.
As shown by the vertical antenna pattern curve, when the main lobe maximum drops to
3dB, namely approaching to the part of antenna pattern where gain attenuation between
rays changes most, the co-channel interference to the affected cells is minimized.
For simple and effective implementation of the this part where gain attenuation
changes most, it is of obvious significance in physics and geometry to use half-power
angle rays of the main lobe to analyze the change areas of antenna downtilt angles.
This handling process matches the current design requirement, and makes analysis and
calculation operable, for half-power lobe width is one of the required electrical
performance indexes.
2.3.2.1 Relationship between Antenna Downtilt and Cell Coverage Radius in a High Traffic
Area
Figure 2.3-5 Schematic diagram of antenna downtilt in a dense urban and urban
A high traffic area here refers to an urban, especially a dense urban, where base stations
22
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
are dense and likely to interfere with each other. To enable most energy to radiate
within the coverage area and reduce interference to neighbor cells, it is necessary to
align the half power points on the main lobe with the coverage area edge when setting
an initial downtilt angle, as shown in Figure 2.3 -5. The calculation formula of a
downtilt angle is as follows:
H
arctg( ) e _ (1)
L 2
In this formula,
is an initial mechanical downtilt angle;
H is effective height of this site, namely the difference between antenna mount
height and average height of ambient coverage areas;
L is the distance from the antenna of this site to the edge that needs to be covered in
this sector;
is vertical lobe width;
2.3.2.2 Relationship between Antenna Downtilt and Cell Coverage Radius in a Low Traffic
Area
For a low traffic area, like a suburb, rural, road, and sea, to extend coverage as far as
23
UMTS RF Optimization
possible, it is workable to reduce the initial downtilt angle and align the maximum gain
point of the main lobe with the coverage area edge, as shown in Figure 2.3 -6. The
calculation formula of a downtilt angle is as follows:
H
arctg( ) e _
L (2)
In a radio communications system, the transmitting end is the antenna side of a base
station. A base station in a city usually uses a three-sector directional antenna. The gain
of a directional antenna determines it can obtain more power in the main lobe direction
than an omni antenna. Horizontal beamwidth and vertical beamwidth respectively
define the horizontal and vertical angles that are 3dB weaker than the main lobe.
Name Value
Central frequency 2110.0 MHZ
Antenna gain 17.0dBi
Electrical downtilt 2 degrees
Front-to-back ratio 30dB
Horizontal 3dB width 61.5 degrees
Vertical 3dB width 6 degrees
Polarization Vertical polarization
24
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
The gain in the main lobe direction is 17dBi, and from these two antenna patterns we
can find out the difference between antenna transmitting gain in each horizontal and
vertical direction and the main lobe direction. For example, when the difference
between a direction and the antenna transmitting direction is 90 degrees, from the
horizontal pattern we can find out the value corresponding to 90 degrees is 22, so the
antenna transmitting gain in this direction is 17 - 22 = -5dBi.
2.5 Summary
When adjusting antenna directional angle, we should consider the horizontal half-
power angle of this antenna. An undersized enclosed angle between two sector
directions and a large overlapped coverage area are likely to cause frequent
handoff and can hardly ensure proper coverage around base stations. An overlarge
enclosed angle is likely to degrade signal quality of the handoff area. Normally, a
recommended enclosed angle between directional angles ranges from 90 degrees
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UMTS RF Optimization
to 140 degrees.
When adjusting antenna downtilt angle, we should consider the vertical half-
power angle of this antenna. Regarding adjustment of mechanical downtilt angle,
1-5 degrees adjustment will not cause much beam distortion and is a common
range; 6-9 degrees adjustment is recommended for high sites or dense sites; 10-12
degrees adjustment is usually applied to high sites in an urban.
The antenna mount height is optimal when the antenna is 5-10 meters higher than
the average height of the buildings around the base station. Besides, the antenna
mount height in neighboring base stations should not differ much. Any base
station that does not satisfy these two points is liable to have coverage problems,
and needs special attention.
26
3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theo
ry
When electromagnetic wave is traveling in space, the occurring power loss is mainly
the path loss resulting from space spread of electromagnetic wave, and the reflection
(transmittance), diffraction, scattering losses resulting from obstruction on the
transmission route. The factors that may influence these losses include distance
between a transmitter and a receiver, height of these two devices, material, height and
relative positions of obstructions, and electromagnetic wave frequency. These factors
describe field strength change in a long distance between a transmitter and a receiver,
which is also called a large-sized propagation model. On the other hand, the
propagation model that describes quick fluctuation of reception field strength in a short
distance or short time is called a small-sized attenuation model. Multipath transmission
is a major factor that may influence a small-sized attenuation model. As this chapter
describes only space transmission characteristics, and will not consider multipath
transmission. The following will provide a detailed analysis of various losses of a
large-sized propagation model under different conditions.
= c/f
27
distance and frequency. However, this free space model has a small effective range.
When line of sight electromagnetic wave exists between a transmitter and a receiver,
this model is similar to an actual transmission model.
Obviously in a radio communications system, a base station will cover a complex area
populated with a large number of users. There is no line-of-sight electromagnetic wave
between most UE and NODE B. Line of sight propagation is subject to obstruction by
various buildings, trees, hills, and vehicles. Then a lot of non-line-of-sight
electromagnetic waves are generated from reflection, refraction, and diffraction by
these obstructions. This is how well-known multipath transmission comes.
Reflection
Diffraction
Transmittance
During multipath transmission, reception power attenuation is much faster than that
during free space propagation with increase of the distance between a transmitter and a
receiver. Generally speaking, in a dense urban or a room, reception power is in inverse
proportion no longer to square of the distance, but approximately to the fourth power of
the distance. In a suburb, it is in inverse proportion to the third power of the distance.
28
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
Pr = PtGtGrht2hr2/d4
This model provides a simple indication that space path loss is in inverse proportion to
the fourth power of this path in a city, and when the distance is large:
d > 20 hthr/, and reception power is irrelevant with frequency. It is noteworthy that in
a UMTS system, wavelength is about 15cm, coverage distance does not exceed 1.5km,
and antenna height is 30m+ and 1m+ respectively, so this condition is not completely
met.
3.3.1 Introduction
Diffraction occurs when a radio path between a receiver and a transmitter is obstructed
by established edge, such as hilltop and building top.
Scattering occurs when the wave transmission media contain objects that are smaller
than the wavelength and there are a great number of obstructions in a unit volume, such
as leaves and street nameplates.
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UMTS RF Optimization
The reflection and transmittance coefficient depends on the entrance angle and
polarization of the incident wave.
The smaller the electric permittivity, the larger the transmittance power, and the smaller
the reflection power. The larger the electric permittivity, the smaller the transmittance
power, and the larger the reflection power. When the electric permittivity is 3 (in
wetland), only half of energy is transmitted, and the other half is reflected. That is to
say, the smaller the electric permittivity, the closer to line of sight propagation the
electromagnetic wave is. At that time, the multipath influence is small.
Indoors transmittance loss during indoors coverage in a city depends on, to a large
extent, average height, density, material, structure, and wall thickness of buildings, and
base station signal path. As is known, due to underdeveloped economy and poor social
security in China, the buildings in small and medium sized cities, especially their lower
floors, are all equipped with doors and windows with metal burglar-resisting webs,
which make penetration loss reach 20~30dB. And the front stores along streets are
commonly equipped with aluminum alloy doors without a window, so the penetration
30
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
Building transmittance loss means the attenuation of electrical wave when passing
through external structures of a building. It is the difference between the field strength
without and within this building.
Building transmittance loss is largely related to building structure, door and window
types and sizes, and floor number. Generally, there is the largest loss on lower floors of
a building. The loss may decrease by about 1.9dB when acceding to a higher floor.
The following is a group of data specific to the band of 900MHz, with foreign test
results incorporated.
As the environment of cities in China is greatly different from that in foreign countries,
the same type of loss is 8-10dB higher in China than in foreign countries.
Regarding the band of 1800MHz, its wavelength is shorter than that of 900MHz and
stronger in penetration, but with higher transmittance loss. Therefore, a building
adopting 1800MHz actually has higher transmittance loss than 900MHz.The GSM
specification 3.30 mentions that buildings in a city generally have the transmittance
loss of 15dB, and 10dB in the rural. The transmittance loss on 1800MHz is typically 5-
10dB higher than that in the same type of areas on 900MHz.
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UMTS RF Optimization
This diagram shows the loss characteristics in the case that both transmitter and
receiver are located indoors. The loss ranges from 50dB to 80dB when the spacing is
10M.
That is, the indoors transmission loss is about 35dB/10 multiples of thread.
Body loss
For a handset, the received signal field strength will be 4-7dB or 1-2dB lower when it
is attached to the waist or shoulder of a user than when the antenna is a few
wavelengths away from the body.
In-vehicle loss
For a UMTS system, where the operating frequency is close to 1800MHz and
wavelength differs little, transmittance loss is also close.For those modern buildings
with large glass windows, transmittance loss typically ranges from 7dB to 10dB.
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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation Theory
Diffraction loss can be explained by a Fresnel zone. A Fresnel zone refers to a group of
ellipses formed by all the points where the secondary wave path length is n/2 larger
than line of sight path length from a transmitter to a receiver. This group of ellipses
with the transmitter and receiver as focuses form a Fresnel zone. If radius is
represented by rn,
rn = [nd1d2/(d1+d2)]1/2
Gd (dB) = 0 v <= -1
The number of Fresnel zones being obstructed (n) can be obtained from this formula: n
= v2/2.
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UMTS RF Optimization
Then it is known that diffraction loss depends mainly on obstruction height and
position relative to a transmitter and a receiver when electromagnetic wave is
obstructed on the propagation route during space propagation. If the relative height (h)
is smaller than or equal to zero, it means the loss is very small, and it is allowed to
neglect obstruction position (h=0, loss=6dB).On the contrary, the further an obstruction
is away from the center of line of sight path, the smaller the Fresnel zone, namely the
larger the influence on radio links by the obstruction. In this case, it is necessary to
consider the influence of the obstruction position. As a transmitter is normally much
higher than a receiver (outdoors), the diffraction loss of high buildings near a receiver
on the transmission route is larger than that of equally high buildings near a transmitter.
If there are multiple obstructions on the propagation path, diffraction loss needs
recalculation. If there are only two obstructions, they can be made equivalent to a new
obstruction delineated from the incidence route of the first obstruction and the
diffraction route of the second obstruction. If there are more obstructions, it is a more
complex case, which is not handled here.
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