All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the most "immater
ial",
like software or system engineering depend on the development of new materials,
which
in turn alter the economics, like software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing appli
cations of
system engineering are in materials manufacturing (industrial engineering) and c
omplex
environmental systems.
Classification of Materials
Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain ca
n handle
the complexity. One could classify them according to structure, or properties, o
r use. The
one that we will use is according to the way the atoms are bound together:
Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron se
a' that
"glues" the ions together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and he
at well and
are opaque to light (shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Atomic Structure:
Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electron and protons are
negative and positive charges of the same magnitude, 1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs.
The mass of the electron is negligible with respect to those of the proton and t
he neutron,
which form the nucleus of the atom. The unit of mass is an atomic mass unit (amu
) =
1.66 × 10-27 kg, and equals 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom. The Carbon nucleus h
as Z=6,
and A=6, where Z is the number of protons, and A the number of neutrons. Neutron
s and
protons have very similar masses, roughly equal to 1 amu. A neutral atom has the
same
number of electrons and protons, Z.
A mole is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass
in amu
of the atoms. Thus, a mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams. The number of atoms
in a
mole is called the Avogadro number, Nav = 6.023 × 1023. Note that Nav = 1 gram/1
amu.
Calculating n, the number of atoms per cm3 in a piece of material of density d (
g/cm3).
n = Nav × d / M
where M is the atomic mass in amu (grams per mol). Thus, for graphite (carbon) w
ith a
density d = 1.8 g/cm3, M =12, we get 6 × 1023 atoms/mol × 1.8 g/cm3 / 12 g/mol)
= 9 ×
1022 C/cm3.
For a molecular solid like ice, one uses the molecular mass, M(H2O) = 18. With a
density
of 1 g/cm3, one obtains n = 3.3 × 1022 H2O/cm3. Note that since the water molecu
le
contains 3 atoms, this is equivalent to 9.9 × 1022 atoms/cm3.
Most solids have atomic densities around 6 × 1022 atoms/cm3. The cube root of th
at
number gives the number of atoms per centimeter, about 39 million. The mean dist
ance
between atoms is the inverse of that, or 0.25 nm. This is an important number th
at gives
the scale of atomic structures in solids.
Atomic bonding in solids:
Primary Interatomic Bonds
Ionic Bonding
This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and a
nother is
positive (has lost an electron). Then there is a strong, direct Coulomb attracti
on. An
example is NaCl. In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl
- and
less around Na, forming Na+. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids
, ionic
bonding is usually combined with covalent bonding.
Covalent Bonding
In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules, to saturate the
valency.
The simplest example is the H2 molecule, where the electrons spend more time in
between the nuclei than outside, thus producing bonding.
Metallic Bonding
In metals, the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons from the valence band.
Those
electrons form an electron sea, which binds the charged nuclei in place, in a si
milar way
that the electrons in between the H atoms in the H2 molecule bind the protons.
Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals)
Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
Since the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a dipole is for
med: the +
nucleus at the center, and the electron outside. Since the electron moves, the d
ipole
fluctuates. This fluctuation in atom A produces a fluctuating electric field tha
t is felt by
the electrons of an adjacent atom, B. Atom B then polarizes so that its outer el
ectrons are
on the side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to the side) of the d
ipole in A.
This bond is called van der Waals bonding.
Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds
A polar molecule like H2O (Hs are partially +, O is partially ), will induce a d
ipole in a
nearby atom, leading to bonding.
Permanent Dipole Bonds
This is the case of the hydrogen bond in ice. The H end of the molecule is posit
ively
charged and can bond to the negative side of another dipolar molecule, like the
O side of
the H2O dipole
Crystal Structures:
Atoms self-organize in crystals, most of the time. The crystalline lattice is a
periodic
array of the atoms. When the solid is not crystalline, it is called amorphous. E
xamples of
crystalline solids are metals, diamond and other precious stones, ice, graphite.
Examples
of amorphous solids are glass, amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si, most plasti
cs
To discuss crystalline structures it is useful to consider atoms as being hard s
pheres, with
well-defined radii. In this scheme, the shortest distance between two like atoms
is one
diameter.
Metallic Crystal Structures
Important properties of the unit cells are
The type of atoms and their radii R.
Cell dimensions (side a in cubic cells, side of base a and height c in HCP) in
terms of R.
n, number of atoms per unit cell. For an atom that is shared with m adjacent uni
t
cells, we only count a fraction of the atom, 1/m.
CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which
an atom is bonded.
APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell
actually occupied by the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of
cell.
Unit Cell
n
CN
a/R
APF
SC
1
6
2
0.52
BCC
2
8
4v 3
0.68
FCC
4
12
2v 2
0.74
HCP
6
12
0.74
Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials:
Single Crystals
Crystals can be single crystals where the whole solid is one crystal. Then it ha
s a regular
geometric structure with flat faces.
Polycrystalline Materials
A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each other.
It is
called polycrystalline. The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to e
ach other.
Where they meet is called a grain boundary.
Non-Crystalline Solids
In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But amorphous does not mean r
andom,
since the distance between atoms cannot be smaller than the size of the hard sph
eres.
Also, in many cases there is some form of short-range order. For instance, the t
etragonal
order of crystalline SiO2 (quartz) is still apparent in amorphous SiO2 (silica g
lass.)
Miller Indices:
Rules for Miller Indices:
Determine the intercepts of the face along the crystallographic axes, in terms o
f
unit cell dimensions.
Take the reciprocals
Clear fractions
Reduce to lowest terms
For example, if the x-, y-, and z- intercepts are 2, 1, and 3, the Miller indice
s are
calculated as:
Take reciprocals: 1/2, 1/1, 1/3
Clear fractions (multiply by 6): 3, 6, 2
Reduce to lowest terms (already there)
Thus, the Miller indices are 3,6,2. If a plane is parallel to an axis, its inter
cept is at
infinity and its Miller index is zero. A generic Miller index is denoted by (hkl
).
If a plane has negative intercept, the negative number is denoted by a bar above
the
number. Never alter negative numbers. For example, do not divide -1, -1, -1 by -
1 to get
1,1,1. This implies symmetry that the crystal may not have!
Some General Principles
If a Miller index is zero, the plane is parallel to that axis.
The smaller a Miller index, the more nearly parallel the plane is to the axis.
The larger a Miller index, the more nearly perpendicular a plane is to that axis
.
Multiplying or dividing a Miller index by a constant has no effect on the
orientation of the plane
Miller indices are almost always small.
Anisotropy
Different directions in the crystal have different packing. For instance, atoms
along the
edge FCC crystals are more separated than along the face diagonal. This causes
anisotropy in the properties of crystals; for instance, the deformation depends
on the
direction in which a stress is applied.
In many applications, like in aircraft parts, there is a need for high strength
per unit
weight (specific strength). This can be achieved by composites consisting of a l
owdensity
(and soft) matrix reinforced with stiff fibers.
The strength depends on the fiber length and its orientation with respect to the
stress
direction.
The efficiency of load transfer between matrix and fiber depends on the interfac
ial bond.
Structure and properties of polymers:
Polymers are common in nature, in the form of wood, rubber, cotton, leather, woo
d, silk,
proteins, enzymes, starches, cellulose. Artificial polymers are made mostly from
oil.
Their use has grown exponentially, especially after WW2. The key factor is the v
ery low
production cost and useful properties (e.g., combination of transparency and fle
xibility,
long elongation).
Hydrocarbon Molecules
Most polymers are organic, and formed from hydrocarbon molecules. These molecule
s
can have single, double, or triple carbon bonds. A saturated hydrocarbon is one
where
all bonds are single, that is, the number of atoms is maximum (or saturated). Am
ong this
type are the paraffin compounds, CnH2n+2 (Table 15.1). In contrast, non-saturate
d
hydrocarbons contain some double and triple bonds.
Isomers are molecules that contain the same molecules but in a different arrange
ment.
An example is butane and isobutane.
Polymer molecules are huge, macromolecules that have internal covalent bonds. Fo
r most
polymers, these molecules form very long chains. The backbone is a string of car
bon
atoms, often single bonded.
Polymers are composed of basic structures called mer units. A molecule with just
one
mer is a monomer.
The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules
Examples of polymers are polyvinyl chloride (PVC), poly-tetra-chloro-ethylene (P
TFE or
Teflon), polypropylene, nylon and polystyrene. Chains are represented straight b
ut in
practice they have a three-dimensional, zig-zag structure (Fig. 15.1b).
When all the mers are the same, the molecule is called a homopolymer. When there
is
more than one type of mer present, the molecule is a copolymer.
Molecular Weight
The mass of a polymer is not fixed, but is distributed around a mean value, sinc
e polymer
molecules have different lengths. The average molecular weight can be obtained b
y
averaging the masses with the fraction of times they appear (number-average) or
with the
mass fraction of the molecules (called, improperly, a weight fraction).
The degree of polymerization is the average number of mer units, and is obtained
by
dividing the average mass of the polymer by the mass of a mer unit.
Polymers of low mass are liquid or gases, those of very high mass (called high-p
olymers,
are solid). Waxes, paraffins and resins have intermediate masses.
Molecular Shape
Polymers are usually not linear; bending and rotations can occur around single C
-C bonds
(double and triple bonds are very rigid) (Fig. 15.5). Random kings and coils lea
d to
entanglement, like in the spaghetti structure shown in Fig. 15.6.
Molecular Structure
Typical structures are :
linear (end-to-end, flexible, like PVC, nylon)
branched
cross-linked (due to radiation, vulcanization, etc.)
network (similar to highly cross-linked structures).
Molecular Configurations
The regularity and symmetry of the side-groups can affect strongly the propertie
s of
polymers. Side groups are atoms or molecules with free bonds, called free-radica
ls, like
H, O, methyl, etc.
If the radicals are linked in the same order, the configuration is called isosta
tic
In a stereoisomer in a syndiotactic configuration, the radical groups alternativ
e sides in
the chain.
In the atactic configuration, the radical groups are positioned at random.
Copolymers
Copolymers, polymers with at least two different types of mers can differ in the
way the
mers are arranged. Fig. 15.9 shows different arrangements: random, alternating,
block,
and graft.
Polymer Crystallinity
Crystallinity in polymers is more complex than in metals (fig. 15.10). Polymer m
olecules
are often partially crystalline (semicrystalline), with crystalline regions disp
ersed within
amorphous material. .
Chain disorder or misalignment, which is common, leads to amorphous material sin
ce
twisting, kinking and coiling prevent strict ordering required in the crystallin
e state.
Thus, linear polymers with small side groups, which are not too long form crysta
lline
regions easier than branched, network, random copolymers, or polymers with bulky
side
groups.
Crystalline polymers are denser than amorphous polymers, so the degree of crysta
llinity
can be obtained from the measurement of density.
Polymer Crystals
Different models have been proposed to describe the arrangement of molecules in
semicrytalline polymers. In the fringed-micelle model, the crystallites (micelle
s) are
embedded in an amorphous matrix (Fig.15.11). Polymer single crystals grown are s
haped
in regular platelets (lamellae) (Fig. 15.12). Spherulites (Fig. 15.4) are chain-
folded
crystallites in an amorphous matrix that grow radially in spherical shape grains .
Structure and properties of ceramics:
Ceramics are inorganic and non-metallic materials that are commonly electrical a
nd
thermal insulators, brittle and composed of more than one element (e.g., two in
Al2O3)
Ceramic Structures
Ceramic bonds are mixed, ionic and covalent, with a proportion that depends on t
he
particular ceramics. The ionic character is given by the difference of electrone
gativity
between the cations (+) and anions (-). Covalent bonds involve sharing of valenc
e
electrons. Very ionic crystals usually involve cations which are alkalis or alka
line-earths
(first two columns of the periodic table) and oxygen or halogens as anions.
The building criteria for the crystal structure are two:
maintain neutrality
charge balance dictates chemical formula
achieve closest packing
the condition for minimum energy implies maximum attraction and minimum repulsio
n.
This leads to contact, configurations where anions have the highest number of ca
tion
neighbors and viceversa.
Silicate Ceramics
Oxygen and Silicon are the most abundant elements in Earth s crust. Their combinat
ion
(silicates) occur in rocks, soils, clays and sand. The bond is weekly ionic, wit
h Si4+ as the
cation and O2- as the anion. rSi = 0.04 nm, rO.= 0.14 nm, so rC/rA = 0.286.
The tetrahedron is charged: Si4+ + 4 O2- . (Si O4)4-. Silicates differ on how th
e
tetrahedra are arranged. In silica, (SiO2), every oxygen atom is shared by adjac
ent
tetrahedra. Silica can be crystalline (e.g., quartz) or amorphous, as in glass.
Soda glasses melt at lower temperature than amorphous SiO2 because the addition
of
Na2O (soda) breaks the tetrahedral network. A lower melting point makes it easy
to form
glass to make, for instance, bottles.
Carbon
Carbon is not really a ceramic, but an allotropic form, diamond, may be thought
as a type
of ceramic. Diamond has very interesting and even unusual properties:
diamond-cubic structure (like Si, Ge)
covalent C-C bonds
highest hardness of any material known
very high thermal conductivity (unlike ceramics)
transparent in the visible and infrared, with high index of refraction
semiconductor (can be doped to make electronic devices)
metastable (transforms to carbon when heated)
aligned.
For ferromagnetic, antiferromagentic and ferrimagentic materials, the atomic the
rmal
motions counteract the coupling forces between the adjacent atomic dipole moment
s,
causing some dipole misalignment, regardless of whether an external field is pre
sent. The
result is a decrease in the saturation magnetization for both ferro and ferrimag
nets. The
saturation magnetization is a maximum at ) K, at which temperature the thermal
vibrations are a minimum. With increasing temperature, the saturation magnetizat
ion
diminishes gradually and then abruptly drops to zero at what is called the curie
temperature Tc. The magnitude of the curie temparature varies from material to m
aterial;
for example, for iron, cobalt, nickel., the respective values are 768,1120,335 a
nd 585
degree Celsius. Antiferromagnetism is also affected by temperature; this behavio
r
vanishes at what is called the Neel temperature. At temperatures above this poin
t,
antiferromagnteic materials also become paramagnetic.
16.5 Domains and Hysteresis:
Any ferromagnetic or ferromagnetic material that is at a temperature below Tc is
composed of small-volume regions in which there is a mutual alignment in the sam
e
direction of all magnetic dipole moments. Such a region is called a domain, and
each one
is magnetized to its saturation magnetization. Adjacent domains are separated by
domain
boundaries or walls across which the direction of magnetization gradually change
s.
Normally, domains are microscopic in size and for a polycrystalline specimen, ea
ch grain
may consist of a single domain. Thus, in a microscopic piece of material, there
will be
large number of domains and all may have different magnetization orientations.
Material Science/Optical Properties Lecture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M17/L1/V1/feb2005/1
Chapter 17. Optical Properties
17.1 Basic concepts:
Electromagnetic Radiation- In the classical sense, electromagnetic radiation is
considered
to be wave-like, consisiting of electric and magnetic field components that are
perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of propagation. Light, hea
t, radio
waves, radar and x-rays are all forms of electromagnetic radiation. Each is char
acterized
primarily by a specific range of wavelengths, and also according to the techniqu
e by
which it is generated. The electromagnetic spectrum of radiation spans the wide
range
from gamma rays having wavelengths on the order of 10-12, through x-rays, ultrav
iolet,
visible, infrared and finally radio waves with wavelengths as long as 1015
All electromagnetic radiation traverses a vacuum at the same velocity, that of l
ight.
This velocity,c, is related to the electric permittivity of a vacuum and the mag
netic
permeability of a vacuum through . Thus there is an association between the
electromagnetic constant c and these electrical and magnetic constants. Furtherm
ore, the
frequency . and wavelength . of the electromagnetic radiation are a function of
velocity
according to:
C= ./.
Frequency is expressed in terms of hertz(Hz), and 1 Hz=1 cycle per second. Range
s of
frequency for the various forms of electromagnetic radiation are also included i
n the
spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of wavelengths and photon energ
ies.
Light used to "see" an object must have a wavelength about the same size as or s
maller
than the object. The ALS generates light in the far ultraviolet and soft x-ray r
egions,
which span the wavelengths suited to studying molecules and atoms.
17.2 Optical properties of metals:
Consider the electron energy band schemes for metals; in both cases a high-energ
y band
is only partially filled with electrons. Metals are opaque because the incident
radiation
having frequencies within the visible range excites electrons into unoccupied en
ergy
states above the Fermi energy. All frequencies of visible light are absorbed by
metals
because of the continuously available empty electron states, which permit electr
on
transitions. In fact, metals are opaque to all electromagnetic radiation on the
low end of
the frequency spectrum, from radio waves, through infrared, the visible and into
about the
middle of the ultraviolet radiation. Metals are transparent to high frequency ra
diation.
Most of the absorbed radiation is reemitted from the surface in the form of visi
ble light of
the same wavelength, which appears as reflected light. Since metals are opaque a
nd
highly reflective the perceived color is determined by the wavelength distributi
on of the
radiation that is reflected and not absorbed. A bright silvery appearance when e
xposed to
white light indicates that the metal is highly reflected beam; the composition o
f these
reemitted photons, in terms of frequency and number is approximately the same as
for the
incident beam. Aluminum and silver are the two metals that exhibit this reflecti
ve
behavior. Copper and gold appear red orange and yellow, respectively, because so
me of
Material Science/Optical Properties Lecture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M17/L1/V1/feb2005/2
the energy associated with light photons having short wavelengths is not reemitt
ed as
visible light.
17.3 Optical properties of non metals:
By virtue of their electron energy band structures, nonmetallic materials may be
transparent to visible light. Therefore, in addition to reflection and absorptio
n, refraction
and transmission phenomena also need to be considered.
Refraction:
Light that is transmitted into the interior of transparent materials experiences
decrease in
velocity and as result is bent at the interface; this phenomenon is termed refra
ction. The
index of refraction n of a material is defined as the ratio of the velocity in v
acuum c to the
velocity in the medium . , or
n=c/.
The magnitude of n will depend on the wavelength of the light. This effect is gr
aphically
demonstrated by the familiar dispersion or separation of a beam of white light i
nto its
component colors by a class prism. Each color is deflected by a different amount
as it
passes into and out of the glass, which results in the separation of colors. Not
only does
the index of refraction affect the optical path of light, but also it influences
the fraction of
incident light that is reflected at the surface. The phenomenon of refraction is
related to
electronic polarization at the relatively high frequencies for visible light; th
us the
electronic component of the dielectric constant may be determined from index of
refraction measurements.
Since the retardation of electromagnetic radiation in a medium results from elec
tronic
polarization, the size of the constituent atoms or ions has a considerable influ
ence on the
magnitude of this effect-generally, the larger an atom or ion, the greater will
be the
electronic polarization, the slower the velocity and greater the index of refrac
tion.
Reflection:
When light radiation passes from one medium into another having a different inde
x of
refraction, some of the light is scattered at the interface between the two medi
a even if
both are transparent. The reflectivity R represents the fraction of the incident
light that is
reflected at the interface.
R=Ir/Io
Where Io and Ir are the intensities of the incident and reflected beams, respect
ively.Just
as the index of refraction of a solid depends on the wavelength of the incident
light, so
does the reflectivity vary with wavelength.
Absorption:
Nonmetallic materials may be opaque or transparent to visible light; and, if tra
nsparent,
they often appear colored. In principle, light radiation is absorbed in this gro
up of
materials by two basic mechanisms, which also influence the transmission charact
eristics
of these nonmetals. Absorption by electronic polarization is important only at l
ight
frequencies in the vicinity of the relaxation frequency of the constituent atoms
. The other
mechanism involves valence band-conduction band electron transitions, which depe
nds
on the electron energy band structure of the material.
Material Science/Optical Properties Lecture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M17/L1/V1/feb2005/3
Transmission:
The phenomena of absorption, reflection and transmission may be applied to the p
assage
of light through a transparent solid. The fraction of incident light that is tra
nsmitted
through a transparent material depends on the losses that are incurred by absorp
tion and
reflection. The sum of reflectivity R, absorptivity A and transmittivity T, is u
nity. Also,
each of of the variables R, A and T depends on light wavelength.
17.4 Applications of optical phenomena
Luminescence
Some materials are capable of absorbing energy and then reemitting visible light
in a
phenomenon called luminescence. Photons of emitted light are generated from elec
tron
transitions in the solid. Energy is absorbed when an electron is promoted to an
excited
energy; visible light is emitted when it false back to a lower energy state. The
absorbed
energy may be applied as higher energy electrons or by heat, mechanical or chemi
cal
energy. Furthermore, luminescence is classified according to the magnitude of th
e delay
time between absorption and reemission events.
Luminescence is "cold light", light from other sources of energy, which can take
place at
normal and lower temperatures. In luminescence, some energy source kicks an elec
tron
of an atom out of its "ground" (lowest-energy) state into an "excited" (higher-e
nergy)
state; then the electron gives back the energy in the form of light so it can fa
ll back to its
"ground" state.
There are several varieties of luminescence, each named according to what the so
urce of
energy is, or what the trigger for the luminescence is.
Fluorescence and Photoluminescence are luminescence where the energy is supplied
by
electromagnetic radiation (rays such as light, which will be discussed later);
photoluminescence is generally taken to mean luminance from any electromagnetic
radiation, while fluorescence is often used only for luminescence caused by ultr
aviolet,
although it may be used for other photoluminescences also. Fluorescence is seen
in
fluorescent lights, amusement park and movie special effects, the redness of rub
ies in
sunlight, "day-glo" or "neon" colors, and in emission nebulae seen with telescop
es in the
night sky. Bleaches enhance their whitening power with a white fluorescent mater
ial.
Photoluminescence should not be confused with reflection, refraction, or scatter
ing of
light, which cause most of the colors you see in daylight or bright artificial l
ighting.
Photoluminescence is distinguished in that the light is absorbed for a significa
nt time, and
generally produces light of a frequency that is lower than, but otherwise indepe
ndent of,
the frequency of the absorbed light.
Electroluminescence is luminescence caused by electric current. Cathodoluminesce
nce is
electroluminescence caused by electron beams; this is how television pictures ar
e formed.
Other examples of electroluminescence are neon lights, the auroras, and lightnin
g
flashes. This should not be mistaken for what occurs with the ordinary incandesc
ent
Material Science/Optical Properties Lecture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M17/L1/V1/feb2005/4
electric lights, in which the electricity is used to produce heat, and it is the
heat that in
turn produces light.
Radioluminescence is luminescence caused by nuclear radiation. Older glow-in-the
-dark
clock dials often used a paint with a radioactive material (typically a radium c
ompound)
and a radioluminescent material. The term may be used to refer to luminescence c
aused
by X-rays, also called photoluminescence
Photoconductivity
Photoconductivity is an optical and electrical phenomenon in which a material be
comes
more conductive when subjected to ultraviolet or gamma radiation. See photocondu
ctor.
Photoconductivity is the tendency of a substance to conduct electricity to an ex
tent that
depends on the intensity of light-radiant energy (usually infrared transmission
or visible
light) striking the surface of a sample. Most semiconductor materials have this
property.
When there is no illumination, a photoconductive sample has a conductance that
depends on its dimensions, on the specific material(s) from which it is made, an
d on the
temperature. In most cases, the greater the radiant energy of a specific wavelen
gth that
strikes the surface, the higher the conductance of the sample becomes, up to a c
ertain
maximum. When the maximum conductance is reached for a particular sample, furthe
r
increases in irradiation produce no change in the conductance. Photoconductive m
aterials
are used in the manufacture of photoelectric devices. Typical photoconductive su
bstances
consist of germanium, gallium, selenium, or silicon with impurities, also known
as
dopants, added. Other common materials include metal oxides and sulfides.
Lasers
All the radioactive electron transitions are spontaneous; that is, an electron f
alls from a
high energy state to a lower one without any external provocation. These transit
ion events
occur independently of one another and at random times, producing radiation that
is
incoherent; that is, the light waves are out of phase with one another. With
lasers,however,coherent light is generated by electron transitions initiated by
an external
stimulus;in fact, laser is just the acronym for light amplification by stimulated e
mission
of radiation.
Applications of Lasers
The light beam produced by most lasers is pencil-sized, and maintains its size a
nd
direction over very large distances; this sharply focused beam of coherent light
is
suitable for a wide variety of applications. Lasers have been used in industry f
or cutting
and boring metals and other materials, and for inspecting optical equipment. In
medicine,
they have been used in surgical operations. Lasers have been used in several kin
ds of
Material Science/Optical Properties Lecture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M17/L1/V1/feb2005/5
scientific research. The field of holography is based on the fact that actual wa
ve-front
patterns, captured in a photographic image of an object illuminated with laser l
ight, can
be reconstructed to produce a three-dimensional image of the object.
Lasers have opened a new field of scientific research, nonlinear optics, which i
s
concerned with the study of such phenomena as the frequency doubling of coherent
light
by certain crystals. One important result of laser research is the development o
f lasers
that can be tuned to emit light over a range of frequencies, instead of producin
g light of
only a single frequency. Work is being done to develop lasers for communication;
in a
manner similar to radio transmission, the transmitted light beam is modulated wi
th a
signal and is received and demodulated some distance away. Lasers have also been
used
in plasma physics and chemistry.
For years after its invention, the laser was spoken of as a solution without a p
roblem.
That reputation soon disappeared as lasers found uses in a variety of industries
. But now
several new lasers, particularly solid state instruments that operate at ultravi
olet
wavelengths and those based on nonlinear materials, are finding uses in emerging
areas.
Computing, telecommunications, and, in particular, medicine, stand to benefit fr
om the
unique qualities of these new or improved systems.
Optical fibers in communications:
Our current "age of technology" is the result of many brilliant inventions and d
iscoveries,
but it is our ability to transmit information, and the media we use to do it, th
at is perhaps
most responsible for its evolution . Progressing from the copper wire of a centu
ry ago to
today s fiber optic cable, our increasing ability to transmit more information, mo
re
quickly and over longer distances has expanded the boundaries of our technologic
al
development in all areas. Today s low-loss glass fiber optic cable offers almost u
nlimited
bandwidth and unique advantages over all previously developed transmission media
. The
basic point-to-point fiber optic transmission system consists of three basic ele
ments: the
optical transmitter, the fiber optic cable and the optical receiver.
The Optical Transmitter: The transmitter converts an electrical analog or digita
l signal
into a corresponding optical signal. The source of the optical signal can be eit
her a light
Material Science/Optical Properties Lecture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M17/L1/V1/feb2005/6
emitting diode, or a solid state laser diode. The most popular wavelengths of op
eration
for optical transmitters are 850, 1300, or 1550 nanometers.
The Fiber Optic Cable: The cable consists of one or more glass fibers, which act
as
waveguides for the optical signal. Fiber optic cable is similar to electrical ca
ble in its
construction, but provides special protection for the optical fiber within. For
systems
requiring transmission over distances of many kilometers, or where two or more f
iber
optic cables must be joined together, an optical splice is commonly used.
The Optical Receiver: The receiver converts the optical signal back into a repli
ca of the
original electrical signal. The detector of the optical signal is either a PIN-t
ype
photodiode or avalanche-type photodiode.
Advantages of Fiber Optic Systems
Fiber optic transmission systems a fiber optic transmitter and receiver, connect
ed by
fiber optic cable offer a wide range of benefits not offered by traditional copp
er wire or
coaxial cable. These include:
1. The ability to carry much more information and deliver it with greater fideli
ty than
either copper wire or coaxial cable.
2. Fiber optic cable can support much higher data rates, and at greater distance
s, than
coaxial cable, making it ideal for transmission of serial digital data.
3. The fiber is totally immune to virtually all kinds of interference, including
lightning,
and will not conduct electricity. It can therefore come in direct contact with h
igh voltage
electrical equipment and power lines. It will also not create ground loops of an
y kind.
4. As the basic fiber is made of glass, it will not corrode and is unaffected by
most
chemicals. It can be buried directly in most kinds of soil or exposed to most co
rrosive
atmospheres in chemical plants without significant concern.
5. Since the only carrier in the fiber is light, there is no possibility of a sp
ark from a
broken fiber. Even in the most explosive of atmospheres, there is no fire hazard
, and no
danger of electrical shock to personnel repairing broken fibers.
6. Fiber optic cables are virtually unaffected by outdoor atmospheric conditions
, allowing
them to be lashed directly to telephone poles or existing electrical cables with
out concern
for extraneous signal pickup.
7. A fiber optic cable, even one that contains many fibers, is usually much smal
ler and
lighter in weight than a wire or coaxial cable with similar information carrying
capacity.
It is easier to handle and install, and uses less duct space. (It can frequently
be installed
without ducts.)
Material Science/Optical Properties Lecture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M17/L1/V1/feb2005/7
8. Fiber optic cable is ideal for secure communications systems because it is ve
ry difficult
to tap but very easy to monitor. In addition, there is absolutely no electrical
radiation
from a fiber.
How are fiber optic cables able to provide all of these advantages? This guide w
ill
provide an overview of fiber optic technology with sections devoted to each of t
he three
system components transmitters, receivers, and the fiber cable itself. An apprec
iation of
the underlying technology will provide a useful framework for understanding the
reasons
behind its many benefits.
Material Science/Economic, Environmental, and Social Issues of Material Usage Le
cture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M18/L1/V1/feb2005/1
Chapter 18. Economic, Environmental, and Social Issues of
Material Usage
18.1 Economic Considerations:
It is essential for the engineer to know about and understand economic issues si
mply
because the company/institution for which he or she works must realize a profit
from the
products it manufactures. Materials engineering decisions have economic conseque
nces
with regard to both material and production cost
18.2 Environmental and Social considerations:
Issues of environmental protection and sustainable development are gaining an in
creasing
importance in everyday life, and nowhere is this more so than in the field of Ma
terials
Science and Engineering. Almost every aspect of materials usage, from extraction
and
production, through product design and ultimately disposal issues, is now subjec
t to
environmental considerations. Furthermore there are many cases where the develop
ments
of novel environmentally-friendly materials are providing new challenges for mater
ials
scientists and engineers.
The growing awareness of environmental issues has increased the attention focuse
d on
the materials industry. There is a danger that this could give a negative pictur
e,
highlighting examples where materials production and use has led to environmenta
l
problems. In many of these cases, materials, additives and production methods we
re used
for very good materials engineering reasons before environmental concerns were
established. The more positive image of materials engineering that can be portra
yed is
one where the industry is at the forefront of technical advances - not only to '
deal with
past mistakes', but also to drive sustainable and safe use of materials for the
future.
The topic of 'Environmental Materials' is broad and can touch on some relatively
in-depth
aspects of materials structure, chemical and physical properties, processing and
design as
well as more general areas such as legislative, economic and social aspects. Int
eresting
topics within this area can be presented at a range of levels: for instance the
sustainable
use of materials in the IT sector can be discussed by 11 year olds with as much
enthusiasm as by post-graduate students - although the latter would be expected
to grasp
the chemical details of identifying brominated flame-retardants, whereas the for
mer
would consider much simpler aspects, that are nonetheless important.
18.3 Recycling issues:
It could easily be argued that steel is a very sustainable material; it is abund
ant, takes
relatively little energy to extract and is easy to recycle, however people livin
g near a
steelworks would argue against this. It is probably sensible to define such mate
rials as
those that have distinct differences that achieve environmental benefit compared
to
conventional materials. With this definition, the list would include:
Material Science/Economic, Environmental, and Social Issues of Material Usage Le
cture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M18/L1/V1/feb2005/2
1. Materials of a significantly plant-based nature, including wood, natural fibr
e
composites, natural polymers.
2. Materials produced using a large proportion of waste material, including recy
cled
polymers, composites made from waste mineral powders, and arguably also much
steel and aluminum.
The most exciting developments in Materials Science are in the realm of function
al
materials, and many of these serve an environmentally-beneficial purpose, partic
ularly in
the production of green energy.
These include:
o Solar-cell materials
o Fuel-cell technology
o Catalytic pollution control
The figure below schematically shows how the disparate areas under the heading o
f
'environmental materials' can be linked via a life cycle analysis approach.
Material Science/Economic, Environmental, and Social Issues of Material Usage Le
cture Notes
Satish Kailash Vasu/IISc, Bangalore M18/L2/V1/feb2005/1
18.4 Life Cycle Analysis and its use in design:
Life Cycle Analysis is essentially a method of considering the entire environmen
tal
impact, energy and resource usage of a material or product. It is often known as
a 'cradleto-
grave' analysis and can encompass the entire lifetime from extraction to end-of-
life
disposal. Life cycle analysis can be an extremely effective way of linking many
different
aspects of the environmental impacts of materials usage. The scope of a life cyc
le
analysis can be adjusted to suit a particular case. For instance it could cover
the
environmental impact of the global aluminium industry or simply that of one sing
le
plastic injection moulding machine. In order to gain most learning benefit from
this area,
students would be expected to have a good grasp of the necessary underlying tech
nical
areas, which could be quite complex and so this ideally suits more advanced degr
ee level
students. The most conventional way of approaching a life cycle analysis is to f
ollow a
particular material or product through its lifetime. Therefore the first conside
ration would
be the impact of materials extraction, and then production and manufacture, prod
uct use
and finally end-of-life considerations. This approach is followed below. Various
aspects,
such as energy usage, economic and legislative issues occur throughout the cycle
.