ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Intercultural Relations

31 (2007) 427441
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel

Intercultural competencies and conglomerated

conict behaviors in intercultural conicts
Martin C. Euwema, IJ. Hetty Van Emmerik
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1,
3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands

Abstract

This study explores the relationships between intercultural competencies and conglomerate conict
behaviors in interpersonal conicts within an intercultural context. The theory of conglomerated
conict behaviors (CCBs) [Van de Vliert, E., Euwema, M. C., & Huismans, S. E. (1995). Managing
conict with a subordinate or a supervisor: Effectiveness of conglomerated behavior. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 80, 271281] presumes that conict behaviors should not be studied
independently. Accordingly, in the present study it is hypothesized that different patterns of CCBs
vary primarily in the use and position of competitive and cooperative components. Further, it is
proposed that a conglomerate with relatively more cooperative behavior is associated with more
cultural empathy, more open mindedness, and less adventurism. Survey data on ve conict styles
were collected from Dutch military peacekeepers (N 542). Using cluster analysis, two different
patterns of conict handling were identied. The main contrast between the conglomerates isas
expecteda cooperative pattern (high problem solving and compromising, low forcing) versus a
competitive behavioral pattern (low problem solving and compromising, high forcing). Cultural
empathy is positively related to the cooperative pattern, and adventurism is associated with the
competitive pattern.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Conglomerated conict behavior; Intercultural competencies; Peacekeeping

Corresponding author. Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University,

Heidelberglaan 1, P.O. Box 80.140, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31 30 253 1975;
fax: +31 30 253 4718.
E-mail addresses: M.C.Euwema@fss.uu.nl (M.C. Euwema), H.vanEmmerik@fss.uu.nl (IJ.H. Van Emmerik).

0147-1767/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.11.001
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1. Introduction

Conict management is a key competence for managers and professionals (Euwema,

Kop, & Bakker, 2004). This is particularly true for the international arena, where parties
are faced with cultural differences, and often have to act in contexts with high conict
potential. In this paper, we explore the conict behavior of military peacekeepers. The role
of military peacekeeper is by denition conict prone and highly intercultural by nature.
During the last twenty-ve years, the United Nations alone has engaged in more than fty
peacekeeping and peace-enforcing operations, deploying more than one million soldiers
and police ofcers from various countries to missions worldwide. Currently, there are over
67 000 military personnel and civilian police serving in UN peacekeeping missions (United
Nations, 2006). In addition, other international institutions such as the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Economic Union of West African States
(ECOWAS), as well as individual states (for example, the UK and South Africa), have
also sent military peacekeepers into situations of conict. Consequently, understanding
how individuals employ culturally learned strategies for dealing with disagreements is
critically important in this context (Hammer, 2005).
While research on international intervention has mainly focused on the impact of
peacekeeping missions on managing the local conict (Baros, 2001; Evans-Kent & Bleiker,
2003), there has been a consistent concern with conict within and between peacekeepers
units and with other third parties, such as NGO personnel that seems to inhibit the
effectiveness of both (Clingendael Institute, 2001). Indeed, a study conducted among
Dutch military peacekeepers revealed that most conicts peacekeepers are confronted
with, appear within their own teams and organizations. Here, teams are composed of a
wide variety of military, from different nationalities, and typically temporary deployed.
Competencies to manage cultural differences are therefore vital for effective peacekeeping,
to manage relations effectively within the military, with other third parties, and with local
parties. Since the work of Mischel and Smith in the 1960s on effectiveness of Peace Corp
volunteers in Nigeria and Ghana, the eld has seen a rapid increase in knowledge on
competencies for expatriates and others working in an international environment (Arthur
& Bennet, 1995).
The purpose of this study is to examine the relation between intercultural competencies
and behavior in this wide array of conicts, peacekeepers can face.

1.1. Theory of conglomerated conflict behaviors (CCBs)

Conict behavior is an individuals intended or displayed outward reaction to the conict

issue experienced (Van de Vliert, 1997). Van de Vliert, Euwema, and Huismans (1995) have
adopted a perspective that they have termed CCBs. These authors suggested that conict
behavior is an individuals reaction to the perception that ones own and another partys
current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously (cf. Rubin, Pruitt, & Kim, 1994). The
most well-known assertive reactions are forcingcontending the adversary in a direct way
and problem solvingreconciling the parties basic interests. In a severe conict, the same
actor usually blends or assembles forcing and problem solving. Elements of less assertive
reactions, including compromising, accommodating, and avoiding, may also be added. The
term conglomerated conict behavior refers to such an aggregation of various degrees of
several modes of conict handling (Van de Vliert et al., 1995).
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The theory of CCBs is more complex than other models and taxonomies based on Blake
and Moutons (1970) conict management grid. Most theorists in this tradition use dual
concerns (for example concern for own and others goals), to determine the different
behaviors or styles. However, the behavioral styles resulting from these concerns, are
usually presented as unique and independent, as if a person uses only one conict mode,
for example forcing. Also, the effects of these modes are typically reported separately for
each mode, without considering possible covariates (Van de Vliert, 1997). The theory of
conglomerate conict states that the components of conict behavior should be considered
as interrelated. That is, mixed motives result not in simple, but in complex behavior, that is
best analyzed as a mixture of components. Interpersonal conicts really are complex
situations, in which different motives and concerns about own goals, the relation with the
other, others goals, as well as short and long-term objectives, direct behavior (Sorenson,
Morse, & Savage, 1999; Thomas, 1992). The main reason why people actually combine
different styles, instead of using one single mode, seems that conict situations are often
mixed motive situations (Euwema, Van de Vliert, & Bakker, 2003). According to
Thompson and Nadler (2000), parties try to achieve personal outcomes, and try to reach a
mutual agreement at the same time, typically combining cooperative and competitive
behaviors.
Therefore, the perspective taken here is that conict behavior is a complex combination
of different styles, and the Gestalt or specic mixture of behaviors creates the effects of
this behavior (Van de Vliert, 1997). As a result, research should not focus on exploring
antecedents, correlates and effects of the styles separately, but instead on the combinations
of behavior, in relation to other inuencing and outcome variables.
In this paper, we use the ve-part typology to describe the components of conict
behavior (Blake & Mouton, 1970; De Dreu, Evers, Beersma, Kluwer, & Nauta, 2001;
Thomas, 1992). These components are forcing (contending the adversary in a direct way);
avoiding (moving away from the conict issue); compromising (settling through mutual
concessions); accommodating (giving in to the opponent); and problem solving (reconciling
the parties basic interests). Research by Rahim and Magner (1995) and others (De Dreu et
al., 2001) has supported empirically this ve-style taxonomy.
Each component is expressed in a specic way that can be described in terms of both the
intensity with which that component occurs, and its covariation with each of the other
components. For all components together, two congurations result: a pattern of relative
levels of occurrence and a pattern of relative levels of covariation. The pattern of
occurrence refers to the relative intensity with which each behavioral component occurs.
For instance, within a conict situation a person uses relatively more forcing and problem-
solving styles than compromising and obliging styles. The pattern of covariation refers to
the relative extent to which each behavioral component concurs with each of the
components in the behavioral conglomeration. For example, a peacekeeping ofcer is
confronted with a local warlord frustrating his work. He might express his opinion
combining problem solving and forcing, saying; I really dont agree with this! What you
do is totally unacceptable! We have a big problem here and we better think about a
solution quick!. In the same situation, the peacekeeper might address the issue quite
different, combining problem solving and accommodating, saying: I am really sorry to
bother you about this issue, but I think we have a problem that needs to be solved as quick
as possible. In both situations, the peacekeepers behavior can be described as a complex
mixture of styles, particularly when the sequence of behaviors in observed.
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In this study, we focus on the extent to which subjects differ in the combined use of
predetermined styles. The approach adopts an inductive perspective. The aim is to identify
different empirical patterns within the data, with the purpose of describing, validating and
labeling these patterns.
The analysis of patterns of styles in conict management stems from the observation in
previous studies of certain relationships between styles. These studies reveal four relevant
points (De Dreu et al., 2001; Munduate, Ganaza, Peiro, & Euwema, 1999). First, there are
positive and signicant correlations among three pairs of styles; compromising and
problem solving; compromising and obliging, and avoiding and obliging. Second, there is a
tendency towards incompatibility between the avoiding and problem-solving styles. Third,
there is a relative incompatibility between the forcing and obliging styles. Fourth, for the
ve remaining pairs there is no existing guideline for a relation between the styles involved.
This overall pattern of relations might vary systematically and meaningfully in different
situations, conicts or (groups of) actors. This might be particularly true for the relations
between forcing or competing behavior on one side, and problem solving and compromising
on the other, as there is no systematic pattern of interrelations for these styles. The theory of
CCBs aims to discover these differences in amount and interrelations of the components.
So far, data from questionnaires have not been analyzed using the concept of
conglomerate behaviors. This analytic failure might raise questions on the construct
validity of the instruments used. We believe changes in structure do not necessarily reect a
validity problem of the instrument, but might be used instead as an extra dimension to
understand conict behavior.
If any, what systematically different behavioral patterns might there appear? Munduate
and colleagues (1999), using cluster analysis to determine different behavioral conglomerates
in an observational study of Spanish and Dutch managers, report ve different CCBs. The
largest contrasts between these CCBs were in the use of forcing in combination with the use
of integrating and compromising. This contrast in forcing and other conict behaviors,
reects one of the most basic classications in conict behavior, the dichotomy between
competition and cooperation (Deutsch & Coleman, 2000; Tjosvold, 2000). Van de Vliert &
Euwema (1994) presented a characterization of components of CCB. They see components
such as avoiding, compromising, problem solving and ghting, as specications of either
cooperation or competition. The main contribution of the theory of conglomerate conict
behavior is however, that a cooperative CCB can also include competitive, forcing, elements,
and vise versa, a competitive approach does not exclude cooperative elements. The approach
of CCBs does overcome the simple dichotomy, that behavior is either cooperative or
competitive. Conict behavior is indeed a complex mixture of different behavioral elements.
Given the aforementioned ndings and theoretical approach, it seems most likely that if
different patterns emerge, the main distinction will be the specic mixture of competitive
and cooperative elements.
Hypothesis 1. When different patterns of CCBs emerge, these will vary primarily in the use
and interrelation of competitive and cooperative components.

1.2. Intercultural competencies and CCBs

With the increased attention for the importance of culture for research and theory in
many domains, but most profound in psychology and management, also many studies
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have been conducted on cross cultural differences and intercultural cooperation. More
specic, factors have been explored contributing to the effectiveness of intercultural
cooperation, and expatriates.
Intercultural competence refers to the ability to think and act in interculturally
appropriate ways (Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman, 2003). This construct is also referred to
as intercultural communication competence, cross-cultural competence, intercultural
sensitivity, or intercultural effectiveness (Gibson & Zhong, 2005). Much of the research
within the area of intercultural competencies has focused on specic communicative
behaviors that are appropriate and effective for individual ethnic groups, and on the
development of measurement instruments. Several instruments have been developed
to assess such competencies, as well as personality characteristics. In the study of
Redmond (2000), intercultural communication competence was operationalized as six
competencies: language competence, adaptation, social decentering, communication
effectiveness, social integration and knowledge of the host culture. Another example of
an instrument to measure intercultural effectiveness is the Multicultural Personality
Questionnaire (MPQ) (Van der Zee & Oudenhoven, 2000). This instrument assesses ve
key characteristics, all contributing to intercultural effectiveness. These ve factors
are Cultural empathy, Open-mindedness, Social initiative, Emotional stability and
exibility. These factors are related to the well-known general personality scales of the
Big Five. In the present study we focus on two of the core dimensions, cultural
empathy and open-mindedness. In addition we included a third factor, closely related to
openness to experiences, and included in a previous version of the MPQ, that is the joy of
adventure, or adventurism.
Cultural empathy is dened by Van der Zee, Zaal, and Piekstra (2003) as the ability to
empathize with the feelings, thoughts and behaviors of members of different cultural
groups. It is related with extraversion, agreeableness, and intellectual autonomy.
Agreeableness is also a key component of cooperative behaviors (Van de Vliert &
Euwema, 1994), and intellectual autonomy with creative problem solving. Therefore,
we expect that this cultural empathy is associated with cooperative approaches in
conict management. Open mindedness refers to an open and unprejudiced attitude
towards outgroup members and towards cultural norms and values (Van der Zee et al.,
2003). This open attitude might also be related to explorative behavior in conict
management, typical for problem solving, integrative and compromising behaviors in
conict. Therefore we expect open mindedness to relate positively with cooperative conict
behaviors.
Relatively little attention is paid to the pleasure people might have in traveling, feeling at
ease in strange cultural environments, and experiencing adventures in the sense of new
environments, meeting new people and unknown social situations. Van der Zee and
Oudenhoven (1998), based on McCall (1994) dene adventurism as the tendency to search
for and explore new situations, and see these situations as challenging instead of
threatening. In a preliminary version of the MPQ, Van der Zee and Oudenhoven (1998)
developed a scale for adventurism. Adventurism correlated with extraversion and need for
change, particularly with decisiveness, action orientation, social initiative and assertive
behavior. Decisive and assertive behavior is usually related with concern for self in the
dual concern model, reected in forcing or problem-solving behaviors (Van de Vliert,
1997). In a conglomerate behavioral approach, this would implicate a more competitive
CCB, with forcing, probably in combination with problem-solving behaviors. We
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therefore, somewhat speculatively, expect that intercultural competencies are associated

with CCBs in the following ways:
Hypothesis 2. More cooperative CCBs are associated with (a) more cultural empathy, (b)
more open mindedness, and (c) less adventurism.

2. Method

2.1. Subjects

Data were collected from 907 Dutch military peacekeepers, 17 females and 811 males
from the Netherlands. Age ranged from 23 to 58 years (mean 41 years, SD 7.92).
Mean years of working experience is 20.3 years (SD 9.01). Seventy percent of the
respondents occupied an ofcers rank and 30% had a non-commissioned ofcers rank.
Dutch military peacekeepers have been involved in many recent UN and NATO
peacekeeping operations, and peacekeeping is a core part of the mission statement of the
Dutch army.

2.2. Procedure

The questionnaire used for this evaluation was developed in close collaboration with
military staff and sent to the home address of 1703 Dutch military peacekeepers, with a
free return envelope. Questionnaires were sent to all Dutch military ofcers, acting as
peacekeepers in missions between 1995 and 1999. A total of 907 questionnaires were
returned. Due to missing values, 542 participants were used in the nal analysis.

2.3. Measures

Conflict management strategies: Participants were asked to ll in the Dutch Test for
Conict Handling (DUTCH). This 20-item survey measures ve styles (problem solving,
compromising, accommodating, avoiding and forcing). The psychometric qualities appear
to compare favorably to other instruments (De Dreu et al., 2001). The DUTCH can be
used for general measurement of styles, as well as behavior in specic conict situations. In
this study, peacekeepers had to remember a conict situation in which they were involved
during their last mission, and lled in the response in terms of the ve styles mentioned. All
items respond to the question to what extend did you act in this conict situation in the
following way, on a ve-point Likert scale (1 not at all, 5 very frequent).
Intercultural competencies: Intercultural competencies were measured with items based on
an early version of the MPV (Van der Zee & Oudenhoven, 1998, 2000). The items were
scored on a ve-point Likert scale (1 completely disagree, 5 completely agree). Factor
analysis on the intercultural competencies resulted in three dimensions (see Table 2). Factor
1 is labeled Cultural empathy, Factor 2 is labeled Open mindedness, and Factor 3 is
labeled Adventurism. Reliabilities of the three scales are acceptable. Cronbachs a for
Cultural empathy is .77, for Open mindedness .78, and for Adventurism .65.
In addition to the two central measures of conict styles and intercultural competencies,
several control variables were included. Distance to the other was used as an indicator of
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the existing relation with the other party in conict. Distance to the other was measured
with four items concerning felt differences with respect to (1) culture, (2) norms and values,
(3) attitudes, and (4) behaviors. The items were scored on a ve-point Likert scale (1 not
at all, 5 to a large extent). Cronbachs a was .73. The type of conflict can be more
personal or task oriented (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003). Conicts of a more personal nature
are disagreements regarding personal issues that are not directly related to the groups
task, such as personality clashes and annoying behavior of other group members (Nibler &
Harris, 2003). Conicts of a more professional nature refer to disagreements related to the
working context. These two types of conict were measured with two direct questions that
were dummy-coded. Age was measured in years. Rank was measured in 12 job categories
(from 1 sergeant to 12 general). Length of the participation in peacekeeping operations
was measured in months.

2.4. Analysis of data

A preliminary step in testing the hypotheses was the examination of the factor structure
of the conict management strategies scales of the DUTCH. We used a factor analysis
(principal components analysis with varimax rotation) to inspect the underlying
dimensions of the DUTCH to assure that the expected factor structure was conrmed
in this data set. Results of this factor analysis (see Table 1) showed that one item loaded on
another factor and was therefore deleted from the scale.
The results of the factor analysis indicate that the ve factor structure of the conict
management strategies ts the data well. Reliabilities of all scales were acceptable.
Cronbachs a for yielding .80, compromising .87, forcing .83, problem solving .84, and
avoiding .84.
Next, to test Hypothesis 1, we conducted a cluster analysis. The cluster analysis
procedure is designed to reveal natural groupings (or clusters) within a dataset that would
otherwise not be apparent (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). In this case, that means
that we were looking for natural groupings of the ve conict management strategies.
As specied in Hypothesis 1 we expect that there will be two clusters: one cluster consisting
of more cooperative and one cluster consisting of more competitive conict management
strategies. Examples of this combination of factor and structure analyses can be found in
the study of Kelly and Lee (2002) and De Fruyt (2002). Kelly and Lee (2002) used a similar
approach in their study on mapping the domain of career decision problems. They found
six factors for the Career Decision Scale (i.e., lack of information, need for information,
trait indecision, disagreement with others, identity diffusion, and choice anxiety.
Subsequent cluster analysis showed three clusters (i.e., information decit or identity
diffusion, decision process inhibitors, and choice inhibitors). Another example of this
procedure can be found in the study De Fruyt (2002) where the Big Five Factor Model of
personality was examined and cluster analysis resulted in two clusters (i.e., internalizers
and resilients) showing very different positions on the labor market and reporting differing
initial career outcomes.
For the cluster analysis, we used a two-step procedure cluster which gives a choice of
statistics that can be used to compare different solutions to determine the best number of
clusters to retain (Clark, 2004). To determine the number of clusters, we used Schwarzs
(1978) Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC). Usually, smaller values of the BIC indicate
better models. However, there are clustering problems in which the BIC will continue to
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Table 1
Results of factor analysis (PCA, varimax rotation) for the conict management scales

Factor

1 2 3 4 5

Problem solving a .84

I work out a solution that serves my own as well as .79 .27 .13 .08 .11
other s interests as good as possible
I stand for my own and other s goals and interests .75 .07 .03 .09 .22
I examine ideas from both sides to nd a mutually .75 .39 .10 .05 .06
optimal solution
I examine issues until I nd a solution that really .71 .31 .01 .07 .14
satises me and the other party
Compromising a .87
I insist we both give in a little .13 .76 .14 .03 .31
I try to realize a middle-of-the-road solution .33 .74 .19 .15 .18
I emphasize that we have to nd a compromise .32 .73 .20 .13 .22
solution
I strive whenever possible towards a fty-fty .40 .67 .24 .20 .21
compromise
Avoiding a .84
I avoid a confrontation about our differences .03 .14 .85 .04 .23
I avoid differences of opinion as much as possible .03 .14 .84 .01 .22
I try to avoid a confrontation with the other .05 .13 .84 .05 .23
I try to make differences loom less severe .27 .47 .51 .02 .06
Forcing a .83
I do everything to win .09 .13 .02 .86 .05
I ght for a good outcome for myself .13 .03 .05 .84 .03
I search for gains .09 .05 .07 .83 .04
I push my own point of view .14 .09 .12 .69 .21
Yielding a .80
I concur with the other party .06 .18 .19 .02 .79
I try to accommodate the other party .23 .14 .19 .07 .78
I adapt to the other parties goals and interests .10 .18 .25 .13 .77
Eigenvalue 6.77 2.66 2.03 1.15 .86
Cumulative explained variance (%) 36 50 60 66 71

decrease as the number of clusters increases. In such situations, the changes in BIC and
changes in the distance measure are evaluated to determine the best cluster solution. Then
the best solution will have the largest ratio of BIC changes and the largest ratio of distance
measures. In the present study, BIC continued to decline from one through ve cluster
solutions. Examination of the ratio of BIC changes and the ratio of distance measures
indicates that the improvement from three to ve cluster levels is not worth the additional
complexity. Both ratios reached their respective maximums with two clusters. Hence, we
choose the two cluster model as the most appropriate model.
Next, in order to test Hypothesis 2, we examined how cluster membership could be
predicted from our independent variables. The cluster analysis showed that two clusters
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was the most optimal solution. Since cluster membership was a dichotomous variable,
logistic regression analysis was used to test the Hypotheses 2ac (see Table 5). Logistic
regression analysis is the recommended method to predict the probability of an outcome,
when this is a dichotomous variable (Cohen et al., 2003). The use of R2, the multiple
correlation coefcient, is well established in classical regression analysis. For logistic
regression, pseudo R2 measures have to be used to evaluate the proportion of explained
variance and we calculated Nagelkerkes R2.

3. Results

As can be seen from Tables 1 and 2, factor analysis of the conict management scales
and the intercultural competencies scale resulted in the expected dimensions.

3.1. Testing Hypothesis 1: identifying clusters of CCBs

From the 542 peacekeepers assigned to the two clusters, 191 (35%) were assigned to the
rst cluster, and 364 (65%) to the second cluster. The cluster centroids show that
peacekeepers in cluster 1 (the forcing prole) use forcing as a predominant conict
management style, whereas the peacekeepers in cluster 2 (the cooperation prole)

Table 2
Results of factor analysis (PCA, varimax rotation) for the intercultural competencies

Factor

1 2 3

Cultural empathy
Being able to assess when people have a hard time .68 .05 .03
Being able to verbalize other peoples thoughts .65 .19 .05
Understanding other peoples feelings .65 .19 .08
Understanding other peoples behaviors .59 .41 .07
Paying attention to other peoples facial expressions .54 .14 .06
Difcult empathizing with other people (r) .50 .13 .29
Sensing what is appropriate in other cultures .49 .40 .10
Reckoning with other cultures customs .45 .37 .01
Open-mindedness
Engrossing in other cultures .20 .80 .17
Taking an interest in other religions .10 .76 .02
Taking an interest in other cultures .22 .74 .21
Engrossing in other opinions .28 .60 .10
Adventurism
Shunning adventure (r) .05 .10 .69
Best performance in own familiar context (r) .12 .00 .68
Not being at ease in other cultures (r) .22 .15 .67
Disliking traveling (r) .19 .23 .58
Evaluating the state of affairs of situations difcult (r) .46 .05 .49
Eigenvalue 4.91 1.80 1.37
Cumulative explained variance (%) 29 39 47
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predominantly use a combination of problem solving and compromising, and to a lesser

extend also the other components, forcing, yielding and avoiding.
The resulting two clusters support our rst hypothesis. Visual inspection of Fig. 1
demonstrates that the most optimal clustering of conict behaviors offers a contrast
between a competitive behavioral pattern (high forcing and low in yielding, avoiding,
compromising and moderately low on problem solving), versus a cooperative behavioral
pattern (relatively low forcing, and high on integrating and compromising).

3.2. Testing Hypothesis 2: competencies and CCBs

Table 3 presents means, standard deviations, and correlation coefcients for all
measures included in the study. The results support Hypothesis 2a and 2c. The positive
coefcients implicates that there is a signicant positive relation between cultural empathy
and the cooperative conglomerate. The negative coefcient for adventurism indicates a
higher chance that adventurous individuals end up in the competitive rather than the
cooperative CCB. Open mindedness is unrelated to CCBs (Tables 4 and 5).
Furthermore, we see that the more distant the other party is perceived the more
competitive conglomerate behavior is deployed. Also, the more the conict is experienced
in terms of a professional conict, the higher the chance a more competitive approach is
taken.

Fig. 1. Conict management strategies proles.

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Table 3
Schwarzs Bayesian Information Criteria (BIC) diagnostics to determine number of clusters

Number of clusters Schwarzs Bayesian BIC change Ratio of BIC Ratio of distance
Criterion (BIC) changes measures

1 1938.88
2 1499.78 439.10 1.00 3.03
3 1397.16 102.62 .23 1.48
4 1348.38 48.78 .11 1.80
5 1349.31 .93 .00 1.04

Note: The ratios of distance measures are based on the current number of clusters against the previous number of
clusters.

Table 4
Means, standard deviations, and person correlations (N 542)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. Cluster .67 .47

membership
2. Rank 6.69 3.09 .04
3. Age 40.42 7.85 .01 .31
4. Length of 8.46 3.86 .02 .11 .22
participation
5. Cultural empathy 3.49 .39 .08 .10 .02 .03
6. Open mindedness 3.76 .64 .06 .13 .13 .14 .58
7. Adventurism 3.99 .57 .10 .01 .07 .21 .38 .32
8. Distance 3.26 .88 .10 .18 .07 .02 .02 .03 .03
9. Professional 3.97 1.18 .12 .12 .01 .03 .04 .04 .04 .05
10. Personal 2.27 1.22 .11 .11 .06 .05 .03 .04 .03 .17 .36
11. Yielding 1.99 .78 .62 .00 .04 .03 .05 .05 .10 .15 .05 .11
12. Compromising 2.54 .94 .76 .03 .03 .00 .10  .10 .05 .08 .10 .09 .53
13. Forcing 2.90 1.03 .32 .07 .07 .03 .01 .05 .04 .13 .10 .00 .20 .23
14. Problem solving 3.02 .93 .62 .08 .05 .04 .27 .16 .01 .10 .01 .04 .38 .67 .18
15. Avoiding 2.12 .85 .52 .11 .12 .06 .04 .06 .10 .02 .07 .10 .50 .52 .04 .31

 po.05,
po.01.

Table 5
Results of logistic regression analysis (N 542)

b SE Wald

Rank .06 .03 3.48

Age .01 .01 .48
Length of participation .01 .03 .21
Cultural empathy .77* .31 6.12
Open mindedness .12 .18 .41
Adventurism .56* .19 8.36
Distance .40* .11 12.31
Professional conict .18* .09 3.78
Personal conict .13 .09 2.31

Note: Nagelkerke R2 .09, Wald 45.80, df 1, po.01, *po.05, **po.01.

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Finally, it is interesting to notice that experience in peacekeeping missions, no age or

rank did have a signicant relation with the conglomerate behavior peacekeepers used in
their conict.

4. Discussion

The present study shows two different patterns of conict management proles for a
group of Dutch military peacekeepers. The conglomerates can be meaningfully classied
into two different patterns, namely a cooperative and competitive one. The patterns
identied demonstrate that the majority of the peacekeepers combine different styles for
addressing conict situations. Furthermore, this study shows that cultural competencies
are related with conglomerate conict behavior. We shortly discuss the theoretical
implications of the two central issues here, followed by limitations and practical
implications.
The focus on conglomerated behavior (Van de Vliert, 1997; Van de Vliert et al., 1995)
allowed the identication of different ways in which people handle conict situations from
a more all-embracing point of view than the perspective of single styles of conict
management. Two clearly different groups of respondents were distinguished. One group
dealing with conict primarily in a cooperative way, in which problem solving and
compromising behaviors are most prevalent. The other group responding primarily in a
competitive way, in which forcing is most prominent, combined with (less) problem
solving. This is in line with expectations, given the major contrast between cooperation and
competition as ways of dealing with conict. In most literature on conict management,
these two approaches are in contrast with one another (Deutsch & Coleman, 2000;
Tjosvold, 2000). The two conglomerates presented here, offer however mixtures of both,
competitive and cooperative behaviors, in rather different forms, not excluding one
another, but combining or supplementing each other. Differentiating between two CCBs,
one more competitive and the other more cooperative, might offer a more realistic way of
looking at conict behaviors, than the pure dichotomy (either cooperative or competitive).
This approach might also help understanding dynamics in conict behavior better, as shifts
might occur in time in the balance between cooperative and competitive components,
however not simply shifting from cooperative towards competitive behavior, as is regularly
suggested in escalation models (Deutsch & Coleman, 2000).
The second central issue in this study is the relation between intercultural competencies
and CCBs. This relation has not been explored empirically before. We believe it is a vital
issue, not only for peacekeepers, and international assignees. In multicultural societies
intercultural competencies become more and more important, and conicts inevitable.
Results of this study show that indeed intercultural competencies are related with the way
intercultural conicts are managed. The relation between cultural empathy and a more
cooperative CCB underscores that concern for others is an important characteristic and
motivator for cooperative behaviors. Surprisingly, open mindedness was not related with
the CCBs. This might be due to the rather strong relation between empathy and open
mindedness. When we take a more detailed look at the zero-order correlations, open
mindedness is positively related with the compromising and problem-solving components.
Adventurism was included as a third competency, and was related with the more
competitive CCB. Interestingly, inspection of the zero-order correlations shows that
particularly yielding and avoiding are negatively related with adventurism, indeed
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demonstrating that adventurism results in a assertive and active way of conict

management. Adventurism is a concept no longer present in the MPQ (Van der Zee
et al., 2003). Given the interesting outcomes here, we think the concept deserves more
recognition. Particularly in international assignments in which people do not participate
voluntary, adventurism might help explain behavior, such as in conict situations, and
eventually success in these assignments.

4.1. Limitations

It is obvious this survey study has limitations, in terms of measurement of conditions,

use of self-reported measures, and the specic sample. Also, we did not focus on detailed
characteristics of the conicts involved. It is regrettable that we couldnt use longitudinal
data. Worchel (2005) argued quite convincingly that because culture is constantly
changing, the relationship between culture and conict is best understood by a paradigm
that includes both level of relationship (individual, group, and intergroup) and time (past,
present, and expectations of the future). Hence, we certainly encourage futures studies to
use longitudinal designs. Further, the present study used a quite specic sample, namely
peacekeepers. Due to their circumstances and sometimes really hostile environment, these
people are under great pressure and may be inclined to react different than they would be
inclined in less stressful circumstances. For instance, it is possible that the use of the
forcing proleuse of forcing as a predominant conict management styleis over-
estimated because of the stressful context.

4.2. Implications for practice

The rst implication of this study is at the conceptual level. Too often, training in
conict management is focused on differentiating conict styles, and implementing and
training the high value of problem solving and compromising norms and behaviors.
Instead, conglomerate conict theory promotes combination of styles, and the exibility in
different situations to use more of less of these styles together with other components.
Particularly, the combination of forcing and problem solving deserves more attention.
Also in the eld of peacekeeping, too easily a contrast is made between social-science-
based trainers, promoting the goods of collaboration and problem solving. In reality
however, peacekeepers act often rather forcing, or even forcefully, and feel the need and
positive effects of this approach. The concept of CCBs offers a possible integration of these
two components, making a more realistic approach to many conict situations in which a
forceful approach indeed is required. The results of the present study could be integrated
meaningfully in workshops intended to learn peacekeepers more about effective conict
strategies. Such workshops could provide an opportunity for exploratory, problem-
solving, trust-building, and relationship-forming interactions that are essential for conict
resolution (see Kelman, 2005).
The concepts measured here such as cultural empathy and adventurism can be seen as
relatively stable competencies, rmly rooted in the personality. For selection and training
these competencies are important. This study underscores the relevance when it comes
down to specic behaviors in conict situations. We think therefore that in training for a
wide variety of international assignees, multicultural personality characteristics should be
linked with type of tasks, and possible conicts that are part of that task, to maximize
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persontask t in relation with predominant conict behavior. Many situations might

benet from a highly assertive conict approach.
Finally, as already noted by Marsella (2005), violence and war have been present
throughout most of human history, and there is no reason to think that the future will
bring many changes. Since culture is such a critical determinant of conict, every
consideration should be given to cultural factors in understanding the origins, escalation,
resolution, and prevention of conicts. Intercultural conict behaviors appear to be related
with intercultural competencies. Development of these competencies in education,
particularly with young people, might contribute to a broader range of responses in
conict, and more effective coping with intercultural differences.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Dutch Ministry of Defense and the Clingendael institute for
their cooperation in this project. We thank Dr Nicolien Kop, Dr Richard de Ridder, Lt.kol
Jaap Dijkstra, Lt.kol Richard van Eijsden, gen.maj.b.d. Mr.Drs. Kees Homan, Prof.Dr.
Jan Rood and Drs Christine Oosterman for their important contributions to this project.

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