Reactive, Anticipatory, Preventive,
and Proactive Coping:
A Theoretical Distinction
By Ralf Schwarzer, Ph.D., and Aleksandra Luszczynska, Ph.D.
T
The transition to adulthood is a stressful period of life in which
adolescents cope with various goals and demands. Many youth
experience conflicts with peers and family members; they may
experiment with smoking, alcohol, and drugs; and they may be
faced with dietary problems, engage in sexually risky behavior,
or drive recklessly. Educational and psychological interventions
aim to prevent such risk behaviors. However, there is a difference
between prevention and promotion (e.g., Nikitin & Freund, 2008).
Coping to prevent adversity is different than coping to promote
personal growth (proactive coping). Coping theory can account
for this difference and can provide further perspectives that may
facilitate the design of interventions (Schwarzer & Luszczynska,
2006). This article will differentiate proactive coping from
preventive coping. It will also provide a broader scope by including
reactive and anticipatory coping.
The proactive
adolescent
strives for
improving life,
school, or work
and builds up
resources that
ensure progress
and quality of
functioning.
There is a general trend to broaden stress and coping research by
including positive strivings that formerly fell into the domains of
motivation and action theories. The recent broadening of coping
theory might be a reaction to earlier conceptualizations of coping
that neglected to include such aspects as goals, purpose, and meaning
(Schwarzer & Knoll, 2003). The notions of mastery, optimization
(Freund & Baltes, 2000), challenge and benefit (Lazarus, 1991),
and resource gain (Hobfoll, 1998) are in line with proactive coping
theories (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997; Greenglass, 2002; Schwarzer,
2000). People strive for more resources, desire to maximize gains,
and build up resistance factors either to ward off future crises or
to grow and cultivate their capabilities for their own sake. This
forward time perspective helps to balance traditional coping models
that overemphasize the reactive nature of coping.
FOUR COPING PERSPECTIVES AS
A FUNCTION OF TIMING AND CERTAINTY
Demands in the daily life of teens can either refer to events that
have already happened to them or to events that are about to
happen. A stressful situation can reflect an ongoing harmful
22 November 2008 Volume 15(4) The Prevention Researcher
encounter, or it can evolve in the near or distant future, posing a
threat to someone who feels incapable of matching the upcoming
demands with the coping resources at hand. For instance, critical
events at school may have occurred in the past (e.g., failing a class),
which may lead to disappointment, setbacks, or adverse emotions,
or they may happen in the future (e.g., upcoming college entrance
exams), which may lead to stress, anxiety, and uncertainty. In
light of the complexity of stressful episodes, coping cannot be
reduced to either relaxation or fight-and-flight responses. Coping
depends on the timing of demands and the subjective certainty
of the events, among other factors. There are differences between
reactive, anticipatory, preventive, and proactive coping. Reactive
coping refers to harm or loss experienced in the past, and anticipatory
coping to inevitable threats in the near future. Preventive coping
refers to uncertain threats in the distant future, whereas proactive
coping involves future challenges that are seen as self-promoting
(see Figure 5.1). In the following, we will describe these four coping
perspectives in more detail.
Reactive coping can be defined as an effort to deal with an
ongoing stressful encounter or one that has already happened.
Moreover, it might aim at compensation for or acceptance of
harm or loss. Examples are loss of a friend, failing an exam,
having an accident, being criticized by the teacher, or having
been rejected by peers. All of these events have happened in the
past with absolute certainty; thus, the individual has to
compensate for loss or to alleviate harm. Other options might
entail readjusting goals or searching for meaning. Reactive
coping may be problem-focused, emotion-focused, or social-
relation-focused.
Anticipatory coping can be defined as an effort to deal with
imminent threat. In anticipatory coping, individuals face a critical
event that will occur in the near future. Examples are speaking
in class, a dental appointment, a scheduled job interview, moving
FIGURE 5.1
Four Coping Perspectives as a Function
of Timing and Certainty
certain
reactive coping
anticipatory coping
proactive coping
past harm/losses future threats & challenges
preventive coping
uncertain
www.TPRonline.org
to a new neighborhood, or increasing school work. There is a risk The distinction between these four perspectives of coping is
that the upcoming event might cause harm or loss later on. Thus, useful because it moves the focus away from merely responding
the person has to manage this perceived risk. The function of coping to negative events toward a broader range of risk and goal
may lie in solving the actual problem at hand, such as increasing management that includes the active creation of opportunities
effort, getting help, or investing other resources. Another function and a positive attitude toward stress.
may lie in feeling good in spite of the risk, for example by redefining
ASSESSMENT OF REACTIVE, ANTICIPATORY,
the situation as less threatening, by distraction, or by gaining PREVENTIVE, AND PROACTIVE COPING
reassurance from others.
Psychometric tools to assess coping usually do not make a distinction
Preventive coping can be defined as an effort to build up general between the four kinds of coping described above (for an overview,
resistance resources that result in less strain in the future see Schwarzer & Schwarzer, 1996). The following examples allow
(minimizing the severity of the impact of potential distress) and a better understanding of reactive, anticipatory, preventive, and
an overall reduced risk of stressful events. In preventive coping, proactive coping.
individuals face a potentially critical event in the distant future. Typical items for assessing reactive coping are the following:
Examples are a volatile job market with a chance of not finding a
job after finishing school, uncertainty about finding an appropriate 1. I have told myself that others are worse off.
partner and having children, possible illness or physical impairment, (downward comparison)
or safety. Daily life examples for preventive coping on a much 2. If a problem was too difficult, I put it aside until I was
smaller scale are keeping a spare key handy or doing homework ready to deal with it. (avoidance)
right after school (if afraid of not managing ones time). The 3. Information I get from others has often helped me deal
individual prepares for the potential occurrence of such life events with my problems. (support seeking)
that are appraised as threatening. Since any kind of harm or loss
could possibly materialize, the individual builds up general Typical items for assessing anticipatory coping are the following:
resistance resources, accumulating wealth, time, social bonds, 1. When I feel threatened by an upcoming event, I go out
and skills, just in case. and talk to others. (support seeking)
2. Before tackling a difficult task, I imagine success scenarios.
(reflective coping)
Proactive coping can be defined as an effort to
3. I break down a problem into smaller parts and deal with
build up general resources that facilitate promotion one part at a time. (planning)
toward challenging goals and personal growth. Typical items for assessing preventive coping are the following:
1. I plan for future eventualities.
Proactive coping can be defined as an effort to build up general 2. Rather than spending every cent I make, I like to save for
resources that facilitate promotion toward challenging goals and a rainy day.
personal growth. In proactive coping, people have a vision. They 3. I develop my writing skills to protect myself against
see risks, demands, and opportunities in the far future, but they grade retention.
do not appraise these as threats, harm, or loss. Rather, they perceive
difficult situations as challenges. Coping becomes goal management Typical items for assessing proactive coping are the following:
instead of risk management. Individuals are not reactive, but 1. I visualize my dreams and try to achieve them.
proactive in the sense that they initiate a constructive path of
action and create opportunities for growth. For example, young 2. I always try to find a way to work around obstacles;
people may acquire competencies, learn a foreign language, practice nothing really stops me.
a musical instrument, conduct strenuous physical exercise, and 3. I turn obstacles into positive experiences.
cultivate social networks. The proactive adolescent strives for
improving life, school, or work and builds up resources that ensure
progress and quality of functioning. For instance, proactively
creating better life conditions and achieving higher performance
levels may be experienced as an opportunity to render life meaningful
or to find purpose in life. Stress is interpreted as eustress, that
is, moderately beneficial stress that produces vital energy. Examples
for proactive coping in daily life on a much smaller scale are being
outgoing at a party to meet new friends, collecting tools that might
be useful one day, saving money for drivers education class, or
doing homework immediately after school to have time left for
unplanned activities.
Preventive and proactive coping are partly manifested in the same
kinds of overt behaviors such as skill development, resource
accumulation, improvement of physical fitness, and long-term
planning. However, the motivation can emanate either from
threat appraisal or from challenge appraisal. The difference is
that worry levels are high in the former and low in the latter.
Proactive individuals are motivated to meet challenges and
commit themselves to personal quality standards. Self-regulatory Proactive coping can be a valuable
goal management includes an ambitious manner of goal setting strategy to improve ones quality of life.
and tenacious goal pursuit.

www.TPRonline.org The Prevention Researcher Volume 15(4) November 2008 23