I.3 Biochemistry of Cells

Biochemistry of Cells
Copyright Cmassengale 1
Uses of Organic Molecules
Americans consume
an average of 140
pounds of sugar
per person per
year
Cellulose, found in
plant cell walls, is
the most abundant
organic compound on
Earth
Uses of Organic Molecules
A typical cell in
your body has
about 2 meters
of DNA
A typical cow
produces over
200 pounds of
methane gas
each year
Water
About 60-90 percent
of an organism is
water
Water is used in
most reactions in
the body
Water is called
the universal
solvent
Water Properties
Polarity
Cohesiveness
Adhesiveness
Surface
Tension
Carbon-based Molecules
Although a cell is
mostly water, the
rest of the cell
consists mostly of
carbon-based
molecules
Organic chemistry
is the study of
carbon compounds
Carbon is a Versatile Atom
It has four electrons
in an outer shell that
holds eight
Carbon can
share its
electrons with
other atoms to
form up to four
covalent bonds
Hydrocarbons
The simplest carbon

compounds
Contain only carbon
& hydrogen atoms
Carbon can use its bonds to::
Attach to other
carbons
Form an
endless
diversity of
carbon
skeletons
Large Hydrocarbons:
Are the main
molecules in the
gasoline we burn
in our cars
The hydrocarbons
of fat molecules
provide energy for
our bodies
Shape of Organic Molecules
Each type of
organic molecule
has a unique
three-dimensional
shape
The shape
determines its
function in an
organism
Functional Groups are:
Groups of atoms that give properties to
the compounds to which they attach
Gained Electrons Lost Electrons

Common Functional Groups
Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules
are called polymers
Polymers are built
from smaller
molecules called
monomers
Biologists call
them
macromolecules
Examples of Polymers
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Nucleic Acids
Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together

many smaller molecules called monomers
Nucleic Acid
Monomer
Linking Monomers
Cells link monomers by a process called
condensation or dehydration synthesis
(removing a molecule of water)
Remove
H
H2O Forms
Remove OH
This process joins two sugar monomers

to make a double sugar
Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down
macromolecules
by a process
called
hydrolysis
(adding a
molecule of
water)
Water added to split a double sugar
Macromolecules in Organisms
There are four categories of large

molecules in cells:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include:
Small sugar molecules
in soft drinks
Long starch molecules
in pasta and potatoes
Monosaccharides:
Called simple sugars
Include glucose,
fructose, & galactose
Have the same

chemical, but
different structural
formulas
C6H12O6
Monosaccharides
Glucose is found in
sports drinks
Fructose is found
in fruits
Honey contains
both glucose &
fructose
Galactose is called
milk sugar
-OSE ending means SUGAR
Isomers
Glucose &
fructose are
isomers
because
theyre
structures are
different, but
their chemical
formulas are
the same
Rings
In aqueous (watery) solutions,
monosaccharides form ring structures
Cellular Fuel
Monosaccharides
are the main
fuel that cells
use for cellular
work
ATP
Disaccharides
A disaccharide is a
double sugar
Theyre made by
joining two
monosaccharides
Involves removing
a water molecule
(condensation)
Bond called a GLYCOSIDIC bond
Disaccharides
Common disaccharides include:
Sucrose (table sugar)

Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Maltose (Grain sugar)
Disaccharides
Sucrose is composed
of glucose + fructose
Maltose is
composed of 2
glucose molecules
Lactose is made
of galactose +
glucose GLUCOSE
Polysaccharides
Complex
carbohydrates
Composed of many
sugar monomers
linked together
Polymers of
monosaccharide
chains
Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Starch
Starch is an example of a
polysaccharide in plants
Plant cells store starch

for energy
Potatoes and grains are

major sources of starch
in the human diet
Glycogen
Glycogen is an example
of a polysaccharide
in animals
Animals store excess
sugar in the form of
glycogen
Glycogen is similar in
structure to starch because
BOTH are made of glucose
monomers
Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant organic
compound on Earth
It forms cable-like fibrils in the
tough walls that enclose plants
It is a major component of
wood
It is also known as dietary fiber
Cellulose
SUGARS
Dietary Cellulose
Most animals cannot derive nutrition
from fiber
They have
bacteria in
their digestive
tracts that can
break down
cellulose
Sugars in Water
Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve
readily in water WATER
MOLECULE
They are
hydrophilic,
or water-
loving
-OH groups
SUGAR
make them MOLECULE
water soluble
Lipids
Lipids are hydrophobic water fearing
Do NOT mix with water
Includes
fats,
waxes,
steroids,
& oils
FAT MOLECULE
LIPIDS
Function of Lipids
Fats store energy, help to insulate the
body, and cushion and protect organs
Classes
Fatty Acids
Triglycerides
Phosphatidic Acids
Sphingolipids
Waxes
Glycolipids
Steroids
Terpenes
Eicosanoids
Types of Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids have the
maximum number of hydrogens bonded
to the carbons (all single bonds
between carbons)
Unsaturated fatty acids have less than

the maximum number of hydrogens
bonded to the carbons (a double bond
between carbons)
Types of Fatty Acids
Single
Bonds in
Carbon
chain
Double bond in carbon chain
Triglyceride
Monomer of lipids
Composed of
Glycerol & 3
fatty acid chains
Glycerol forms
the backbone
of the fat
Organic Alcohol
(-OL ending)
Triglyceride
Glycerol Fatty Acid Chains
Fats in Organisms
Most animal fats have a high proportion
of saturated fatty acids & exist as
solids at room temperature (butter,
margarine, shortening)
Fats in Organisms
Most plant oils tend to be low in
saturated fatty acids & exist as
liquids at room temperature (oils)
Fats
Dietary fat consists largely of the
molecule triglyceride composed of
glycerol and three fatty acid chains
Fatty Acid Chain
Glycerol
Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol
Lipids & Cell Membranes
Cell membranes are made
of lipids called
phospholipids
Phospholipids have a head
that is polar & attract
water (hydrophilic)
Phospholipids also have 2
tails that are nonpolar and
do not attract water
(hydrophobic)
Steroids
The carbon skeleton
of steroids is bent
to form 4 fused
rings Cholesterol
Cholesterol is
the base Estrogen
steroid from Testosterone
which your body

produces other
steroids
Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids
Synthetic Anabolic Steroids
They are variants
of testosterone
Some athletes use
them to build up
their muscles quickly
They can pose

serious health risks
Lipid-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins are divided into two classes: lipid-soluble

and water-soluble
Table 7.3 Lipid-soluble vitamins and their functions
Vitami n Functio n
A Serves as the si te of the primary

photochemi cal reaction in vis ion
D R egulates cal ciu m (and phos phorus )
metabo lis m
E Serves as an anti oxi dant; neces s ary
f or reprod uction in rats , and m ay
be necess s ary f or reprodu cti on in human s
K Has a regulatory fu nction in blood clotting
Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins: a family of compounds that have the

20-carbon skeleton of prostanoic acid
7 5 3 1
9 COOH
8 6 4 2
10
11 12 14 16 18 20
13 15 17 19
Prostanoic acid
Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are not stored in tissues as such, but

are synthesized from membrane-bound 20-carbon
polyunsaturated fatty acids in response to specific
physiological triggers
one such polyunsaturated fatty acid is arachidonic acid
9 8 6 5
COOH
11 12 14 15
Arachidonic acid
Prostaglandins
among those synthesized from arachidonic acid are

O
COOH
PGE2
HO HO
HO
COOH
PGF2
HO HO
Prostaglandins
Research on the involvement of PGs in reproductive

physiology has produced several clinically useful
derivatives
15-Methyl-PGF2 is used as a therapeutic abortifacient
extra methyl group
at carbon-15
HO
COOH
15
HO
HO CH3
15-Methyl-PG F2
Prostaglandins
the PGE1 analog, misoprostol, is used for prevention of

ulceration associated with the use of aspirin-like
nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
O
COOH
PGE1
15 16
HO HO H
O
COOCH 3
Misoprostol HO CH3
16
15
HO
Leukotrienes
derived from arachidonic acid

found in white blood cells (leukocytes)
an important property is constriction of smooth muscles,
especially in the lungs
HO H
COOH
H S L-cysteine
-
CH2 CH2 COO
Leukotriene C N H3 +
(its synthesis and release is
triggered by allergic reactions)
Thromboxanes
derived from arachidonic acid

contain a four-membered cyclic ether within a six-membered
ring
induce platelet aggregation and smooth muscle contraction
O COOH
H O
OH
Thromboxane A 2
(a potent vasoconstrictor)
PROTEINS
Proteins
Proteins are polymers made of
monomers called amino acids
All proteins are made of 20 different

amino acids linked in different orders
Proteins are used to build cells, act

as hormones & enzymes, and do much
of the work in a cell
Four Types of Proteins
Storage
Structural
Contractile
Transport
20 Amino Acid Monomers
Structure of Amino Acids
Amino Carboxyl
Amino acids have a group group
central carbon with
4 things boded to R group
it:
Amino group NH2
Carboxyl group -COOH
Hydrogen -H Side
groups
Side group -R Serine-hydrophillic
Leucine -hydrophobic
Linking Amino Acids
Carboxyl
Cells link amino
acids together to Amino
make proteins Side
Group
The process is
called condensation Dehydration
or dehydration Synthesis
Peptide bonds
form to hold the
amino acids
together Peptide Bond
Proteins as Enzymes
Many proteins act as biological catalysts
or enzymes
Thousands of different enzymes exist
in the body
Enzymes control the rate of chemical
reactions by weakening bonds, thus
lowering the amount of activation
energy needed for the reaction
Enzymes
Enzymes are globular proteins.
Their folded conformation

creates an area known as the
active site.
The nature and arrangement of
amino acids in the active site
make it specific for only one
type of substrate.
Enzyme + Substrate = Product
How the Enzyme Works
Enzymes
are
reusable!!!
Active site
changes
SHAPE
Called
INDUCED
FIT
Primary Protein Structure
The primary
structure is
the specific
sequence of
amino acids in
a protein
Called
polypeptide
Amino Acid
Protein Structures
Secondary protein structures occur

when protein chains coil or fold
When protein chains called polypeptides
join together, the tertiary structure
forms because R groups interact with
each other
In the watery environment of a cell,
proteins become globular in their
quaternary structure
Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS
Hydrogen bond
Pleated sheet
Polypeptide
Amino acid (single subunit)
(a) Primary structure
Hydrogen bond
Alpha helix
(b) Secondary (c) Tertiary

structure structure
(d) Quaternary structure
Denaturating Proteins
Changes in temperature & pH can
denature (unfold) a protein so it no
longer works
Cooking denatures
protein in eggs
Milk protein separates into

curds & whey when it
denatures
Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for
another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell
disease
2 7. . . 146
1 3 6
4 5
(a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin
2 7. . . 146
1 3 6
4 5
(b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin
Other Important Proteins
Blood sugar level is controlled by

a protein called insulin
Insulin causes the liver to uptake
and store excess sugar as
Glycogen
The cell membrane also contains
proteins
Receptor proteins help cells
recognize other cells
INSULIN
Cell membrane with proteins &

phospholipids
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic Acids
Store hereditary information
Contain information for making all
the bodys proteins
Two types exist --- DNA &

RNA
Nucleic Acids
Nitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or T)
Nucleic
acids are
polymers of Phosphate
group
Thymine (T)
nucleotides
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
Phosphate
Base
Sugar
Nucleotide
Nucleotide Nucleic acid monomer
Nucleic Acids
Bases
Each DNA
nucleotide has one
of the following
bases:
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
Nucleotide Monomers
Backbone
Form long chains Nucleotide

called DNA
Nucleotides are
joined by sugars
& phosphates on
the side
Bases
DNA strand
DNA
Two strands of
DNA join
together to form
a double helix Base
pair
Double helix
RNA Ribonucleic Acid
Nitrogenous base
Ribose sugar
(A,G,C, or U)
has an extra
OH or
hydroxyl
group
Uracil
It has the
Phosphate
group
base uracil (U)

instead of
thymine (T) Sugar (ribose)
ATP Cellular Energy
ATP is used by cells for energy

Adenosine triphosphate
Made of a nucleotide with 3
phosphate groups
ATP Cellular Energy
Energy is stored in the chemical bonds

of ATP
The last 2 phosphate bonds are HIGH
ENERGY
Breaking the last phosphate bond
releases energy for cellular work and
produces ADP and a free phosphate
ADP (adenosine Diphosphate) can be
rejoined to the free phosphate to
make more ATP
Summary of Key Concepts
Macromolecules
Macromolecules
End

I.3 Biochemistry of Cells

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I.3 Biochemistry of Cells

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Biochemistry of Cells

The simplest carbon

Gained Electrons Lost Electrons

Polymers are made by stringing together

This process joins two sugar monomers

There are four categories of large

Have the same

Common disaccharides include:

Sucrose (table sugar)

Plant cells store starch

Potatoes and grains are

Unsaturated fatty acids have less than

Double bond in carbon chain

Glycerol Fatty Acid Chains

Fatty Acid Chain

Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol

which your body

They can pose

Vitamins are divided into two classes: lipid-soluble

A Serves as the si te of the primary

Prostaglandins: a family of compounds that have the

Prostaglandins are not stored in tissues as such, but

among those synthesized from arachidonic acid are

Research on the involvement of PGs in reproductive

the PGE1 analog, misoprostol, is used for prevention of

derived from arachidonic acid

derived from arachidonic acid

All proteins are made of 20 different

Proteins are used to build cells, act

Their folded conformation

Secondary protein structures occur

(a) Primary structure

(b) Secondary (c) Tertiary

(d) Quaternary structure

Milk protein separates into

Blood sugar level is controlled by

Cell membrane with proteins &

Two types exist --- DNA &

Form long chains Nucleotide

base uracil (U)

ATP is used by cells for energy

Energy is stored in the chemical bonds

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