Chapter 1Magnetic Circuit

Glossary

Magnetic Flux () (1) The magnetic flux (often

(Wb) denoted or B) through a surface
is the surface integral of the normal
component of the magnetic
field B passing through that surface.
Magnetic Field (B) (2) The magnetic effect of electric
(T) currents and magnetic materials
Magnetomotive force (MMF or F) A quantity appearing in the equation
(A) for the magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit, sometimes known
as Hopkinson's law
Permeability () (3) The measure of the ability of a
( N / A2 ) material to support the formation of
a magnetic field within itself
Excitation The process of generating a magnetic
field by means of an electric current
Right Hand Grip Rule A current flowing in the direction of
the white arrow produces a magnetic
field shown by the red arrows.
Coercive Force A measure of the ability of
a ferromagnetic material to withstand
an external magnetic field without
becoming demagnetized.
Magnetic Domain a region within a magnetic material in
which the magnetization is in a
uniform direction
(1) B= /S in the uniform magnetic field.
(2) B=F/IL
(3) 0, commonly called the vacuum permeability, permeability of free
space, permeability of vacuum or magnetic constant is an ideal, (baseline)
physical constant, which is the value of magnetic permeability in a classical vacuum.
0 = 4107 N / A2 1.2566370614...106 H / m or Tm / A or Wb / (Am) or Vs /
(Am)

Key Words Basic Principles of Magnetic Circuit Characteristics of Ferromagnetic

material, Magnetic circuit of AC/DC.

1.Basic Principle of Magnetic Circuit

This section describes the basic principle and the calculation of the magnetic circuit.

1.1. The Definition of Magnetic Circuit

The ferromagnetic material has been widely used in the electric equipments such as transformers
and other electrical machines to achieve a strong magnetic field. The artificial man-made path for
magnetic flux in electric machine is defined as magnetic circuit. In the following figure, the
magnetic circuit of a transformer and an induction motor has been illustrated respectively.

Figure 1.1 The sketch of the transformer magnetic circuit

Figure 1.2 The

sketch of the induction motor magnetic circuit

Therefore the magnetic flux distributed freely in the space is limited to a certain area. Similar to
the electric circuit where the electrical current flowing, the path for magnetic flux is called
magnetic circuit. Due to the high conductivity of magnetic flux of ferromagnetic material of the
cores, the majority of the flux flows through the core, which is called main flux. And leakage flux
is those going through air gap. The load winding to generate magnetic flux is named as excitation
coil, where the electric current flowing through is named as excitation current.

1.2. Basic Law of Magnetic Circuit

The basic laws of magnetic circuit for its analysis and calculation are introduced as follows:

1.2.1.Ampre's law
On the any path L of a closed magnetic circuit, the line integral of the magnetic field H is equal to
the sum of the total currents included in the closed circuit which can be expressed as follows

H dL i
l (1-1)
 Figure 1-3 Amperes Law
When the reference direction of the current and the closed path meets the Amperes right-handed
rule, positive sign will apply, vice versa for the negative.

When the magnetic field H keeps constant along the path L and the total current included in the
closed circuit is provided by the winding of N turns with current I, then the equation 1-1 can be
rewritten as Magnetomotive force (MMF):
F=HL=Ni 1-2

1.2.2. Magnetic circuit ohms law

When the current I flows through the winding of N turns on the core with the cross-sectional area
of A, the average length of magnetic circuit of L and the permeability of L, the leakage magnetic
flux is ignored, and the density B of the magnetic flux of each cross section is supposed to be
uniform and perpendicular to it
B dA BA H=
B
(1-3)

B
Ni Hl L L
A 1-4
Ni F

L Rm
A 1-5
l
F R m R m A
F Rm is defined as ohm's law for magnetic circuit, which has
Above-mentioned equation
similar in form.

NoteRm is corresponding to resistance R. The equations for both magnetic and electric circuit
are similar. However, the permeability of ferromagnetic materials is not a constant. Therefore
Rm is not a constant.

1.2.3.Magnetic circuit Kirchhoff's first law

Taking any of a closed surface A in a branched magnetic circuit, the algebraic sum of the magnetic
flux through a closed surface is zero:
0 (1-6)
This law is so-called magnetic circuit Kirchhoffs first law
Figure 1-4 a) Non-branch magnetic circuit b) branched magnetic circuit
1.2.4. Magnetic circuit Kirchhoff's second law

The total MMF of a closed magnetic circuit Ni is identically equal to the algebraic sum of the
drop of magnetic potential of each section
n

Ni H k l k
k 1
The law is defined as Kirchhoffs second law.

The magnetic circuit of transformer and electrical machines normally is composed of a few of
different sections and formed in the core of different materials. In addition there are air gaps.
Therefore, the magnetic field always is divided to different section (The same section have the
same material with same cross section and same intensity of magnetic flux) to be calculated
according to the material of core. As shown in Figure 1-5, the magnetic circuit has three sections,
which include two of them with different cross section and different materials, and one air gap.
Therefore the Magnetic Motive Force(MMF) is calculated as NI:

Figure 1-5 the magnetic circuit of a ferromagnetic material

3
Ni H K l k H 1 l 1 H 2 l 2 H R m1
R m2
R m
1 2
k 1 (1-7)

1.3. Characteristics and differences between magnetic

circuit and electric circuit

Corresponding characteristics between magnetic circuit and electric circuit

Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit

 1 Parameters
F Rm Electromotive force E=IR
Magnetomotive force
magnetic flux Current I
l Resistance R
Rm
Reluctance A
1 Conductance G

Rm
Conductivity
Permeance
Permeability

2 Basic law
Ni F E

L Rm Ohmss Law I= R
Ohms Law A

Kirchhoff's first law 0 Kirchhoff's first law i 0

n

Ni H k l k
k 1 e iR
Kirchhoff's second law Kirchhoff's second law

Differences between magnetic circuit and electric circuit

1 Whenever there is a current, there is real power loss in an electric circuit. When
the magnetic flux is constant, there is no real power loss.
2 All the current flows through the conductor. However, there is no absolute
magnetic insulator. Therefore in the magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux exists
not only in the ferromagnetic material core but also in the air.
3 Resistance is a constant. However, reluctance is a variable.
4 The Superposition Principle may be applied to linear electric circuit. However,
when the magnetic circuit reached to magnetic saturation, the Superposition
Principle is not applicable.
In summary, the electric circuit and magnetic circuit share similar mathematic
formula, however in nature, they are different.

2.Common ferromagnetic Materials and

Their Properties

To excite stronger magnetic field under a certain MMF in order to minimize the dimension of the
electrical machines and transformers with the reduction of weight, improvement of performance,
an increase of the permeability of the magnetic circuit of is needed. Since the ferromagnetic
material has high permeability performance, it is made use of to limit the magnetic flux within a
certain area in engineering. Therefore, the core of electrical machines and transformers is
composited with high magnetic permeability ferromagnetic material. This section describes the
properties of ferromagnetic material.
 2.1. Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Material

2.1.1.Ferromagnetic Material
Divided by the magnetic substance Paramagnetic materials, anti-magnetic material and
ferromagnetic materials
There are several substances, such as iron, cobalt, nickel and their corresponding alloys, as well as
some of the manganese and chromium alloy, even exposed in a small external magnetic field, the
magnetization is particularly significant. Such material is known as ferromagnetic materials,
magnetic permeability thereof are large, more than a few thousand. The permeability of anti-
magnetic material has negative magnetic permeability, for paramagnetic substance it is between
10-3~10-6.
Metal: Iron, cobalt, nickelHigh BHigh Curie temperature Low
resistivityHigh eddy current loss.
Ferromagnetic Material
Nonmetal: Ferrite, High resistivity, less eddy current
lossAnti-rust corrosion; Low B, Poor temperature stability
2.1.2. Magnetization of ferromagnetic material

After the ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field is significantly
enhanced. The phenomenon that ferromagnetic material exhibits a strong magnetic property in a
magnetic field is called the magnetization of ferromagnetic material.

Reason: There are so-called magnetic domains which are magnetized area in nature in
ferromagnetic substance. When the ferromagnetic substance is not placed in the field, it is
arranged in chaotic order, which lead to the magnetic effect cancel each other so that no significant
magnetic property can be shown. When it is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic domains are
arranged according to the direction of the external magnetic field, forming an additional magnetic
field is superimposed on the external magnetic field.

a) Before magnetization, b) After magnetization

Figure1-6 Magnetic Domains:

2.2. Magnetization Curve

The status of the magnetization of ferromagnetic material can be expressed by magnetization

curve:
2.2.1.Initial Magnetization Curve

Initial magnetization curve (the B-H curve) is obtained by experiment. A piece of the non-
magnetized ferromagnetic material is made to a closed core with windings wound on. When R
is adjusted for the current to increase from zero, the flux density through the cross-section of
the core also increases. The values of B and H can be measured accordingly. It can be depicted
point by point to the B-H curve.
Figure1-7 Initial magnetization curve (B-H curve) and Fe=f (H ) curve
The curve can be divided to four sections which stand for four different status of the
magnetization.
oa section: beginning of magnetization, the applied magnetic field is low so that the increase
of B is not fast.
ab section: with increase of the applied magnetic field, the magnificent magnetic domains
start to change the direction in line with the applied field. B increases dramatically.
bc section: with further increase of the applied magnetic field, the available magnetic domains
are less and less. B increases slowly.
cd section: the material act as non-ferromagnetic material. . B=0 H characteristics
tends to be constant.
In the application of design of the electric machines including transformers, point b is usually
selected to achieve high B with not over big H.
2.2.2. Magnetic Hysteresis Loop

If the ferromagnetic material is periodically magnetized, the B-H curve is as shown below:

Figure 1-8 The hysteresis loop of Ferromagnetic

Material
H : 0 --------- H m ----------0---------- H c
(coercive force)
B :0 --------- B m ---------- B r ---------0

It shown that in the process of magnetization of the

ferromagnetic material in an alternating magnetic
field, the magnetization curve is a closed curve
having a single orientation, called hysteresis loop.
From the hysteresis loop, the change of B
always lags behind changes of H, a phenomenon known as hysteresis.

According to the values of coercive force Hc, the ferromagnetic materials can be classified
into a soft ferromagnetic material and a hard ferromagnetic material in Figure 1-10.

Figure 1-9 Basic magnetization curve

2.2.3.Basic magnetization curve
 Different hysteresis loop curves can be achieved by using different Hm to repeatedly
magnetize the same ferromagnetic material. The basic magnetization curve is obtained by
connecting each vertex of the hysteresis loop.

a) soft ferromagnetic material b) hard ferromagnetic material

Figure 1-10 B-H curves for soft and hard magnetic material

2.3. Core loss

2.3.1. Hysteresis loss

When ferromagnetic material is placed in an alternating magnetic field, was repeatedly

magnetized, resulting in constant friction between the magnetic domains, energy
consumption, resulting in loss, this loss is called hysteresis loss.

This is explained further by the example of energy exchange between the magnetic field
and the AC power supply.

A coil is mounted on stator core. Given the supply voltage U, current I, the number of turns
is N, resistance R, then the total input power in the time dt to the device is Uidt and
consumption energy on resistance is Ri2dt.
the instantaneous power that core coil absorbs from the AC power supply is:
p uidt i 2 Rdt eidt 1-8
d
e
dt
d
pi id dWm
dt
From t1unitl t2, the input power to the magnetic circuit is
t2 2
W m pdt id
t1 1
(1-9)
When the length of core is L, cross section area is A then : Hl Ni
N NAB
B 2 Hl B2
W m NAdB V HdB
B1 N B1
(1-10)
W m B2
wm HdB
The density of energy stored in the magnetic field is: V B1
(1-
11)
For linear magnetic circuit, =constant
B 1
wm HdB wm ( B ) wm (0) BH
0 2 (1-12)
When the coil current changes in the core within a cycle, the magnetic circuit sometimes
draws energy from the circuit, sometimes return energy to electrical grid energy. Because of core
loss, the absorbing energy is greater than the return of the energy. The difference is converted to
heat in iron core, which can be calculated by the area of the hysteresis loop. When the coil current
changes in the core of a cycle, core hysteresis loop in Figure 1-11 (a) shown in

a Hysteresis loop b) the absorbing power from power supply c) return power
Figure 1-11 Core hysteresis loop and energy change of magnetic circuit
Wm B2
wm HdB
According to V B1

Bm
m1 HdB
Br is described by the area of 1241 in Figure 10 (b) is a magnetization

process where H>0 dB >0 m1 is positive when it is under the

process of magnetizationwhich input energy from power supply

Br
m 2 HdB
Bm is described by the area of 2342 in Figure 10 (C), is a demagnetization

process where H>0 dB <0 m1 is negative which means that

the energy returns to power supply.

Similarly,
Br
m 3 HdB
Br is described as the area of 3563, where H<0 dB <0 m 3 is

positive it is under the process of opposite magnetization which

means that input energy from power supply.
Br
m 4 HdB
Bm is described as the area of 5615, it is under process of opposite

m 4 is negative which
demagnetization, where H<0 dB>0
means that the energy returns to power supply.
There within a cycle, the net power absorbed by the magnetic field is decribed by the area of
35123, which is the energy loss in the ferromagnetic material. The hysteresis loss is the average
power loss in the core:
Wm
ph Vf HdB
T 1-13
The loss will dissipate as the form of heat in the end. Because the loss is due to the
phenomena of magnetic hysteresis, it is named as hysteresis loss. If there are no magnetic
hysteresis phenomena, there is no loss.
Ph f Bmn V
It can be seen that
P C fB n V
Therefore h h m 1-14
Silicon Steel n=1.6~2.3 Ch Hysteresis loss coefficient
The less the area of the hysteresis curve, the less the hysteresis loss. The silicon steel widely
used in electric machines has good hysteresis curve, which belongs to soft ferromagnetic material.
2.3.2.Eddy Current Loss
Since the core is electrical conductive, induced electromotive force (EMF) is generated due
to the variable magnetic flux in the core. Therefore the induced current flows as an eddy
current in the core, which introduces eddy current loss. The magnetic circuit in the core is
influenced the existence of the eddy current. The B-H curve has been changed from static
to dynamic as shown in Figure 1-13.

Figure1-12 Eddy Current in Silicon Steel

Figure 1-13 B-i Curves for Static and Dynamic

During the process of increase of the applied magnetic field, the eddy current generated in
the core will stop the increase of the magnetic field. In order to achieve the same amount of
B, the excitation current would be raised up. Therefore, the B-I curve in figure 1-14 is
expanded further to the right. Similarly, the process of decrease of applied magnetic field,
the curve is expanded to the left.

Eddy current loss is proportional to the frequency, B, and inversely proportional to

resistivity and length of the route,
Pe C e 2 f 2 Bm2 V
1-15

Total loss in the core can be calculated as

PFe p h p e C h fBmn C e 2 f 2 Bm2 V
1-16
Proximately as
PFe C Fe f 1.3 Bm2 G
1-17
thickness of silicon steel CFecore loss coefficient GCore weight