Abstract

This the design and construction of a cock feed detection system

and alert which is use in knowing when the feed of a cock is

finished so that it can alert the user that the feed is finished

through call and SMS. This system is designed using a

microcontroller which controls the working function of the circuit

and triggering of the GSM phone to make a call to a particular

dialed number or SMS it so that is the call did not go immediately

then the SMS will go, then the sensor used here is the surface

resistance of Light dependent resistor which when there is feed

on its surface will be at a high resistance and when there is no

feed, it sees the light which makes it to trigger the microcontroller

through the voltage or signal buffer to the microcontroller. The

other is the GSM modem used to perform this action, it is known

as SIM900 which uses serial communication protocol to be

activated through commands known as AT COMMAND, this is

coded into the microcontroller including the message and number

to send the message to, then when signal is received by the

1
microcontroller it sends a serial data commands and message

which activates the module to perform its action.

This device is used in poultry farms to alert the shepherd that the

feed is finished.

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1 Background study

This is the design and construction of a cock feed alert system

which alert the user of the reduction in percentage of feed

given to cocks in there poultry farm using a microcontroller

based GSM control with a light sensors to sense the absence of

feed in the feed tray.

This system is designed using a microcontroller based GSM

alert system, this means that the microcontroller was

interfaced to a GSM phone or GSM modem to be serial of

through button command to trigger the modem to call and

send SMS to the user or the owner of the poultry.

The light dependent resistor is a kind of resistor which its

resistance depends on the light intensity on the sensitive

surface area where the feed is poured into for the chickens or

hens to feed from, this will receive darkness when the tray is

2
 full there by telling the microcontroller that the feed bucket is

full, but when it sees light rays high enough to reduces it

resistance it will trigger or pulse the microcontroller to run the

GSM protocol and dial and send SMS to the user for him/her to

take action.
This system can be used not only in cock rearing farms but

also for fishery farming but with a different sensor level.

2 Statement of problem
Many times has cocks terrestrial based die due to poor feeding,

this also makes them line and weightless due to deficiency in

there feeding technic, this is mostly cause by the caretaker of

the farm or the owner who might go on sleeping or doing other

duties living the cocks to feed on their own forgetting that

most of those things can finished within a while, now, because

of this an electronic weak up system is designed to control this

effect thereby keeping their minds around the farm by alerting

them through their mobile system of the reduction in feed for

the farm animals.

3 Aim and objectives

3
The aim of this project is to design and implement a GSM based

cock feed alert system use to alert farm owner about the

reduction of the feeds meant for the cocks to feed from.

4 Scope of the project

In this project, a student will lean the basic methods of cock

feed alert system, how it can be done using electronic wireless

GSM/GPRS system, the LDR sensor and the microcontroller.

And also will lean how to design a basic circuit and program

operation on the control and interface of a GSM/GPRS modem.

5 Significance of the project

It provides security to the life of the animals at the farm.
It helps as a remainder to the user of the farm about the

reduction of the animal feeds

It helps the user to recycle food checks and health issuers

of the cocks.

6 Project limitations
GSM/GRPS services even doe are wide range network services

but they can be affected by climatic change, this can obstruct

the communication between the user and the design.

GSM/GPRS when not supplied the recommended voltage can

fail, this can be caused by insufficient power supply from the

4
 battery due to car system fails which depends on the location

of the user
7 Definition of important terms

GSM: Global System for Mobile communications is an open,

digital cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and

data services.

GPRS: General Packet Radio Service is a packet oriented mobile

data service on the 2G and 3G cellular communication system's

global system for mobile communications (GSM).

Microcontroller: a programmable logic integrated circuit.

LDR: light dependent resistor

Protocols: a set of sequential activities that must be carried out

before any thing is to be archived.

8 Project report organizations

Chapter one carries the introduction, aim and objective, scope

of study, limitation of the work, significance and the project

report organization of the work. Chapter two carries the

literature review of the work along with other reviews of the

project. Chapter three carries the project design methodology

5
 and steps which lead to the construction of the project.

Chapter four testing the project design, observation and Bill of

engineering. Chapter five carries summary and conclusion.

6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIWE

2.1 Historical review

GSM technology

Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)

GSM was introduced in the late 1980s where it was define as the

European standards for a new mobile communications system

.GSM also known for the existing of 2G and 2.5G digital cellular

systems. Standard digital GSM based cellular phone services of

the 2G era offer voice and low data rates. GSM network are circuit

switched and use a combination of the TDMA (Time Division

Multiple Access) and FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

standard to enable multiple subscriber bandwidth access at data

transfer rates up to 14.4kpbs [5]. A GSM modem is a wireless

modem that works with a GSM wireless network. A wireless

modem behaves like a dial-up modem. The main difference

between them is that a dial-up modem sends and receives data

through a fixed telephone line while a wireless modem sends and

receives data through radio waves.

7
Like a GSM mobile phone, a GSM modem requires a SIM card from

a wireless carrier in order to operate [6].

Figure 2.1: Structure of GSM network

Mobile Station (MS)

Mobile Station shortly is the combination of Mobile Equipment

(ME) and Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Together they provide

various kinds of GSM services such as bearer services, tele-

services and supplementary services. Each Mobile Equipment has

8
its own unique identification which is known as International

Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) while SIM has its own

identification that is International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

[7].

Figure 2.2: Communication between Mobile Station and Base Station

SIM900 AT Command

Based on [8], AT commands are a set of commands that has been

standardized to communicate with terminal equipment such as

9
modem, mobile phone as well as control them. Most GSM

modems support AT commands. The command set is quite

elaborate. However, only a small part of it is related to SMS

operations. The most frequently used commands are:

AT+CMGS: To send a short message

AT+CMGR: To read a short message from the GSM modem

AT+CMGL: To list SMS short messages stored in the GSM modem

AT+CMGD: To delete a short message from the GSM modem

AT+CNMI Remind mode Setup when receive a new SMS

As the low-level function interface to the GSM modem, these

commands play a fundamental role in the software developing of

the gateway program.

2.2 Other reelected works

2.3 working principals of the project

The devices is always powered by a 12 dc battery so to keep it

active, when the user dills the feed cage with feeds or food for the

cock, the sensors is deactivated from running any protocol, so if

10
the cock feed reduces then the sensor will be activated to send

pulse to the microcontroller, which will command the GSM phone

to send message and dial the users phone number to alert

him/her that the food has going down.

CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 Project specification

This the design and construction of a cock feed alert system is

specifically designed to alert users of the shortage of cock feed in

the try.

The sensor used in is the light dependent resistor, then the GSM

modem, the microcontroller and other passive components.

3.2 Concept and Analysis of operations

11
The devices is always powered by a 12 dc battery so to keep it

active, when the user dills the feed cage with feeds or food for the

cock, the sensors is deactivated from running any protocol, so if

the cock feed reduces then the sensor will be activated to send

pulse to the microcontroller, which will command the GSM phone

to send message and dial the users phone number to alert

him/her that the food has going down.

3.3 Block diagram of the project

12
Fig 3.1 Block diagram of the circuit

3.3.1 Functions of each block

a. The power supply unit supplies power to every part of the

circuit including the GSM

b. The gsm modem or gsm phone interfaces the global network

services to the microcontroller so that it can be able to send

message to the user

13
 c. The microcontroller unit controls the entire circuit network by

sending commands to the GSM and also receiving

commands from the LDR as a signal.

d. Alarm unit is triggered when the cock feed is finished while

the LED blinks.

3.4 Design pattern

This includes the stages passed for the design and construction of

this project.
1 Information Gathering
The link which enhanced my knowledge to the design and

construction of this project was as a result my curiosity, some

which was gotten from the internet research I did, some from the

school environment, from the already existing product which was

the main source of my knowledge on how to go about the project

then others was from my teacher and supervisor etc. all this

information I gathered for the design and construction of this

project.

5 Design pattern
In the designation of this project, we employed different design

pattern to run a test of this design to checkout for its perfection

when fully designed. From the origin of the design, from the list of

14
 the circuit symbol, the way they operate help me to have a better

design of this project were employed different strategies to run

the test operation for each component for clarifications and better

understanding of them.

6 Design procedure
Before the design we first of all have our design designed using

some simulation software like the professional schematic

designer, eagle, livewire and proteuslite which they all gave use

the same out analysis of the circuit. Then I made my circuit

diagram (complete schematic of my design) and debugged the

complete design which gave me a full highlight and hint of the

physical operation of the design.

7 Design processes
The procedures that lead to the complete designs of this project

followed gradual processes first:

1 Choice of component
The choice of component depends on the design circuit

requirement, were the components to be used depends on circuit

connections and operation requirement.

2 Component layout
Component layout is the layout for each component according to

the location of the component symbol. This helps to allocate

15
 components to fit the operation of the circuit which is dependent

on the circuit diagram.

3 Component mounting
Component mounting or placing is the art or process of placing

the components in the required fittings to enable lead soldering of

the components to the circuit printed or Vero boards before inter

connecting the components depending on the circuit connections.

4 Soldering and clearing

Soldering of the components is very essential to electronic circuit

design as it helps to hard hold the component leads from falling

off from the circuit which can cause permanent damage to the

component circuitry.
Clearing always cause before comes after soldering, as it is the

process of removing tiny segmented leads which could cause

bridges to the circuit network leading to burnt and fire outbreak

from the circuit.

5 Running cross check

Running check after any circuit design is required as it gives no

room for errors after design. This also helps to correct the network

errors and enhance operation as required after design.

6 Project testing
Project testing is the art of placing the design in a running mode

for test and operation analysis, this helps to show the designer

16
that how accurate his/her work is and encourage upgrading the

present design when dealing with that type of design.

Packaging is the art of covering the inner structure of design

using some natural inspirational art and copies of an already

existing design in other to convince the viewer for recommended

comment. Packaging involves the covering of the inner nature of

a design which only through its look sends a message to anybody

who gaze at it what it really is. The appearance of any design one

made is a thing to be consider important as it is the only way

which a product sells itself without human recommendations, in

this project packaging is one of the vital part of this design

because the design which is considered here is a prototype of an

cock feed detection system with alert.

CHAPTER FOUR: DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION AND TESTING

4.1 Component analysis and design

In this chapter the component used and there various

functions are discussed, how they were chose and there

various datasheet description

4.2 Component listing
The component used in this design includes:
a. Atmel89s52(Atmel89c52)
b. LM7805 voltage regulator

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 c. C1815 bipolar transistor
d. 10uf,100uf,1nf capacitor
e. Led
f. Resistors
g. Buzzer
h. GSM module (Network Provider)
i. Vero board
j. Soldering iron
k. Soldering lead
l. Connecting copper wire

4.3 Component descriptions

Here, the various component are describe and analyzed for

the user aim.

a. Atmel89s52(Atmel89c52)

The AT89s52 is a low powered 5V microcontroller, high

performance cmos 8-bit microcomputer with 8Kbytes of flash

programmable, 32bit IO ports and erasable read only memory

(EEPROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel`s high density

nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the

industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip

flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in system

or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By

combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with flash on a monolithic chip,

the Atmel AT89s52 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a

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 highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded

control application.

The AT89s52 is designed with static logic for operation down to

zero frequency and support two software selectable power saving

modes. The idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,

timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue

functioning. The power down mode saves the RAM contents but

freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the

next hardware reset

Fig4.1 Pin configuration of AT89S52

Features of AT89S52

Programmable serial channel

Compatible with MCS-51TM product

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 8Kbytes of in-system Reprogrammable flash memory - Endurance:

1,000 write/Erase cycles

Fully static operation:0Hz to 12MHz

Three-level program memory lock

256x 32-bit external RAM

32 programmable I/O lines

Two 16-bit timer/counters

Six interrupt sources

Low-power idle and power-down modes.

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Fig 4.2 Block diagram of AT89s52 internal circuitry

Pin description

Vcc

Supply voltage.

GND

Ground.

Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output

port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to

21
port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs. Port 0

may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order

Address/data bus during accesses to external program and data

memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives

the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code

bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required

during program verification.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The

Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are

written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups

and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are

externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the

internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes

during Flash programming and verification.

Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The

Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are

written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups

22
and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are

externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the

internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during

fetches from external program memory and during accesses to

external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @

DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when

emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses

8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2

Special Function Register.

Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control

signals during Flash programming and verification.

Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The

Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are

written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups

and can be used as inputs. As inputs,

Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current

(IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of

various special features of the AT89S51 as listed below.

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Alternate functions of port 3

Table 4.1: port 3 pin functions

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming

and verification.

RST

Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the

oscillator is running resets the device.

ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the

address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the

program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal

operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator

frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking

24
purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during

each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation

can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit

set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction.

Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable

bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution

mode.

PSEN

Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program

memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external

program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle,

except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access

to external data memory.

EA/VPP

External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to

enable the device to fetch code from external program memory

locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.

Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be

internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for

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internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt

programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for

parts that require 12-volt VPP.

XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal

clock operating circuit.

b. LM7805 voltage regulator

Fig 4.3 a sample circuit of a power supply using 7805 voltage

regulator

A regulated power supply is very much essential for several

electronic devices due to the semiconductor material employed in

them have a fixed rate of current as well as voltage. The device

may get damaged if there is any deviation from the fixed rate.

26
The AC power supply gets converted into constant DC by this

circuit. By the help of a voltage regulator DC, unregulated output

will be fixed to a constant voltage. The circuit is made up of linear

voltage regulator 7805 along with capacitors and resistors with

bridge rectifier made up from diodes. From giving an unchanging

voltage supply to building confident that output reaches

uninterrupted to the appliance, the diodes along with capacitors

handle elevated efficient signal conveyal.

Description:

As we have previously talked about that regulated power supply is

a device that mechanized on DC voltages and also it can uphold

its output accurately at a fixed voltage all the time although if

there is a significant alteration in the DC input voltage.

ICs regulator is mainly used in the circuit to maintain the exact

voltage which is followed by the power supply. A regulator is

mainly employed with the capacitor connected in parallel to the

input terminal and the output terminal of the IC regulator. For the

checking of gigantic alterations in the input as well as in the

output filter, capacitors are used. While the bypass capacitors are
27
used to check the small period spikes on the input and output

level. Bypass capacitors are mainly of small values that are used

to bypass the small period pulses straightly into the Earth.

A circuit diagram having regulator IC and all the above discussed

components arrangement revealed in the figure below.

Fig 4.4 Regulated Power Supply Circuit

c. C1815 bipolar transistor

C1815 an NPN bipolar Transistors

Fig 4.5 Bipolar Transistor Basics

28
In the Diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up

from two pieces of semiconductor material, either silicon or

germanium to form a simple PN-junction and we also learnt about

their properties and characteristics. If we now join together two

individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-

junctions connected together in series that share a common P or

N terminal. The fusion of these two diodes produces a three layer,

two junction, three terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar

Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different

semiconductor materials that can act as either an insulator or a

conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The

transistors ability to change between these two states enables it

to have two basic functions: switching (digital electronics) or

amplification (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors

have the ability to operate within three different regions:

Active Region the transistor operates as an amplifier and

Ic = .Ib

29
 Saturation the transistor is Fully-ON operating as a

switch and Ic = I(saturation)

Cut-off the transistor is Fully-OFF operating as a switch

and Ic = 0

Fig 4.6 A Typical Bipolar Transistor

The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the

words Transfer Varistor used to describe their mode of operation

way back in their early days of development. There are two basic

types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which

basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-

type semiconductor materials from which they are made.

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-

junctions producing three connecting terminals with each terminal

being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three

30
terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B

) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the

amount of current flowing through them in proportion to the

amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting

like a current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the

two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only

difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power

supply for each type.

31
Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN

bipolar transistor are given above with the arrow in the circuit

symbol always showing the direction of conventional current

flow between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The

direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type

32
region to the negative N-type region for both transistor types,

exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are

basically three possible ways to connect it within an electronic

circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and

output. Each method of connection responding differently to its

input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the

transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

Common Base Configuration has Voltage Gain but no

Current Gain.

Common Emitter Configuration has both Current and

Voltage Gain.

Common Collector Configuration has Current Gain but no

Voltage Gain.

The Common Base (CB) Configuration

33
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base

configuration, the BASE connection is common to both the input

signal AND the output signal with the input signal being applied

between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding

output signal is taken from between the base and the collector

terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected

to a fixed reference voltage point.

The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the

sum of both the base current and collector current respectively

therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter

current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of

1 (unity) or less, in other words the common base configuration

attenuates the input signal.

The Common Base Transistor Circuit

34
This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage

amplifier circuit, in that the signal voltages Vin and Vout are in-

phase. This type of transistor arrangement is not very common

due to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its input

characteristics represent that of a forward biased diode while the

output characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-

diode.

Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of

output to input resistance or more importantly load resistance

( RL ) to input resistance ( Rin ) giving it a value of Resistance

Gain. Then the voltage gain (Av) for a common base

configuration is therefore given as:

Common Base Voltage Gain

Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha () and RL/Rin is the

resistance gain.

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The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage

amplifier circuits such as microphone pre-amplifier or radio

frequency (Rf) amplifiers due to its very good high frequency

response.

The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the

input signal is applied between the base and the emitter, while

the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as

shown. This type of configuration is the most commonly used

circuit for transistor based amplifiers and which represents the

normal method of bipolar transistor connection.

The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest

current and power gain of all the three bipolar transistor

configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is

LOW as it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction, while the

output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse biased PN-

junction.

36
The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the

transistor must be equal to the currents flowing into the transistor

as the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.

As the load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the

collector, the current gain of the common emitter transistor

configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib. A transistors

current gain is given the Greek symbol of Beta, ().

As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is

defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio of Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the

Greek symbol of . Note: that the value of Alpha will always be

less than unity.

37
Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib,

Ic and Ie is determined by the physical construction of the

transistor itself, any small change in the base current ( Ib ), will

result in a much larger change in the collector current ( Ic ).

Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus

control the current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta

has a value between 20 and 200 for most general purpose

transistors. So if a transistor has a Beta value of say 100, then

one electron will flow from the base terminal for every 100

electrons flowing between the emitter-collector terminals.

By combining the expressions for both Alpha, and Beta, the

mathematical relationship between these parameters and

therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

38
Where: Ic is the current flowing into the collector terminal, Ib

is the current flowing into the base terminal and Ie is the

current flowing out of the emitter terminal.

Then to summarize a little. This type of bipolar transistor

configuration has a greater input impedance, current and power

gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage

gain is much lower. The common emitter configuration is an

inverting amplifier circuit. This means that the resulting output

signal is 180o out-of-phase with the input voltage signal.

The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the

collector is now common through the supply. The input signal is

connected directly to the base, while the output is taken from the

emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly

known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.

The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very

useful for impedance matching applications because of the very

39
high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of

Ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common emitter configuration has a current gain

approximately equal to the value of the transistor itself. In the

common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in

series with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter

current.

As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the

base current combined, the load resistance in this type of

transistor configuration also has both the collector current and the

40
input current of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain

of the circuit is given as:

The Common Collector Current Gain

This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting

circuit in that the signal voltages of Vin and Vout are in-phase. It

has a voltage gain that is always less than 1 (unity). The load

resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the

base and collector currents giving a large current gain (as with

the common emitter configuration) therefore, providing good

current amplification with very little voltage gain.

41
We can now summarize the various relationships between the

transistors individual DC currents flowing through each leg and its

DC current gains given above in the following table.

Relationship between DC Currents and Gains

42
 d. 10uf,100uf,1nf capacitor

A capacitor

(originally

known as a
Type Passive
condenser)
Invent
Ewald Georg von Kleist is a passive
ed
two-
Electronic symbol
terminal

electrical

component

used to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field. The

forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least

two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. an

insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The

conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or

conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to

increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly

used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air,

vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely

43
used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical

devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate

energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an

electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g.,

when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field

develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to

collect on one plate and negative charge Q to collect on the

other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a

sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the

capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the

leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its

capacitance. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric

charge Q on each conductor to the potential difference V between

them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to

one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range

from about 1 pF (1012 F) to about 1 mF (103 F).

44
The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the

narrower the gap between them, the greater the capacitance is.

In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small

amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength

limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads

introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct

current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter

networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant

circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric

power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power

flow.[1]

e. Led

45
 Blue, green, and red LEDs in

5 mm diffused case
Working
Electroluminescence
principle
Oleg Losev (1927)[1]

James R. Biard

Invented (1961)[2]

Nick Holonyak

(1962)[3]
First
October 1962
production
Pin
Anode and cathode
configuration
Electronic symbol

46
Parts of an LED. Although unlabeled, the flat bottom surfaces of

the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to

prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out via

mechanical strain or vibration.

A bulb-shaped modern retrofit LED lamp with aluminum heat sink,

a light diffusing dome and E27 screw base, using a built-in power

supply working on mains voltage

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light

source. It is a pn junction diode, which emits light when

activated.[4]

When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able

to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing

energy in the form of photons. This effect is called

electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to

47
the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap

of the semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated

optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, [6] the

earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs

are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-

control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide

variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were

also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are

available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths,

with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic

devices, replacing small incandescent bulbs. They were soon

packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment

displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in

environmental and task lighting. LEDs have many advantages

48
over incandescent light sources including lower energy

consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness,

smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now

used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive

headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera

flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDs powerful enough

for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require

more precise current and heat management than compact

fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be

developed, while their high switching rates are also used in

advanced communications technology.

e. Resistors

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors

may be used to reduce current flow, and, at the same time,

may act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic

circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal

49
 levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines

among other uses. High-power resistors, that can dissipate

many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of

motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads

for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only

change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.

Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such

as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices

for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and

electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment.

Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of

various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented

within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its

resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured

over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The

nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing

tolerance, indicated on the component.

50
A typical axial-lead resistor
Type Passive
Working
Electric resistance
principle
Electronic symbol

Two common schematic symbols

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The component is cut from the

tape during assembly and the part is inserted into the board.

Series and parallel resistors

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum

of their individual resistance values.

51
 The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the

reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual

resistors.

For example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5

ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor produces 1/1/10 + 1/5 +

1/15 ohms of resistance, or 30/11 = 2.727 ohms.

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series

connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either

one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot

be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit

52
 analysis. Generally, the Y- transform, or matrix methods can

be used to solve such problems.[2][3][4]

Power dissipation

At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of

resistance R (ohms) is calculated as: where V (volts) is the

voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current flowing

through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be

derived. This power is converted into heat which must be

dissipated by the resistor's package before its temperature

rises excessively.

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power

dissipation. Discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems

are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. They usually

absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require

little attention to their power rating.

f. Debouncing button

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that

can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting

53
it from one conductor to another. [1][2] The mechanism of a switch

may be operated directly by a human operator to control a circuit

(for example, a light switch or a keyboard button), may be

operated by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or

may be operated by some sensing element for pressure,

temperature or flow. A relay is a switch that is operated by

electricity. Switches are made to handle a wide range of voltages

and currents; very large switches may be used to isolate high-

voltage circuits in electrical substations.

Switch Debouncing

Switch debouncing is one of those things you generally have to

live with when playing with switches and digital circuits. If you

want to input a manual switch signal into a digital circuit you'll

need to debounce the signal so a single press doesn't appear like

multiple presses.

What is Switch Bounce?

The left-hand image below shows a simple push switch with a

pull-up resistor. The right hand image shows the trace at the

output terminal, Vout, when the switch is pressed. As can be seen,

54
pressing the switch does not provide a clean edge. If this signal

was used as an input to a digital counter, for example, you'd get

multiple counts rather than the expected single count.

Note that the same can also occur on the release fo a switch.

The problem is that the contacts within the switch don't make

contact cleanly, but actually slightly 'bounce'. The bounce is quite

slow, so you can recreate the trace, and the problem quite easily.

Simple switch pull-up

Switch bounce produced on switch
circuit
press

In the switch waveform the bouncing lasts for about 150us.

Switch Debouncer Circuit

55
There are many different approaches to cleaning up switch

bounce. Below is a debouncing circuit. The basic idea is to use a

capacitor to filter out any quick changes in the switch signal.

A Switch debouncing circuit

The circuit's operation can be explained by looking at the

equivalent circuits formed in the two switch states, open and

closed.

56
Debouncing circuit in switch open and closed states

Starting with the switch open.

The capacitor C1 will charge via R1 and D1.

In time, C1 will charge and Vb will reach within 0.7V of Vcc.

Therefore the output of the inverting Schmitt trigger will be a

logic 0.

Now close the switch

The capacitor will discharge via R2.

In time, C1 will discharge and Vb will reach 0V.

Therefore the output of the inverting Schmitt trigger will be a

logic 1.

But what about bounce conditions? If bounce occurs and there are

short periods of switch closure or opening, the capacitor will stop

the voltage at Vb immediately reaching Vcc or GND. Although,

bouncing will cause slight charging and discharging of the

57
capacitor, the hysteresis of the Schmitt trigger input will stop the

output from switching.

What about the diode? Well the resistor R2 is required as a

discharge path for the capacitor, without it, C1 will be shorted

when the switch is closed. Without the diode, D1, both R1 and R2

would form the capacitor charge path when the switch is open.

The combination of R1 and R2 would increase the capacitor

charge time, slowing down the circuit. So, can't you just make R1

smaller? Ideally no, when the switch is closed, R1 is connected

across the supply rails, so too small a resistor value would lead to

unwanted wasted current.

g. Buzzer

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device,[1] which may be

mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of

buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers and

confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.

58
Electromechanical

The first electric buzzer was invented in 1831 by Joseph Henry.

They were mainly used in early doorbells until they were phased

out in the early 1930s in favor of musical chimes, which had a

softer tone.[2]

Piezoelectric

Piezoelectric buzzers, or piezo buzzers, as they are sometimes

called, were invented by Japanese manufacturers and fitted into a

wide array of products during the 1970s to 1980s. This

advancement mainly came about because of cooperative efforts

by Japanese manufacturing companies. In 1951, they established

the Barium Titanate Application Research Committee, which

allowed the companies to be "competitively cooperative" and

bring about several piezoelectric innovations and inventions. [3]

Type of buzzers

Electromechanical

Early devices were based on an electromechanical system

identical to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a

relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating current,

59
causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to

a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer"

comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers

made.

Mechanical

A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer. They

require drivers.

Piezoelectric

Piezoelectric disk beeper

A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic

circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric

audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button

has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

60
Interior of a readymade buzzer, showing a piezoelectric-disk-

beeper (With 3 electrodes ... including 1 feedback-electrode (the

central, small electrode joined with red wire in this photo), and an

oscillator to self-drive the buzzer.

Modern applications

While technological advancements have caused buzzers to be

impractical and undesirable, there are still instances in which

buzzers and similar circuits may be used. Present day applications

include:

Novelty uses

Judging Panels

Educational purposes

Annunciator panels

61
 Electronic metronomes

Game show lock-out device

Microwave ovens and other household appliances

Sporting events such as basketball games

Electrical alarms

Joy buzzer- a mechanical buzzer used for pranks

h. GSM module (Network Provider)

A GSM modem is a specialized type of modem which accepts a

SIM card, and operates over a subscription to a mobile operator,

just like a mobile phone. From the mobile operator perspective, a

GSM modem looks just like a mobile phone.

When a GSM modem is connected to a computer, this allows the

computer to use the GSM modem to communicate over the

mobile network. While these GSM modems are most frequently

62
used to provide mobile internet connectivity, many of them can

also be used for sending and receiving SMS and MMS messages.

A GSM modem can be a dedicated modem device with a serial,

USB or Bluetooth connection, or it can be a mobile phone that

provides GSM modem capabilities.

For the purpose of this document, the term GSM modem is used

as a generic term to refer to any modem that supports one or

more of the protocols in the GSM evolutionary family, including

the 2.5G technologies GPRS and EDGE, as well as the 3G

technologies WCDMA, UMTS, HSDPA and HSUPA.

A GSM modem exposes an interface that allows applications such

as NowSMS to send and receive messages over the modem

interface. The mobile operator charges for this message sending

and receiving as if it was performed directly on a mobile phone. To

perform these tasks, a GSM modem must support an extended

AT command set for sending/receiving SMS messages, as defined

in the ETSI GSM 07.05 and 3GPP TS 27.005 specifications.

63
GSM modems can be a quick and efficient way to get started with

SMS, because a special subscription to an SMS service provider is

not required. In most parts of the world, GSM modems are a cost

effective solution for receiving SMS messages, because the

sender is paying for the message delivery.

i. Vero board

Vero board is a brand of strip board, a pre-formed circuit board

material of copper strips on an insulating board which was

originated and developed in the early 1960s by the Electronics

Department of Vero Precision Engineering Ltd (VPE). It was

introduced as a general-purpose material for use in constructing

electronic circuits - differing from purpose-designed printed circuit

boards (PCBs) in that a variety of electronic circuits may be

constructed using a standard wiring board.

The first single-size Vero board product was the forerunner of the

numerous types of prototype wiring board which, with world-wide

use over five decades, have become known as Strip board.

64
The generic terms 'Vero board' and 'strip board' are now taken to

be synonymous.

h. Soldering iron

A soldering iron is a hand

tool used in soldering. It

Vero board piece
Product Electronic component supplies heat to melt solder

Inventor Terry Fitzpatrick so that it can flow into the

Company Vero Electronics Ltd
joint between two work
Country UK
pieces.
Availability 1960 - present
Current suppliers
A soldering iron is

Vero Technologies Ltd composed of a heated

http://www.verotl.com/ metal tip and an insulated

handle. Heating is often

Pixel Print Ltd (N. America)
achieved electrically, by
http://www.veroboard.com/
passing an electric current

(supplied through an

electrical cord or battery cables) through a resistive heating

65
element. Cordless irons can be heated by combustion of gas

stored in a small tank, often using a catalytic heater rather than a

flame. Simple irons less commonly used than in the past were

simply a large copper bit on a handle, heated in a flame.

Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and

limited production work in electronics assembly. High-volume

production lines use other soldering methods. [1] Large irons may

be used for soldering joints in sheet metal objects. Less common

uses include pyrography (burning designs into wood) and plastic

welding.

i. Soldering lead

Lead solder

66
Sn60Pb40 solder

Tin-lead (Sn-Pb) solders, also called soft solders, are commercially

available with tin concentrations between 5% and 70% by weight.

The greater the tin concentration, the greater the solders tensile

and shear strengths. Alloys commonly used for electrical

soldering are 60/40 Sn-Pb, which melts at 188 C (370 F),[6] and

63/37 Sn-Pb used principally in electrical/electronic work. 63/37 is

a eutectic alloy of these metals, which:

1. has the lowest melting point (183 C or 361 F) of all the tin-

lead alloys; and

2. The melting point is truly a point not a range.

In plumbing, a higher proportion of lead was used, commonly

50/50. This had the advantage of making the alloy solidify more

slowly. With the pipes being physically fitted together before

soldering, the solder could be wiped over the joint to ensure water

tightness. Although lead water pipes were displaced by copper

when the significance of lead poisoning began to be fully

appreciated, lead solder was still used until the 1980s because it

67
was thought that the amount of lead that could leach into water

from the solder was negligible from a properly soldered joint. The

electrochemical couple of copper and lead promotes corrosion of

the lead and tin. Tin, however, is protected by insoluble oxide.

Since even small amounts of lead have been found detrimental to

health,[7] lead in plumbing solder was replaced by silver (food-

grade applications) or antimony, with copper often added, and the

proportion of tin was increased (see Lead-free solder.)

The addition of tinmore expensive than leadimproves wetting

properties of the alloy; lead itself has poor wetting characteristics.

High-tin tin-lead alloys have limited use as the workability range

can be provided by a cheaper high-lead alloy. [8]

In electronics, components on printed circuit boards (PCBs) are

connected to the printed circuit, and hence to other components,

by soldered joints. For miniaturized PCB joints with surface mount

components, solder paste has largely replaced solid solder.

Lead-tin solders readily dissolve gold plating and form brittle

intermetallics.[9] 60/40 Sn-Pb solder oxidizes on the surface,

forming a complex 4-layer structure: tin(IV) oxide on the surface,

68
below it a layer of tin(II) oxide with finely dispersed lead, followed

by a layer of tin(II) oxide with finely dispersed tin and lead, and

the solder alloy itself underneath.[10]

Lead, and to some degree tin, as used in solder contains small but

significant amounts of radioisotope impurities. Radioisotopes

undergoing alpha decay are a concern due to their tendency to

cause soft errors. Polonium-210 is especially problematic; lead-

210 beta decays to bismuth-210 which then beta decays to

polonium-210, an intense emitter of alpha particles. Uranium-238

and thorium-232 are other significant contaminants of alloys of

lead.[11][12]

j. Connecting copper wire

The definition of connecting wire is a piece of wire used to

attach two circuits or components together. The gauge or

size of the wire must be large enough to support the amount

of current flow.
4.4 Circuit diagram of the project

69
 BUZ1
U5
7805
BUZZER
1 3
Q1
VI VO

GND
BAT1
12V

2
IRF3205

R3
X1
1k D2 D1
1 2 U1 R2 LED-RED LED-GREEN
19 39
XTAL1 P0.0/AD0
38
U2 CRYSTAL P0.1/AD1 1k
37
PHONE PWR 4 C A 1 18
P0.2/AD2
36
n XTAL2 P0.3/AD3
1 35
P0.4/AD4
34
P0.5/AD5
3 2 33
2 U3 P0.6/AD6
CELL BUTTON P E K 9 32
PHONE SELECTC
4 PC817 A 1
RST P0.7/AD7
n
1 21
P2.0/A8
R1 P2.1/A9
22
2
3
U4
2 10k P2.2/A10
23 R7
SCROLL
CELL BUTTON P E K 29
PSEN P2.3/A11
24 R101k
C
4 PC817 A 1 30 25 1k
n ALE P2.4/A12
1 31 26
EA P2.5/A13

1
27
P2.6/A14
2
3 2
P2.7/A15
28 LDR3 LDR2 LDR1
CELL BUTTON P E K
R4 TORCH_LDRTORCH_LDR TORCH_LDR
PC817 R5 1 10
P1.0/T2 P3.0/RXD
R6
100R 2 11
P1.1/T2EX P3.1/TXD
100R 3 12
P1.2 P3.2/INT0

2
100R 4 13
P1.3 P3.3/INT1
5 14
P1.4 P3.4/T0
6 15
P1.5 P3.5/T1
7 16
P1.6 P3.6/WR
8 17
P1.7 P3.7/RD
AT89C52

Weak Up

4.5 Embedded software integration

After the design of the circuit the microcontroller was

programmed to control the whole circuit with the software

program running inside of it.

Software Development Process

70
 In writing the software for this project a modular approach

was employed. This made it easier to check for errors and debug

the program. Three major tools were used in the development

process; the keil C51 compiler was used to translate from the

source code into the object code. The SDCC was employed to link

the program while the PACKIHX did the conversion from binary to

hex.

Choice of Programming Language

My implementation programming language for this project is ANSI

C programming language, reason being the fact that it combines

the elements of high level languages with the functionalism of

assembly language. C allows the manipulation of bits, bytes and

addresses. Also C codes are portable which means that it is

possible to adapt software written for one type of computer to

another.

Nevertheless, a special feature of ANSI C is that it allows the

direct manipulation of bits, bytes, words and pointers. This suits it

to system-level programming, where these operations are

common.

71
4.6.1 Programming language

This is an executable written commands which a computer can

understand when translated to binary format by a compiler.

4.6.2 Programming steps

Program Entry and Editing

After the design of the software, a text editor is employed to enter

the source code into the disk file. As noted earlier, the text editor

also functions to correct error in the program. The text editor used

is KEIL C51 compiler and text editor.

4.6.3 Design program source code

#include "At89x52.h"

#define value P1_0

#define value1 P1_1

#define value2 P1_2

#include "Send SMS.txt"

72
#define relay P3_7

#define alarm P0_0

int main(){

while (1){

P0_1 = 1;

P0_2 = 0;

P0_0 = 0;

relay = 1;

if (P1_7 == 0){PWR(1);} // Ping mobile Phone

// security access alert

if (P3_1 == 0){ // if door close

msdelay(1000);

if (P3_0 == 1) { //

alarm = 1;

P0_1 = 0;

73
P0_2 = 1;

Send_sms();

relay = 0;

here: if (P3_1 == 0 & P3_0 != 0) { goto here;} // while door

is still close goto here

P0_2 = 1;alarm = 0;

}}

4.6.4 Compilation of the source code (Language-assembly-

hexadecimal or machine code)

74
After writing the program in the editors environment, the

software was use to compiler the entire program to generate a

hex file which will be burn into the microcontroller.

4.6.7 Burning of the hex file into the microcontrollers

In burning the hex into the microcontroller, we have to use an in

system programmer known as ISP programmer which will now

read and verifier the microcontroller design nomenclature and

then will copy the hex codes into the microcontroller.

4.6.8 Inserting the microcontroller into the hardware

design

Then after that the microcontroller will now be inserted into the

circuit for testing.

4.7 Packaging

As a prototype design, we have to copy an existing system which

makes use of a cock feed but manually controlled without alert.

4.8 Design test and error corrections

After the packaging some errors was discovered due to wrong

packaging which affected the serial interface of the GSM modem

75
and the microcontroller which but was corrected by packing the

panels to different location inside the adoptable box.

4.9 Final test

The final test was undergone for proper function and design

usage.

76
CHAPTER FIVCE: SUMMARY

5.1 Summary of the project

In this design, to implement a cock feed detection system was

which is used to alert users of the reduction of feed for the

animals has gone down and needs refill

The design and development of this project has really been

challenging, as I have been faced with choices far beyond what I

expected. But in the long run the result paid off.

After the complete design of the system, the deviation between

the expected result and the actual result was very close. The

performance and efficiency was beyond expectation and from

every ramification, the design of the project was a success.

5.2 recommendation

a. A. it is used in poultries for feed alert system

b. It should be kept away and well protected to avoid electrical

shocks on the animal

c. Power with rechargeable system so store energy for featured

uses
d. Uses white light on the cock feed.

77
5.3 Problem encounter

During the course of the design of this system, there were series

of problems which came in the way of achieving the design goals

of this project, most of them where over come via share

troubleshooting, in some cases some parts require redesigning

and the software debugging also created a bit of a problem.

One major setback of this project is the availability of components

required to build the hardware of the system. In most cases I had

to look through electrical catalogs to obtain replacements of some

of the components which are not available in the market.

The final packaging of the design was also another trouble, as this

actually caused problems on the circuit board. Such problems

include partial contact within the circuit board, between

components and also with the wiring. This was actually one of the

most challenging aspects of the circuit implementation phase.

Due to this fact, there was a lot of soldering and de-soldering to

ensure that the circuit was well implemented.

78
5.4 solutions for more improvement

It will be appreciated if the circuit is designed using RF based

triggering system so that when network is not available the user

can still be alerted through a wireless sensor network.

5.6 Conclusion

Going through the planning, flow process, design and software

implementation the system had really been a tough one; but on

the whole it has been a chance to show case a little bit of

craftsmanship.

79
REFERENCE

1. Harder, Douglas Wilhelm. "Resistors: A Motor with a

Constant Force (Force Source)". Department of Electrical and

Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo. Retrieved 9

November 2014.
2. Farago, PS, An Introduction to Linear Network Analysis, pp.

1821, The English Universities Press Ltd, 1961.

3. Wu, F. Y. (2004). "Theory of resistor networks: The two-point

resistance". Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General

37 (26): 6653. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/37/26/004.

4. Wu, Fa Yueh; Yang, Chen Ning (2009). Exactly Solved

Models: A Journey in Statistical Mechanics: Selected Papers

with Commentaries (19632008). World Scientific. pp. 489.

ISBN 978-981-281-388-6.
5. Swiger Coil Systems. "Edgewound Coils". Swiger Coil

Systems, A Wabtec Company. Retrieved 1 January 2011.

6. Jack Ogden, Classical Gold wire: Some Aspects of its

Manufacture and Use, Jewellery Studies, 5, 1991, pp. 95

105.

80
81